Environmental Governance and Media Agenda-Setting: A Case Study from Iran

Environmental Governance and Media Agenda-Setting: A Case Study from Iran | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Environmental Governance and Media Agenda-Setting: A Case Study from Iran Alireza Nouri This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8199233/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract One of the most important factors influencing environmental governance is public perception—and, according to agenda-setting theory, the media tell people what to think about. To investigate this issue, news related to the Gotvand Dam—recognized as one of the most controversial water planning and management projects in Iran—was collected and coded over a 20-year period by source (such as environmental organizations, state agencies, local administrations, and academia) and thematic aspect (such as hydropower, flood control, and positive and negative environmental aspects). Using cumulative distribution function analysis, salience thresholds were determined for each aspect and examined. The results clearly showed that bias significantly influenced coverage of positive and negative environmental aspects across different periods and that the frames presented by the media correlated with political shifts in governance. The findings also revealed that media framing can raise public awareness about sustainable environmental management, but when politicized it can distort the narrative—which, in the context of a water-resource case, may lead to serious and destabilizing effects within the affected basin. The analysis indicates that this process has resulted in the accumulation of millions of tons of salt in the reservoir (in the case of the Gotvand Dam). Finally, the study argues that actions such as institutional reforms and NGO development are fundamental for sustainable environmental governance. Salience Framing Bias Gotvand Dam ISNA Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1 Introduction A macro-level perspective on water resource governance has led experts to analyze the issue through various approaches and disciplinary lenses. For instance, Integrated Water Resources Management has been employed to assess the sustainability of socio-economic-environmental dynamics (Arfan et a., 2020); the Nexus approach has been used to interlink water, food, energy, waste, and climate (Scott, 2011 ); and behavioral simulations—such as agent-based modeling—have drawn from social sciences to examine human-environment interactions (Nouri et al., 2022 ). However, many dimensions of the social sciences remain underexplored in this context. One such overlooked area is the interdisciplinary perspective of communication studies, particularly in relation to media agenda-setting within water resources management and planning. Agenda-setting is a concept in communication theory that refers to the media’s ability to influence the salience of issues on the public agenda (McCombs, 1977 ). Essentially, this theory posits that the media tell people what to think about (Shaw, 1979 ). In a simplified process, three fundamental steps can be identified: 1- the more frequently an issue is covered by the media, the more likely it is that people will perceive it as important; 2- over time, this focused coverage shapes public perception; and 3- ultimately, the combination of media coverage and public perception of an issue's importance can shift policymakers' agendas—or conversely, can facilitate public compliance with certain policy effects (Liu et al., 2011 ). Agenda-setting theory was first introduced by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in a 1972 study examining the role of media in the 1968 U.S. presidential election (Maxwell and Shaw, 1972). However, the relevance of this theory has extended beyond electoral contexts. Numerous examples can be found in which the media, through its coverage and specific mechanisms, have influenced various aspects of hydro-social dynamics. For instance, media coverage during the water crisis in São Paulo, Brazil (2013–2015) raised public awareness and reinforced policy decisions such as economic incentives, which led to changes in consumer behavior (Sousa et al. 2022 ). Similarly, during the California drought (2012–2016), media reporting on water scarcity significantly increased public awareness and encouraged more efficient water use among consumers (Quesnel and Ajami, 2017 and Lund et al., 2018 ). Other notable examples include the role of media during the 2019 water crisis in Chennai, India (Nigam et al., 2021 ), and in Andalusia, Spain (Vargas Molina et al., 2022 ). Beyond the role of media in hydrological events and water resource management, media coverage also plays a significant role in water-related political issues. For example, Wei et al.) 2021) examined how media reporting shaped public perceptions of water conflict and cooperation among the riparian countries of the Lancang–Mekong River Basin. They found that media narratives, shaped by regional dynamics, portrayed China and Vietnam as demonstrating more cooperative sentiments, while Cambodia and Thailand expressed more negative views regarding water usage—particularly concerning dam construction (Wei et al., 2021). Another example is the water-related tensions between Pakistan and India, where the role of the media in framing these disputes is critical. Khan showed that media outlets in both countries portrayed shared water issues—such as the Kishanganga hydropower project—differently, emphasizing India’s alleged unfair water strategies or Pakistan’s diplomatic efforts (Khan, 2020 ). Despite the positive effects illustrated in previous examples, media and the nature of news coverage can also act as channels of public distrust—particularly concerning government crisis management (Driedger, 2007 ). Although media attention often increases during major hydrological shifts, it may not fully align with ongoing water concerns (Altaweel and Bone, 2012 ). Moreover, media outlets frequently emphasize sensational and unusual environmental events—such as oil spills or nuclear disasters—over more common risks, like pollution from everyday activities, in an attempt to attract readers. This tendency contributes to a distorted public perception of environmental risks (Major and Atwood, 2004 ). Media are also criticized for lack of transparency and the use of overly technical language, which hinders effective communication with the public and complicates public understanding of crises (Soriano et al., 2016). In addition, when media outlets diverge from professional ethics, they may become biased—especially in promoting nationalist narratives or propaganda—which obstructs the transparency and resolution of international conflicts (Khan, 2020 ). Based on both the praise and criticism highlighted in previous studies regarding media attention to water and environmental governance, examining agenda-setting in relation to water planning and management within the context of social sustainability is of considerable importance. On the one hand, it can influence whether a water-related issue gains public importance; on the other hand, it can shape how such an issue is understood by the general public. While earlier examples have explored hydrological, hydropolitical, and climate change issues, a significant gap remains—particularly due to cultural and thematic diversity. To the best of my knowledge, no study has specifically addressed agenda-setting and water-resources management in the Iranian context; this work can help inform water governance. As an additional novelty, the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) analysis has been applied to determine the threshold of salience. Drawing on interdisciplinary concepts, this study shows how the media influences water-resources management and governance in a controversial case. It clarifies the role of agenda-setting in answering what receives attention and the role of framing in answering how the issue is presented in a contentious water-governance context. The article examines the interactive system between the media and decision-makers and shows how professional ethics and bias shape news reporting, and it discusses strategies to increase opportunities and reduce the threats that arise in this arena. This study is organized into five sections. In the section 2 , I present the scope of the study, the case study context, and the research methodology. Section 3 , reports the findings of the study and analyzes them in relation to the proposed hypotheses. The discussion section adopts a critical perspective on the proposed method and addresses its limitations, challenges, and potential opportunities. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the main contributions of the study. 2 Material and Methods The objective of this study is to examine agenda-setting theory in the context of water resources planning and management. To this end, the planning and management of the Gotvand Dam—one of the most controversial water projects in Iran in recent decades—was selected as the case study. The Iranian Students’ News Agency (ISNA) was chosen as the primary news source for content analysis. 2-1- Gotvand-e Olya Dam Gotvand-e Olya Dam (hereafter referred to as Gotvand Dam) is a rock-fill embankment dam with a height of 182 meters, making it the tallest earth-fill dam and one of the largest dams in Iran. The reservoir, with a capacity of 4,500 million cubic meters, is the second-largest artificial lake in the country. A timeline of key milestones and decisions is summarized in Table 1 . Construction of the project began in 1997 and it was inaugurated in 2013. The dam has undergone a complex and contentious development process, drawing significant media attention over time. The stated objectives of the dam include: 1- providing a large downstream reservoir to support upstream dams in electricity generation without the risk of water loss in the Khuzestan plain; 2- controlling destructive seasonal floods of the Karun River; and 2- regulating water for agricultural use in downstream areas. The project has been the subject of both praise and criticism—some consider it an engineering feat, while others label it a failure. Despite notable success in electricity production, the dam’s poor site selection led to interaction with salt formations during impoundment, resulting in a significant accumulation of salt in the reservoir. Although several mitigation strategies have been proposed, their effectiveness remains uncertain. Table 1 Major milestones and events related to the Gotvand Dam over the past six decades Year Event / Description 1960s Assessment of the potential hydropower capacity of the Karun River Basin during the 1960s. 1967 Presentation of recommendations concerning development priorities and the establishment of large storage reservoirs. 1975–1982 Recommendations for the development of the Karun River in the Gotvand section and at the Karun-1 Dam site. 1989 Completion of the reconnaissance phase studies. 1997 Signing of the engineering services contract for the Gotvand Aliya Project by the client and consulting engineers, aimed at assessing the feasibility of implementing the project at the current site. 2001 Commencement of the main dam construction works. 2002 Selection of the project’s consulting firm in 2002 to complete the second-phase studies and supervise construction activities. 2003 Full river diversion following the completion of the cofferdam works (May). 2005 Start of the installation works for the powerhouse equipment (October 20). 2010 Commencement of the treatment operations for the Anbal Gachsaran gypsum formation (August). 2011 Start of reservoir impoundment (June) / completion of earthworks (December). 2013 Official inauguration (April). 2016 The Water Institute of the University of Tehran was assigned to assess the dam’s condition, followed by the Institute’s report and a session of the Supreme Water Council (January). 2-2- Iranian Students' News Agency (ISNA): The Iranian Students’ News Agency (ISNA) is one of Iran’s national news agencies, established on November 4, 1999. In its early years, most of its reporters and editorial staff were university students from various academic disciplines across Iran, many of whom worked voluntarily. Unlike its founding phase, ISNA’s current team of journalists is no longer limited to students. ISNA was also the first Iranian news agency to offer free online access to its content in 2000, making its news publicly available to all audiences. ISNA was selected for this study primarily due to its high traffic and ranking among Iranian news websites, as well as its consistent coverage of the entire period required to the Gotvand Dam project (2005–2025). 2-3- Methodology This study followed a stepwise analytical procedure to examine the salience and thematic framing of Gotvand Dam coverage in ISNA. The approach combined systematic data collection with structured classification and quantitative evaluation, designed to capture both the intensity and orientation of media attention. Step 1, Data collection: All news items containing keywords related to the Gotvand Dam were retrieved from ISNA’s online archive for the defined study period. Each article was archived and assigned an identification code. Metadata—including publication date, section, author (if available), and article length—were recorded. The principal information source cited in each article, as presented in Table 2 , was also documented. Step 2, Thematic classification (coding): Six thematic aspects were defined based on the dam’s stated objectives and the major areas of public debate, corresponding to the categories summarized in Table 2 . Each article was independently reviewed by two evaluators, who determined its dominant thematic aspect. This classification procedure corresponded to coding in content analysis (Krippendorff, 2018). Disagreements between evaluators were discussed and resolved to ensure consistency. Step 3, Quantitative analysis: Paragraphs were used as the unit of salience following Hester and Dougall ( 2007 ), while months were used as the unit of time. Frequency counts were conducted to measure the volume of coverage within each thematic aspect and source category. Statistical summaries were produced to identify variations in attention levels and the relative prominence of specific issues and actors over time. Step 4, Results processing: The aggregated data were analyzed and visualized using frequency tables and time-series plots. These outputs provided an empirical basis for testing the study’s agenda-setting hypotheses and for evaluating the alignment between media attention and broader policy or environmental developments. Table 2 Operational definitions of the research variables Variables Type Description Aspects General Covers general topics related to the dam, such as construction and operation. Hydropower Covers hydropower generation and related issues. Water Use Covers water utilization aspects, such as irrigation and domestic supply. Flood Control Covers the dam’s role in controlling seasonal floods. Env– Covers negative environmental impacts associated with the dam. Env+ Covers positive environmental outcomes, such as reduced salinity or the absence of salt intrusion. Sources Env. Org. Covers statements from officials of environmental organizations (e.g., directors, deputies). State Covers government officials, including the president, ministers, and deputy ministers. Local Admin. Covers local administrative bodies, such as governors or regional water managers. Academic Covers academic experts, such as university professors and research scholars. Parliament Covers statements from members of Parliament. Reports Covers official reports issued by relevant agencies. Others Covers all other sources not classified in the above categories. 3 Results After searching for the keyword “Gotvand Dam” on the ISNA website, 930 news items were identified. Paragraphs relevant to Gotvand Dam, along with their associated aspects and sources (as categorized in Table 2 ), were reviewed and coded by two experts in water resources management. The number of paragraphs corresponding to each source and aspect over the full study period (2005–2025) is summarized in Table 3 . As shown, a total of 2,518 paragraphs were identified as relevant to the Gotvand Dam within the scope of this research. Among the six defined aspects, Env- , general and hydropower accounted for the highest shares—47%, 27%, and 12%, respectively. In terms of source attribution, statements from state (32%), reports (18%), and local admin. (18%) constituted the most frequent contributors. For further analysis, the data—originally compiled on a daily scale—were aggregated monthly. The results are presented in a stacked format in Fig. 1 . Figure 1 a illustrates the monthly distribution of paragraphs by source, while Fig. 1 b displays the monthly distribution by aspect. Table 3 Distribution of media content on Gotvand Dam by aspect and source in ISNA Variables General Hydropower Water Use Flood Cont. Env- Env+ Total Env. Org. 1 0 0 2 155 6 164 State 213.5 143.7 16.1 19.9 291.7 136.2 821.1 Local Ad. 157.7 56 32.5 11.3 155.5 44 457 Academic 8 3 5.5 3 389.5 5 414 Parliament 6.5 2.5 1 0 60 2 72 Report 216.8 99.3 11.1 8.3 116.8 12.7 465 Other 78.7 6 2.7 5 30.5 2.2 125.1 Total 682.2 310.5 68.8 49.5 1199 208 2518 To investigate the hypotheses of this study, salience analysis based on the frequency of news coverage was conducted. To determine the threshold at which the frequency of monthly paragraph counts could be considered indicative of issue amplification, a sensitivity analysis was performed on the fourth quartile of the aspect CDFs (75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, and 95%). The results of the sensitivity analysis are summarized in Table 4 . Based on this table, a comparative salience assessment across different aspects of the Gotvand Dam is shown in Fig. 1 c. According to the analysis, 25% of the entire study period experienced salience levels above the 75% threshold (60 of 240). This figure was 12% and 6% for the 90% and 95% thresholds, respectively. Table 4 Sensitivity analysis of salience thresholds for different aspects Aspects 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% General 9 12 13.57 19.37 31.7 49 Hydropower 5.33 6 8.87 11.2 19.23 48.33 Water Use 3 3 3.39 4.31 5.225 5.6 Flood Cont. 2.43 2.75 3.64 4 4 11.33 Env- 14.75 17.8 23 38.3 53.05 75 Env+ 12.67 13 16.42 19.2 20.35 26 Total 17 22.2 29.2 46.6 64 122 According to Fig. 1 c, the highest level of media salience occurred in April 2013, coinciding with the official inauguration of the dam, with 122 related paragraphs. The most salient aspects during this period were general , hydropower , and flood control aspects. The second peak was recorded in July 2011, during the initial impoundment phase, with 96 paragraphs focused primarily on general and Env + aspects. Although both of these peaks coincided with visits by the President—which naturally attract substantial media attention—the third highest salience occurred in May 2017, during which 89% of coverage was concentrated within a single day, primarily due to comprehensive media reporting on a dam-related academic seminar. In this case, salience was almost entirely driven by the Env- aspect, which alone reached the 95% threshold. The fourth and fifth peaks were observed in February 2009 (corresponding to the completion of the first power unit and financial challenges) and September 2015, respectively. Overall, among all periods with salience above the 75% threshold, two distinct patterns emerged. These patterns appear to align with the presidential terms of two administrations with differing political orientations. For the purpose of analysis, the period from August 2005 to July 2013, corresponding to the presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, is referred to as PMA. The subsequent period from August 2013 to July 2021, under the presidency of Hassan Rouhani, is denoted as PHR. During the PMA period, the Env- aspect was highlighted only twice—once at the 80% threshold and once at 75%. In contrast, general , hydropower , and Env + aspects were frequently salient at various levels. During the PHR period, only one instance of Env + salience was recorded. Apart from three cases early in this period—where hydropower reached up to the 85% salience threshold—no further hydropower salience was observed. To better visualize the framing differences between the PMA and PHR periods, a Sankey diagram illustrating the relationship between aspects and sources was constructed (Fig. 2 ). Interestingly, the total number of Gotvand-related paragraphs during the PMA and PHR periods were 1120 and 1248, respectively, making the two periods reasonably comparable. During the PMA period, ISNA, influenced by the government and shaped by its own autonomy and professional ethics, attempted to downplay the negative environmental aspects of the Gotvand Dam. To counteract critical discourse regarding the dam’s environmental impacts, hydropower was emphasized as a strength. However, the agency did not stop at highlighting positive points; it also reported on the controlled state of the environmental situation. These reports—of which 61% originated from state and local administrative sources—varied in tone: some merely claimed environmental quality was under control, others acknowledged that problems exist in every project, some provided misleading information, and some outright denied the existence of any problems. As a result, paragraphs addressing Env + outnumbered those focusing on Env- . Conversely, during the PHR period, not only did paragraphs related to Env- increase by 7.7 times, but the combined coverage of Env + and hydropower aspects also reached 7%. Another key issue examined in this section is the mechanism through which ISNA is influenced, focusing on the interaction between its professional ethics and autonomy. To clarify this, Fig. 3 presents a Sankey diagram illustrating 15 cases where media salience reached the 95% threshold. As shown in Fig. 3 , six of these months correspond to the PMA period, and eight to the PHR period. During the PMA period, the government agenda aimed to conceal the negative environmental aspects, exerting influence on ISNA through propaganda. Although some news addressing the negative environmental aspects existed during this period, its coverage was minimal. Another example of political parallelism is observed in the media coverage and handling of disputes over the proposed demolition of the Gotvand Dam, which occurred twice: once in January 2013 and once in May 2013, the Env + reached a salience level of up to 80%. At the same time, by producing reports directly related to its professional role, ISNA highlighted the hydropower aspect, which is an objective and factual matter. During PMA period, ISNA avoided Env. Org. and academic sources, recognizing that news and reports from these sources would conflict with the government’s expected framing and highlight the negative environmental aspects. From another perspective, as external influences on ISNA diminished, its autonomy increased, enabling it to fulfill its professional duty of conveying newsworthy information based on journalistic ethics. Unlike the PMA period—where ISNA relied predominantly on state and local administrative sources to frame news during salient periods—during the PHR period, it utilized a combination of all sources. 4 Discussion 4-1-Salience Vision The question of how much repetition of paragraphs on a given topic within a specific period constitutes media salience raises the Sorites paradox, which highlights the challenge of vague boundaries in determining the threshold at which accumulation becomes significant (Cargile, 1969 ). To address this challenge and facilitate the analysis of the study hypotheses, this research employed a CDF-based threshold approach to identify salient topics and periods, using salience levels ranging from 75% to 95%. Regarding the feedback on this method, it should be noted that although the 75% threshold (covering 60 periods out of 240) encompassed a large portion of the data—leading to potential ambiguity in analyzing individual periods—it proved highly useful for examining overall trends and news waves. Conversely, the 95% threshold, while effectively identifying key peak periods, missed many event records. Although sensitivity analysis of the salience threshold provided a suitable criterion for agenda-setting analysis, it was highly sensitive to the number of news paragraphs for aspects with lower frequency, such as water use. 4-2-Opportunities and Challenges: Agenda setting and framing can lead to the phenomenon known as priming, which refers to the process by which media influence the criteria audiences use to evaluate issues (Iyengar and Simon, 1993 ). This effect has a dual nature, with both positive and negative aspects. For example, framing climate change in a way that guides politicians and the public towards global goals represents an opportunity arising from these processes. Conversely, excluding the topic from the media agenda or misframing it can pose significant challenges in this context. That is, even if people are concerned about climate change, the media can prevent action through inappropriate framing (Adame et al., 2025 ). It can also raise expectations or foster a negative atmosphere, even when the underlying information is positive (Cheng and Feng, 2023 ). In some cases, media coverage may even trigger adverse market responses (Chen et al., 2024 ). In the case of the Gotvand Dam, this challenge is clearly evident. While the opportunity created during the PHR period to clarify ambiguities surrounding the dam’s problems was valuable, the resulting atmosphere of pessimism and the shift in public opinion regarding downstream water quality led to instability in the dam’s management and its politicization. One outcome of this situation was that the dam’s operators adjusted the quality of the outflow in a way that made it even better than the water quality prior to the dam’s construction. Naturally, however, the millions of tons of salt previously transported downstream before the dam's construction were compounded by the salt accumulation within the reservoir caused by the dissolution of the underlying salt formations. In this context, numerous examples related to environmental issues and water resource management have also been observed. These include the marginalization of Indigenous communities’ concerns about water security (Lam et al., 2017 ), the neglect of sustainable water management (Vargas Molina et al., 2022 ), and the downplaying of governmental failures during water crises (Martirani and Peres, 2016 ). This is because, in the competition for news production, the party with greater financial and political power—typically aligned with the government—tends to prevail. Therefore, it is recommended to avoid politicizing controversial water-related issues whenever possible. Some opportunities to counteract this phenomenon are outlined below: Institutional Reforms Efforts should be made to ensure that key organizations responsible for information dissemination and verification remain independent from undue influence by interested parties (in this context, the government). For example, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is one such entity where government interference in leadership changes is limited. Additionally, contentious issues handled by joint institutions should be assigned to separate bodies. For instance, the Natural Resources and Watershed Management Organization of Iran, under the Ministry of Agriculture, may have increased risks of collusion in land-use changes without adequate media indexing to counteract such actions. Development of NGOs and Independent Decentralized Bodies Breaking the Spiral of Silence requires reducing media monopolies and increasing public awareness. The expansion of NGOs plays a vital role in this regard. Generally, it is more difficult for governments to restrict NGOs than media outlets. Moreover, if the number of entities whose opinions can be considered factual (usually universities) is limited, governments can more easily suppress them. Increasing the number and decentralization of these entities makes such restrictions more challenging. Public Journalism and Social Networks Thanks to the growth of social media and governments’ limited ability to control them, journalists can more freely produce high-quality, autonomous news. Social networks also provide the public with platforms to engage more actively in discussions. 4-3-Limitation and further researches Considering the social dimension of water resource management is not a novel topic; however, focusing on the interaction between communication sciences and water resource management represents a relatively new area of study. Uncovering the mutual influences between these two fields demands increased attention. The outcomes of such investigations are highly variable due to differences in governance types (reflected in policy agendas), cultural contexts (reflected in public agendas), and media landscapes across regions. Consequently, this issue is strongly case-study dependent. Furthermore, examining these effects requires longitudinal monitoring, which poses a significant limitation in many regions—especially in countries where freedoms are constrained by governments. However, in the past decade, the rise of social media has provided promising avenues for acquiring necessary data and analyzing these dynamics. From another perspective, this study presented only a few instances of bias related to the positive and negative environmental aspects. A comprehensive examination of various types of bias (see Rodrigo-Ginés et al. ( 2024 )) was deemed beyond the scope of this research due to the need to develop a new framework for analyzing different dimensions, such as emotional aspects. Given the strong capabilities of soft computing in quantifying linguistic data, this hypothesis is recommended for a comprehensive understanding of the media agenda status. Furthermore, focusing on a single media outlet cannot fully depict the media agenda of a country. Therefore, testing the hypotheses of this study using another media source would be instrumental in achieving this goal. 5 Conclusion This study applied the interdisciplinary concept of agenda-setting to water resources planning and management and demonstrated its role in changing the management of the Gotvand Dam—one of Iran’s most controversial water projects in recent decades. Assessments indicate that agenda-setting in the media (here, ISNA) sometimes aligned with sustainable water resources management, but more often it was disruptive, contributing to the accumulation of several million tonnes of salt in the reservoir. It should be expected that for a water resources decision planned and managed sustainably—for example, dam construction—nothing newsworthy should occur beyond hydrological events, aside from occasional announcements about proper operating conditions and the initial euphoria at commissioning. Nevertheless, the key finding of this study is that media salience is not simply a reflection of hydrological events but is substantially shaped by political agendas, media-organizational factors, and pervasive bias. The research shows that bias plays a critical role in influencing how environmental aspects are framed, often resulting in skewed coverage that challenges balanced public understanding. Furthermore, agenda-setting and framing processes exhibit a dual nature—on the one hand, offering opportunities to raise public awareness, and on the other, posing challenges when politicization distorts the narrative and compromises objective reporting.To address methodological challenges, regarding how much repetition constitutes salience, this study employed CDFs to set thresholds for defining salient periods and topics. This approach helped mitigate ambiguity in distinguishing truly salient media attention from routine coverage, enabling more precise tracking of media focus over time and under varying political contexts. Despite these advances, limitations such as the case-study dependency and data availability highlight the need for broader, longitudinal, and multi-source investigations to fully grasp agenda-setting dynamics in water governance. Ultimately, this research contributes to advancing the understanding of media influence in environmental communication by emphasizing the critical role of media ethics and autonomy in ensuring transparent and balanced reporting. Future research should expand to incorporate multiple media outlets and comparative studies across different governance contexts to assess what constraints can be reduced and what opportunities can be created in water resources management and planning with the help of the potential in agenda setting and framing. Declarations Ethics Approval: This study did not involve human participants or animals and therefore did not require ethics approval. Informed Consent: Not applicable. Author Contribution The author carried out the study design, data collection, data analysis, interpretation of results, and manuscript preparation. No additional authors contributed to this work. Acknowledgement I would like to sincerely thank Prof. M. A. Banihashemi (Assoc) and Prof. M. M. Namin (Assoc), former heads of the Water Institute at the University of Tehran, for their invaluable time and support. I thank Iliya Bostaghi for continued support and encouragement during this research. Data Availability Data will be made available on request. References Adame, B. J., Corman, S. R., Endres, C. J., Farmer, R. D., & Awonuga, T. (2025). How partisan news outlets frame vested interests in climate change. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, p.124159. Altaweel, M., & Bone, C. (2012). 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The water-energy‐climate nexus: Resources and policy outlook for aquifers in Mexico. Water Resources Research , 47(6). Shaw, E. F. (1979). Agenda-setting and mass communication theory. Gazette (Leiden Netherlands) , 25 (2), 96–105. Sousa, C. O., Teixeira, L. V., & Fouto, N. M. (2022). Midterm impacts of a water drought experience: evaluation of consumption changes in São Paulo, Brazil. Water Policy , 24 (1), 179–191. Vargas Molina, J., Paneque Salgado, P., & Augusto Breda Fontao, P. (2022). Drought-related media analysis from Andalusia and São Paulo. Environmental Hazards , 21 (2), 174–197. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Nouri","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA70lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACxgMJCI6EHAMDD2E9KFqMidOCzElsIKRFt4H5wYGHe2zs+Rt4Dz7m3WORvuH42YMPPjDYyek2YNdidoDN4EDCszRmiQN8ycY8zyRyN5zJSzacwZBsbHYAlxYGoJYDh9kYDvCYSfMcAGo5kANkMBxI3IZTC/sHoJb/PPJQLekG598Q0sIDsuWAhAFUS4LBDYK28BQAtSQbGB7gMTacc0DCcOaNN8aGMwzw+YV948MfB+zs5Q7wGD54c6BOnu98juGDDxV2cri0MMg/QGMogFUa4FCO3YwGUlSPglEwCkbBSAAAjGxdnQNfbosAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Water Institute Tehran University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alireza","middleName":"","lastName":"Nouri","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-25 05:53:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8199233/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8199233/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":99316385,"identity":"968c4716-2a2f-442a-a4c7-32c4af6771c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:28:22","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1142413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AgendaSetting15NoName.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8199233/v1/02ee3a3766f237165636735c.docx"},{"id":99187019,"identity":"da38daa3-3ea7-44ae-8a6c-6e0c47fdb770","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-30 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00:08:46","extension":"html","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":90962,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8199233/v1/702b5091bdf97b7908d5beeb.html"},{"id":99318641,"identity":"7ee17410-7142-46ee-b397-8419071728cf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:33:49","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":251048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly distribution of paragraphs related to Gotvand Dam: (a) by source and (b), by aspect, and (c) salience aspects at levels ranging from 75% to 95%\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8199233/v1/f2e44a01aa64796548fe4548.jpeg"},{"id":99187026,"identity":"2a53e70a-56b8-4e81-b37f-01dea152e156","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-30 00:08:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":355575,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSankey diagram of media sources and aspects during the PMA and PHR periods\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8199233/v1/8f43fee99bc677c66c90c7e2.png"},{"id":99187025,"identity":"ba1922c3-db27-4355-b491-e66549eca65a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-30 00:08:46","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1320957,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSankey diagram of months with media salience reaching up to the 95% threshold\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8199233/v1/f545ea49547e143de81f988a.jpeg"},{"id":99323467,"identity":"6acf9208-8c34-4662-a0ef-097eafe8d70e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:45:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2592143,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8199233/v1/e3d4a296-2930-4f48-90ec-2c86d2458029.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Environmental Governance and Media Agenda-Setting: A Case Study from Iran","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eA macro-level perspective on water resource governance has led experts to analyze the issue through various approaches and disciplinary lenses. For instance, Integrated Water Resources Management has been employed to assess the sustainability of socio-economic-environmental dynamics (Arfan et a., 2020); the Nexus approach has been used to interlink water, food, energy, waste, and climate (Scott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e); and behavioral simulations\u0026mdash;such as agent-based modeling\u0026mdash;have drawn from social sciences to examine human-environment interactions (Nouri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, many dimensions of the social sciences remain underexplored in this context. One such overlooked area is the interdisciplinary perspective of communication studies, particularly in relation to media agenda-setting within water resources management and planning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgenda-setting is a concept in communication theory that refers to the media\u0026rsquo;s ability to influence the salience of issues on the public agenda (McCombs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e). Essentially, this theory posits that the media tell people what to think about (Shaw, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e). In a simplified process, three fundamental steps can be identified: 1- the more frequently an issue is covered by the media, the more likely it is that people will perceive it as important; 2- over time, this focused coverage shapes public perception; and 3- ultimately, the combination of media coverage and public perception of an issue's importance can shift policymakers' agendas\u0026mdash;or conversely, can facilitate public compliance with certain policy effects (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgenda-setting theory was first introduced by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in a 1972 study examining the role of media in the 1968 U.S. presidential election (Maxwell and Shaw, 1972). However, the relevance of this theory has extended beyond electoral contexts. Numerous examples can be found in which the media, through its coverage and specific mechanisms, have influenced various aspects of hydro-social dynamics. For instance, media coverage during the water crisis in S\u0026atilde;o Paulo, Brazil (2013\u0026ndash;2015) raised public awareness and reinforced policy decisions such as economic incentives, which led to changes in consumer behavior (Sousa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, during the California drought (2012\u0026ndash;2016), media reporting on water scarcity significantly increased public awareness and encouraged more efficient water use among consumers (Quesnel and Ajami, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e and Lund et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Other notable examples include the role of media during the 2019 water crisis in Chennai, India (Nigam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and in Andalusia, Spain (Vargas Molina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeyond the role of media in hydrological events and water resource management, media coverage also plays a significant role in water-related political issues. For example, Wei et al.) 2021) examined how media reporting shaped public perceptions of water conflict and cooperation among the riparian countries of the Lancang\u0026ndash;Mekong River Basin. They found that media narratives, shaped by regional dynamics, portrayed China and Vietnam as demonstrating more cooperative sentiments, while Cambodia and Thailand expressed more negative views regarding water usage\u0026mdash;particularly concerning dam construction (Wei et al., 2021). Another example is the water-related tensions between Pakistan and India, where the role of the media in framing these disputes is critical. Khan showed that media outlets in both countries portrayed shared water issues\u0026mdash;such as the Kishanganga hydropower project\u0026mdash;differently, emphasizing India\u0026rsquo;s alleged unfair water strategies or Pakistan\u0026rsquo;s diplomatic efforts (Khan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the positive effects illustrated in previous examples, media and the nature of news coverage can also act as channels of public distrust\u0026mdash;particularly concerning government crisis management (Driedger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Although media attention often increases during major hydrological shifts, it may not fully align with ongoing water concerns (Altaweel and Bone, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, media outlets frequently emphasize sensational and unusual environmental events\u0026mdash;such as oil spills or nuclear disasters\u0026mdash;over more common risks, like pollution from everyday activities, in an attempt to attract readers. This tendency contributes to a distorted public perception of environmental risks (Major and Atwood, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Media are also criticized for lack of transparency and the use of overly technical language, which hinders effective communication with the public and complicates public understanding of crises (Soriano et al., 2016). In addition, when media outlets diverge from professional ethics, they may become biased\u0026mdash;especially in promoting nationalist narratives or propaganda\u0026mdash;which obstructs the transparency and resolution of international conflicts (Khan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on both the praise and criticism highlighted in previous studies regarding media attention to water and environmental governance, examining agenda-setting in relation to water planning and management within the context of social sustainability is of considerable importance. On the one hand, it can influence whether a water-related issue gains public importance; on the other hand, it can shape how such an issue is understood by the general public. While earlier examples have explored hydrological, hydropolitical, and climate change issues, a significant gap remains\u0026mdash;particularly due to cultural and thematic diversity. To the best of my knowledge, no study has specifically addressed agenda-setting and water-resources management in the Iranian context; this work can help inform water governance. As an additional novelty, the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) analysis has been applied to determine the threshold of salience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrawing on interdisciplinary concepts, this study shows how the media influences water-resources management and governance in a controversial case. It clarifies the role of agenda-setting in answering what receives attention and the role of framing in answering how the issue is presented in a contentious water-governance context. The article examines the interactive system between the media and decision-makers and shows how professional ethics and bias shape news reporting, and it discusses strategies to increase opportunities and reduce the threats that arise in this arena.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study is organized into five sections. In the section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, I present the scope of the study, the case study context, and the research methodology. Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, reports the findings of the study and analyzes them in relation to the proposed hypotheses. The discussion section adopts a critical perspective on the proposed method and addresses its limitations, challenges, and potential opportunities. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the main contributions of the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Material and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe objective of this study is to examine agenda-setting theory in the context of water resources planning and management. To this end, the planning and management of the Gotvand Dam\u0026mdash;one of the most controversial water projects in Iran in recent decades\u0026mdash;was selected as the case study. The Iranian Students\u0026rsquo; News Agency (ISNA) was chosen as the primary news source for content analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2-1- Gotvand-e Olya Dam\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGotvand-e Olya Dam (hereafter referred to as Gotvand Dam) is a rock-fill embankment dam with a height of 182 meters, making it the tallest earth-fill dam and one of the largest dams in Iran. The reservoir, with a capacity of 4,500\u0026nbsp;million cubic meters, is the second-largest artificial lake in the country. A timeline of key milestones and decisions is summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstruction of the project began in 1997 and it was inaugurated in 2013. The dam has undergone a complex and contentious development process, drawing significant media attention over time. The stated objectives of the dam include: 1- providing a large downstream reservoir to support upstream dams in electricity generation without the risk of water loss in the Khuzestan plain; 2- controlling destructive seasonal floods of the Karun River; and 2- regulating water for agricultural use in downstream areas.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe project has been the subject of both praise and criticism\u0026mdash;some consider it an engineering feat, while others label it a failure. Despite notable success in electricity production, the dam\u0026rsquo;s poor site selection led to interaction with salt formations during impoundment, resulting in a significant accumulation of salt in the reservoir. Although several mitigation strategies have been proposed, their effectiveness remains uncertain.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMajor milestones and events related to the Gotvand Dam over the past six decades\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvent / Description\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1960s\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssessment of the potential hydropower capacity of the Karun River Basin during the 1960s.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1967\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePresentation of recommendations concerning development priorities and the establishment of large storage reservoirs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1975\u0026ndash;1982\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecommendations for the development of the Karun River in the Gotvand section and at the Karun-1 Dam site.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1989\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompletion of the reconnaissance phase studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSigning of the engineering services contract for the Gotvand Aliya Project by the client and consulting engineers, aimed at assessing the feasibility of implementing the project at the current site.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommencement of the main dam construction works.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelection of the project\u0026rsquo;s consulting firm in 2002 to complete the second-phase studies and supervise construction activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFull river diversion following the completion of the cofferdam works (May).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStart of the installation works for the powerhouse equipment (October 20).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommencement of the treatment operations for the Anbal Gachsaran gypsum formation (August).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStart of reservoir impoundment (June) / completion of earthworks (December).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOfficial inauguration (April).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Water Institute of the University of Tehran was assigned to assess the dam\u0026rsquo;s condition, followed by the Institute\u0026rsquo;s report and a session of the Supreme Water Council (January).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2-2- Iranian Students' News Agency (ISNA):\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Iranian Students\u0026rsquo; News Agency (ISNA) is one of Iran\u0026rsquo;s national news agencies, established on November 4, 1999. In its early years, most of its reporters and editorial staff were university students from various academic disciplines across Iran, many of whom worked voluntarily. Unlike its founding phase, ISNA\u0026rsquo;s current team of journalists is no longer limited to students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eISNA was also the first Iranian news agency to offer free online access to its content in 2000, making its news publicly available to all audiences. ISNA was selected for this study primarily due to its high traffic and ranking among Iranian news websites, as well as its consistent coverage of the entire period required to the Gotvand Dam project (2005\u0026ndash;2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2-3- Methodology\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study followed a stepwise analytical procedure to examine the salience and thematic framing of Gotvand Dam coverage in ISNA. The approach combined systematic data collection with structured classification and quantitative evaluation, designed to capture both the intensity and orientation of media attention.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 1, Data collection: All news items containing keywords related to the Gotvand Dam were retrieved from ISNA\u0026rsquo;s online archive for the defined study period. Each article was archived and assigned an identification code. Metadata\u0026mdash;including publication date, section, author (if available), and article length\u0026mdash;were recorded. The principal information source cited in each article, as presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, was also documented.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 2, Thematic classification (coding): Six thematic aspects were defined based on the dam\u0026rsquo;s stated objectives and the major areas of public debate, corresponding to the categories summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Each article was independently reviewed by two evaluators, who determined its dominant thematic aspect. This classification procedure corresponded to coding in content analysis (Krippendorff, 2018). Disagreements between evaluators were discussed and resolved to ensure consistency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 3, Quantitative analysis: Paragraphs were used as the unit of salience following Hester and Dougall (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), while months were used as the unit of time. Frequency counts were conducted to measure the volume of coverage within each thematic aspect and source category. Statistical summaries were produced to identify variations in attention levels and the relative prominence of specific issues and actors over time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 4, Results processing: The aggregated data were analyzed and visualized using frequency tables and time-series plots. These outputs provided an empirical basis for testing the study\u0026rsquo;s agenda-setting hypotheses and for evaluating the alignment between media attention and broader policy or environmental developments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOperational definitions of the research variables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAspects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers general topics related to the dam, such as construction and operation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydropower\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers hydropower generation and related issues.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater Use\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers water utilization aspects, such as irrigation and domestic supply.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlood Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers the dam\u0026rsquo;s role in controlling seasonal floods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnv\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers negative environmental impacts associated with the dam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnv+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers positive environmental outcomes, such as reduced salinity or the absence of salt intrusion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnv. Org.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers statements from officials of environmental organizations (e.g., directors, deputies).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eState\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers government officials, including the president, ministers, and deputy ministers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocal Admin.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers local administrative bodies, such as governors or regional water managers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers academic experts, such as university professors and research scholars.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParliament\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers statements from members of Parliament.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReports\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers official reports issued by relevant agencies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCovers all other sources not classified in the above categories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAfter searching for the keyword \u0026ldquo;Gotvand Dam\u0026rdquo; on the ISNA website, 930 news items were identified. Paragraphs relevant to Gotvand Dam, along with their associated aspects and sources (as categorized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), were reviewed and coded by two experts in water resources management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe number of paragraphs corresponding to each source and aspect over the full study period (2005\u0026ndash;2025) is summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. As shown, a total of 2,518 paragraphs were identified as relevant to the Gotvand Dam within the scope of this research. Among the six defined aspects, \u003cem\u003eEnv-\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003egeneral\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ehydropower\u003c/em\u003e accounted for the highest shares\u0026mdash;47%, 27%, and 12%, respectively. In terms of source attribution, statements from \u003cem\u003estate\u003c/em\u003e (32%), \u003cem\u003ereports\u003c/em\u003e (18%), and \u003cem\u003elocal admin.\u003c/em\u003e (18%) constituted the most frequent contributors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor further analysis, the data\u0026mdash;originally compiled on a daily scale\u0026mdash;were aggregated monthly. The results are presented in a stacked format in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea illustrates the monthly distribution of paragraphs by source, while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb displays the monthly distribution by aspect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistribution of media content on Gotvand Dam by aspect and source in ISNA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydropower\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater Use\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlood Cont.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnv-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnv+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnv. Org.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eState\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e213.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e143.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e291.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e136.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e821.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocal Ad.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e157.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e457\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e389.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e414\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParliament\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReport\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e216.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e99.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e116.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e465\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e682.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e310.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1199\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2518\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo investigate the hypotheses of this study, salience analysis based on the frequency of news coverage was conducted. To determine the threshold at which the frequency of monthly paragraph counts could be considered indicative of issue amplification, a sensitivity analysis was performed on the fourth quartile of the aspect CDFs (75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, and 95%). The results of the sensitivity analysis are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Based on this table, a comparative salience assessment across different aspects of the Gotvand Dam is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ec.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the analysis, 25% of the entire study period experienced salience levels above the 75% threshold (60 of 240). This figure was 12% and 6% for the 90% and 95% thresholds, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSensitivity analysis of salience thresholds for different aspects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAspects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydropower\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater Use\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.225\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlood Cont.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnv-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnv+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ec, the highest level of media salience occurred in April 2013, coinciding with the official inauguration of the dam, with 122 related paragraphs. The most salient aspects during this period were \u003cem\u003egeneral\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ehydropower\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eflood control\u003c/em\u003e aspects. The second peak was recorded in July 2011, during the initial impoundment phase, with 96 paragraphs focused primarily on \u003cem\u003egeneral\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEnv\u0026thinsp;+\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;aspects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough both of these peaks coincided with visits by the President\u0026mdash;which naturally attract substantial media attention\u0026mdash;the third highest salience occurred in May 2017, during which 89% of coverage was concentrated within a single day, primarily due to comprehensive media reporting on a dam-related academic seminar. In this case, salience was almost entirely driven by the \u003cem\u003eEnv-\u003c/em\u003e aspect, which alone reached the 95% threshold. The fourth and fifth peaks were observed in February 2009 (corresponding to the completion of the first power unit and financial challenges) and September 2015, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, among all periods with salience above the 75% threshold, two distinct patterns emerged. These patterns appear to align with the presidential terms of two administrations with differing political orientations. For the purpose of analysis, the period from August 2005 to July 2013, corresponding to the presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, is referred to as PMA. The subsequent period from August 2013 to July 2021, under the presidency of Hassan Rouhani, is denoted as PHR.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the PMA period, the \u003cem\u003eEnv-\u003c/em\u003e aspect was highlighted only twice\u0026mdash;once at the 80% threshold and once at 75%. In contrast, \u003cem\u003egeneral\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ehydropower\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eEnv\u0026thinsp;+\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;aspects were frequently salient at various levels. During the PHR period, only one instance of \u003cem\u003eEnv\u0026thinsp;+\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;salience was recorded. Apart from three cases early in this period\u0026mdash;where \u003cem\u003ehydropower\u003c/em\u003e reached up to the 85% salience threshold\u0026mdash;no further \u003cem\u003ehydropower\u003c/em\u003e salience was observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo better visualize the framing differences between the PMA and PHR periods, a Sankey diagram illustrating the relationship between aspects and sources was constructed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Interestingly, the total number of Gotvand-related paragraphs during the PMA and PHR periods were 1120 and 1248, respectively, making the two periods reasonably comparable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the PMA period, ISNA, influenced by the government and shaped by its own autonomy and professional ethics, attempted to downplay the negative environmental aspects of the Gotvand Dam. To counteract critical discourse regarding the dam\u0026rsquo;s environmental impacts, \u003cem\u003ehydropower\u003c/em\u003e was emphasized as a strength. However, the agency did not stop at highlighting positive points; it also reported on the controlled state of the environmental situation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese reports\u0026mdash;of which 61% originated from \u003cem\u003estate\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003elocal administrative\u003c/em\u003e sources\u0026mdash;varied in tone: some merely claimed environmental quality was under control, others acknowledged that problems exist in every project, some provided misleading information, and some outright denied the existence of any problems. As a result, paragraphs addressing \u003cem\u003eEnv\u0026thinsp;+\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;outnumbered those focusing on \u003cem\u003eEnv-\u003c/em\u003e. Conversely, during the PHR period, not only did paragraphs related to \u003cem\u003eEnv-\u003c/em\u003e increase by 7.7 times, but the combined coverage of \u003cem\u003eEnv\u0026thinsp;+\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;and \u003cem\u003ehydropower\u003c/em\u003e aspects also reached 7%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother key issue examined in this section is the mechanism through which ISNA is influenced, focusing on the interaction between its professional ethics and autonomy. To clarify this, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents a Sankey diagram illustrating 15 cases where media salience reached the 95% threshold. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, six of these months correspond to the PMA period, and eight to the PHR period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the PMA period, the government agenda aimed to conceal the negative environmental aspects, exerting influence on ISNA through propaganda. Although some news addressing the negative environmental aspects existed during this period, its coverage was minimal.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother example of political parallelism is observed in the media coverage and handling of disputes over the proposed demolition of the Gotvand Dam, which occurred twice: once in January 2013 and once in May 2013, the \u003cem\u003eEnv\u0026thinsp;+\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;reached a salience level of up to 80%. At the same time, by producing reports directly related to its professional role, ISNA highlighted the hydropower aspect, which is an objective and factual matter. During PMA period, ISNA avoided Env. Org. and academic sources, recognizing that news and reports from these sources would conflict with the government\u0026rsquo;s expected framing and highlight the negative environmental aspects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom another perspective, as external influences on ISNA diminished, its autonomy increased, enabling it to fulfill its professional duty of conveying newsworthy information based on journalistic ethics. Unlike the PMA period\u0026mdash;where ISNA relied predominantly on \u003cem\u003estate\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003elocal administrative\u003c/em\u003e sources to frame news during salient periods\u0026mdash;during the PHR period, it utilized a combination of all sources.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e4-1-Salience Vision\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe question of how much repetition of paragraphs on a given topic within a specific period constitutes media salience raises the Sorites paradox, which highlights the challenge of vague boundaries in determining the threshold at which accumulation becomes significant (Cargile, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1969\u003c/span\u003e). To address this challenge and facilitate the analysis of the study hypotheses, this research employed a CDF-based threshold approach to identify salient topics and periods, using salience levels ranging from 75% to 95%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding the feedback on this method, it should be noted that although the 75% threshold (covering 60 periods out of 240) encompassed a large portion of the data\u0026mdash;leading to potential ambiguity in analyzing individual periods\u0026mdash;it proved highly useful for examining overall trends and news waves. Conversely, the 95% threshold, while effectively identifying key peak periods, missed many event records. Although sensitivity analysis of the salience threshold provided a suitable criterion for agenda-setting analysis, it was highly sensitive to the number of news paragraphs for aspects with lower frequency, such as water use.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e4-2-Opportunities and Challenges:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgenda setting and framing can lead to the phenomenon known as priming, which refers to the process by which media influence the criteria audiences use to evaluate issues (Iyengar and Simon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). This effect has a dual nature, with both positive and negative aspects. For example, framing climate change in a way that guides politicians and the public towards global goals represents an opportunity arising from these processes. Conversely, excluding the topic from the media agenda or misframing it can pose significant challenges in this context. That is, even if people are concerned about climate change, the media can prevent action through inappropriate framing (Adame et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). It can also raise expectations or foster a negative atmosphere, even when the underlying information is positive (Cheng and Feng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In some cases, media coverage may even trigger adverse market responses (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the case of the Gotvand Dam, this challenge is clearly evident. While the opportunity created during the PHR period to clarify ambiguities surrounding the dam\u0026rsquo;s problems was valuable, the resulting atmosphere of pessimism and the shift in public opinion regarding downstream water quality led to instability in the dam\u0026rsquo;s management and its politicization. One outcome of this situation was that the dam\u0026rsquo;s operators adjusted the quality of the outflow in a way that made it even better than the water quality prior to the dam\u0026rsquo;s construction. Naturally, however, the millions of tons of salt previously transported downstream before the dam's construction were compounded by the salt accumulation within the reservoir caused by the dissolution of the underlying salt formations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this context, numerous examples related to environmental issues and water resource management have also been observed. These include the marginalization of Indigenous communities\u0026rsquo; concerns about water security (Lam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), the neglect of sustainable water management (Vargas Molina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and the downplaying of governmental failures during water crises (Martirani and Peres, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This is because, in the competition for news production, the party with greater financial and political power\u0026mdash;typically aligned with the government\u0026mdash;tends to prevail. Therefore, it is recommended to avoid politicizing controversial water-related issues whenever possible. Some opportunities to counteract this phenomenon are outlined below:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstitutional Reforms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eEfforts should be made to ensure that key organizations responsible for information dissemination and verification remain independent from undue influence by interested parties (in this context, the government). For example, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is one such entity where government interference in leadership changes is limited. Additionally, contentious issues handled by joint institutions should be assigned to separate bodies. For instance, the Natural Resources and Watershed Management Organization of Iran, under the Ministry of Agriculture, may have increased risks of collusion in land-use changes without adequate media indexing to counteract such actions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDevelopment of NGOs and Independent Decentralized Bodies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eBreaking the Spiral of Silence requires reducing media monopolies and increasing public awareness. The expansion of NGOs plays a vital role in this regard. Generally, it is more difficult for governments to restrict NGOs than media outlets. Moreover, if the number of entities whose opinions can be considered factual (usually universities) is limited, governments can more easily suppress them. Increasing the number and decentralization of these entities makes such restrictions more challenging.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePublic Journalism and Social Networks\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThanks to the growth of social media and governments\u0026rsquo; limited ability to control them, journalists can more freely produce high-quality, autonomous news. Social networks also provide the public with platforms to engage more actively in discussions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e4-3-Limitation and further researches\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsidering the social dimension of water resource management is not a novel topic; however, focusing on the interaction between communication sciences and water resource management represents a relatively new area of study. Uncovering the mutual influences between these two fields demands increased attention. The outcomes of such investigations are highly variable due to differences in governance types (reflected in policy agendas), cultural contexts (reflected in public agendas), and media landscapes across regions. Consequently, this issue is strongly case-study dependent. Furthermore, examining these effects requires longitudinal monitoring, which poses a significant limitation in many regions\u0026mdash;especially in countries where freedoms are constrained by governments. However, in the past decade, the rise of social media has provided promising avenues for acquiring necessary data and analyzing these dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom another perspective, this study presented only a few instances of bias related to the positive and negative environmental aspects. A comprehensive examination of various types of bias (see Rodrigo-Gin\u0026eacute;s et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)) was deemed beyond the scope of this research due to the need to develop a new framework for analyzing different dimensions, such as emotional aspects. Given the strong capabilities of soft computing in quantifying linguistic data, this hypothesis is recommended for a comprehensive understanding of the media agenda status. Furthermore, focusing on a single media outlet cannot fully depict the media agenda of a country. Therefore, testing the hypotheses of this study using another media source would be instrumental in achieving this goal.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study applied the interdisciplinary concept of agenda-setting to water resources planning and management and demonstrated its role in changing the management of the Gotvand Dam\u0026mdash;one of Iran\u0026rsquo;s most controversial water projects in recent decades. Assessments indicate that agenda-setting in the media (here, ISNA) sometimes aligned with sustainable water resources management, but more often it was disruptive, contributing to the accumulation of several million tonnes of salt in the reservoir.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt should be expected that for a water resources decision planned and managed sustainably\u0026mdash;for example, dam construction\u0026mdash;nothing newsworthy should occur beyond hydrological events, aside from occasional announcements about proper operating conditions and the initial euphoria at commissioning. Nevertheless, the key finding of this study is that media salience is not simply a reflection of hydrological events but is substantially shaped by political agendas, media-organizational factors, and pervasive bias. The research shows that bias plays a critical role in influencing how environmental aspects are framed, often resulting in skewed coverage that challenges balanced public understanding. Furthermore, agenda-setting and framing processes exhibit a dual nature\u0026mdash;on the one hand, offering opportunities to raise public awareness, and on the other, posing challenges when politicization distorts the narrative and compromises objective reporting.To address methodological challenges, regarding how much repetition constitutes salience, this study employed CDFs to set thresholds for defining salient periods and topics. This approach helped mitigate ambiguity in distinguishing truly salient media attention from routine coverage, enabling more precise tracking of media focus over time and under varying political contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these advances, limitations such as the case-study dependency and data availability highlight the need for broader, longitudinal, and multi-source investigations to fully grasp agenda-setting dynamics in water governance. Ultimately, this research contributes to advancing the understanding of media influence in environmental communication by emphasizing the critical role of media ethics and autonomy in ensuring transparent and balanced reporting. Future research should expand to incorporate multiple media outlets and comparative studies across different governance contexts to assess what constraints can be reduced and what opportunities can be created in water resources management and planning with the help of the potential in agenda setting and framing.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics Approval:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study did not involve human participants or animals and therefore did not require ethics approval.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eInformed Consent:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author carried out the study design, data collection, data analysis, interpretation of results, and manuscript preparation. No additional authors contributed to this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI would like to sincerely thank Prof. M. A. Banihashemi (Assoc) and Prof. M. M. Namin (Assoc), former heads of the Water Institute at the University of Tehran, for their invaluable time and support. I thank Iliya Bostaghi for continued support and encouragement during this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be made available on request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdame, B. J., Corman, S. R., Endres, C. J., Farmer, R. D., \u0026amp; Awonuga, T. (2025). How partisan news outlets frame vested interests in climate change. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, p.124159.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAltaweel, M., \u0026amp; Bone, C. (2012). 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Drought-related media analysis from Andalusia and S\u0026atilde;o Paulo. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Hazards\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e21\u003c/em\u003e(2), 174\u0026ndash;197.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Salience, Framing, Bias, Gotvand Dam, ISNA","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8199233/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8199233/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eOne of the most important factors influencing environmental governance is public perception\u0026mdash;and, according to agenda-setting theory, the media tell people what to think about. To investigate this issue, news related to the Gotvand Dam\u0026mdash;recognized as one of the most controversial water planning and management projects in Iran\u0026mdash;was collected and coded over a 20-year period by source (such as environmental organizations, state agencies, local administrations, and academia) and thematic aspect (such as hydropower, flood control, and positive and negative environmental aspects). Using cumulative distribution function analysis, salience thresholds were determined for each aspect and examined. The results clearly showed that bias significantly influenced coverage of positive and negative environmental aspects across different periods and that the frames presented by the media correlated with political shifts in governance. The findings also revealed that media framing can raise public awareness about sustainable environmental management, but when politicized it can distort the narrative\u0026mdash;which, in the context of a water-resource case, may lead to serious and destabilizing effects within the affected basin. The analysis indicates that this process has resulted in the accumulation of millions of tons of salt in the reservoir (in the case of the Gotvand Dam). Finally, the study argues that actions such as institutional reforms and NGO development are fundamental for sustainable environmental governance.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Environmental Governance and Media Agenda-Setting: A Case Study from Iran","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-30 00:08:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8199233/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0e53061d-7616-4c4e-b9e9-fecbd88110e1","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 30th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-30T00:08:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-30 00:08:37","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8199233","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8199233","identity":"rs-8199233","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}