Diversity of cocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin, West Africa

Diversity of cocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin, West Africa | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Diversity of cocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin, West Africa Aboudou Hack Arouna, Elie Antoine Padonou, Ghislain Comlan Akabassi, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7989752/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Cocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin remain poorly characterized, despite their ecological and cultural importance to local livelihoods. Limited documentation of associated plant species and traditional management practices constrains efforts toward the sustainable use of this neglected crop. This study explored the species diversity, domestication levels, and ethnobotanical knowledge related to cocoyam-associated plants across six agro-ecological zones and seven departments of Benin. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews across the region of the field study. Species diversity associated with cocoyam production was listed in accordance to an inventory based on the flora of Benin through 56 farm units, commonly called agroforestry systems; on the flora of Benin IUCN online database; on the Red List of threatened plant species in Benin; on the Biodiversity Atlas for West Africa; and on the online database of the Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. Meanwhile, the domestication status was assessed using six levels ranging from wild (level 0) to fully cultivated species with pest and disease management (level 5). Species prioritization was determined using eight criteria (native status, economic and ethnobotanical value, global and national distribution, in situ and ex situ conservation status, legislation, and threat assessment) combined across four prioritization methods (point scoring, weighted point scoring, compound ranking, and binomial ranking). A super-prioritization of these methods was applied to identify the highest-priority species for conservation. In total, 48 species representing 26 families and 41 genera were documented. The Bar Land Zone showed the highest diversity (85.18% of families), followed by the Fisheries (66.66%) and Food Crops (20%) zones. The Leguminosae family dominated, followed by Rubiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, and Musaceae. Level 5 species were the most represented (23 species). Leaves were the most used plant part (27%), followed by wood (25%) and fruits (20%), primarily for therapeutic (25%), nutritional (18%), and craft (10%) purposes, reflecting the multifunctional value of these plants in rural communities. Twelve plant species ( Vitellaria paradoxa , Morinda lucida , Khaya senegalensis , Parkia biglobosa , Albizia zygia , Rauvolfia vomitoria , Anogeissus leiocarpa , Sarcocephalus latifolius , Vitex doniana , Cola nitida , Caesalpinia bonduc , and Newbouldia laevis ) were prioritized for domestication and conservation for sustainable valorization of agrobiodiversity in Benin. Cocoyam agroforestry ethnobotanical knowledge domestication prioritization Benin Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction Agroforestry systems are widely recognized as sustainable land-use strategies that integrate trees or shrubs with crops or livestock, fostering ecological and socio-economic interactions among components (FAO 2023 ). These systems play a crucial role in national economies by supporting smallholder livelihoods, enhancing socio-economic resilience, and delivering important environmental benefits (Leakey and Prabh 2017; Castle et al. 2021 ). Through crop diversification, agroforestry increases productivity, ensures year-round harvests, reduces food and income insecurity, and provides additional revenue streams for farming households (Mariel et al. 2021; Hajjar et al. 2021 ). Empirical studies further show that farmers adopting cash-crop agroforestry are better able to meet household needs, including education and living standards (Llopis et al. 2020; Iiyama et al. 2014), while also producing valuable resources such as fruits, fodder, and medicinal products (Thevs et al. 2022 ). Beyond economic value, agroforestry delivers sociocultural benefits, including improved landscape aesthetics and the demarcation of farmland (Gassner & Dobie 2022 ). Collectively, these attributes position agroforestry as a cornerstone for sustainable development and natural resource preservation (Smith & Mbow 2014; Castle et al. 2021 ). Agroforestry practices are among the oldest farming systems globally, often associated with smallholder farmers operating with limited technology and resources in environments unsuitable for monoculture. Agroforestry can take multiple forms, including agrosilvicultural systems (trees combined with crops), silvopastoral systems (trees with livestock), and agrosilvopastoral systems (integration of trees, crops, and livestock). These systems are particularly relevant in regions facing population growth and rising food demand. The global population is projected to reach 9.1 billion by 2050 (UN, 2013), with Africa experiencing the fastest demographic increase (Mounthford & Rapport 2016). This demographic pressure necessitates intensified agronomic research on neglected and underutilized species, such as cocoyam ( Xanthosoma sagittifolium ( white cutivar ) and Colocasia esculenta ( Red cultivar )), which offer potential as alternative food sources and climate-resilient crops. Cocoyam-based agroforestry involves integrating cocoyam cultivation with trees and other crops, thereby enhancing biodiversity, improving soil fertility, and diversifying household income. Despite its potential, cocoyam remains largely neglected in research and development programs, and guidance on profitable production systems in tropical contexts is limited. Yet, orphan crops such as cocoyam are increasingly recognized for their importance in addressing local food and livelihood challenges (Borelli et al. 2020 ). They contribute to sustainable food systems by promoting dietary diversity, strengthening the resilience of underutilized cropping systems, and expanding cultivation into new agro-ecological zones (Mabhaudhi et al. 2019 ; Jamnadass et al. 2020; Ulian et al. 2020 ). In Africa, cocoyam plays an important role in household food security, particularly in traditional home gardens where root crops serve as staple carbohydrate sources. Given these considerations, studying cocoyam-based agroforestry is essential for both conservation and sustainable use. Such systems not only support the preservation of a multi-use, threatened species, but also provide insights into the diversity of associated non-timber forest products that enhance rural livelihoods. The present study aims to fill this gap by documenting cocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin. Specifically, it seeks to: (i) assess the diversity of species associated with cocoyam cultivation; (ii) identify domestication strategies applied to these associated species; and (iii) determine priority species for domestication and conservation. 2. Methodology 2.1. Study area This study was conducted in the Republic of Benin, located between the latitudes of 6°10 N and 12°25 N and the longitudes of 0°45 E 3°55 E. Benin is characterized by three major climatic zones. The southern region is relatively humid (varying between 75% and 95%), with two rainy seasons and an annual rainfall amount ranging from 1.100 to 1.400 mm. In southern Benin, the climatic zone is classified as sub-equatorial, characterized by relatively high and stable humidity throughout the year. In contrast, the northern region experiences a single rainy season and a markedly drier climate, with relative humidity dropping to between 20% and 30% during the dry season and rising to moderate levels, ranging from 50% to 70%, during the rainy season (Vodounhè et al. 2012). The annual rainfall varies between 800 and 950 mm, with a tropical dry climate. Average annual temperatures vary between 26°C and 28°C in southern localities, and can exceptionally reach 35°C to 40°C in northern localities (Adomou 2005 ; Akoegninou et al. 2006 ). The vegetation in the south is characterized by evergreen and semi-deciduous forests, degraded due to urban expansion, commonly referred to as Guinean-Congolese, while the north is characterized by savannahs, woodlands, and shrub savannahs, recognized under the category of Sudanian vegetation (Akoègninou et al. 2006) For ecological and agricultural purposes, Benin is divided into eight agro-ecological zones. However, this study was carried out specifically across six representative agro-ecological zones—namely, the Depression Zone, South Borgou Crop Zone, West Atacora Zone, Central Cotton Zone, Fisheries Zone, and Bar Land Zone. Among these, the West Atacora Zone and the South Borgou Crop Zone were the two zones covered in the northern region, while the other five zones are located in the southern parts of the country (Fig. 1 ). This selection ensured that the study encompassed the main ecological gradients, land-use systems, and socio-economic contexts across Benin. The survey of agroforestry systems was conducted across these socio-econmic zones (Adja, Aïzo, Fon, Holli, Nago, Tori, Goun, Gourmantché, Otamari, Ditamari, Natimba, Mahi, Ouémé) and the social structure (royal families and others) to capture both environmental variability and cultural diversity in resource management. 2.2. Sampling Surveys of the species diversity associated with cocoyam cultivation were carried out in 16 municipalities throughout six agro-ecological zones. These municipalities were selected based on their agricultural status and the agro-ecological zone of interest according to cocoyam production. Specifically, 34 villages (2 or 3 per municipality) were selected randomly based on criteria such as accessibility and the agroforestry practice associated with cocoyam cultivation adopted by farmers, with the assistance of staff members of the Communal Cells of the Territorial Agency for Agricultural Development. This resulted in a total of 56 agroforestry systems. Each agroforestry system was considered as a sampling unit defined as a household-managed field or plot where tree and/or herbaceous plants and crops are integrated. The information collected on the species associated with cocoyam cultivation was as follows: their name (vernacular in local or vulgar languages); and the number of trees and/or herbaceous plants and crops integrated within each farm unit, in accordance to the methods used by Houndjo Kpoviwanou et al. ( 2024 ). The socio-demographic factors of each cocoyam farmer (i.e., gender, age, origin, social background, level of education, number of years of farming activity), the level of domestication and the differences, as well as their knowledge on the use of the species associated with cocoyam cultivation, were obtained by surveying the farmers in their farm unit. Field surveys were conducted and flora inventories gathered in each farm unit and each agro-ecological zone, with the support of the owners using the flora of Benin (Akoègninou et al. 2006), the IUCN online database (IUCN 2018 ), the Red List of threatened plant species in Benin (Neuenschwander et al. 2011), the Biodiversity Atlas for West Africa (Sinsin et al. 2010 ), and the online database of the Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA 2018 ). 2.3. Data collection and analysis 2.3.1. Diversity of plants species associated with cocoyam For each unit within the agroforestry system, the geographical coordinates were recorded, as well as the identity of the owner. The inventory focused on the cultivated crops and the associated trees, including the tree or crop’s identify (species and family), the individual number of trees, and information on the use of the tree. Data analysis involved calculating the relative frequency of each associated tree family within each agro-ecological zone using the following formula: Relative frequency (%) = (Number of occurrences of the family / Total occurrences of all families) × 100. Additionally, species diversity per family, the number of individuals per species, and the agro-ecological zone for each agroforestry system were recorded. All calculations were performed using Microsoft Excel, while R software (version 4.3.0) was employed to generate graphs illustrating the plant diversity associated with cocoyam. 2.3.2. Identification of the use and domestication strategies for the tree species associated with cocoyam Data were collected through individual questionnaire surveys focusing on harvested plant parts—such as bark, wood, leaves, flowers, fruits, and roots—and their respective uses, including food, medicinal, and medico-magical purposes. In addition, the mode of use and domestication level were assessed using the model developed by Vodounhè et al. (2012), which defines six domestication levels from wild (Level 0) to fully cultivated species with pest and disease management (Level 5). 2.3.3. Priority species to be combined with cocoyam The process of prioritization in this study involved ranking plant species associated with cocoyam, wherein the literature was searched to collect data regarding the species origin, its economic value, its ethnobotanical value, its global and national distribution, its conservation status ( in situ and ex situ ), existence of legislation, and threat assessments for prioritization purposes. The criteria used for prioritization of wild plant species were adapted from Brehm et al. ( 2008a , 2010 ). Scientific papers, the flora of Benin (Akoègninou et al. 2006), the IUCN online database (IUCN, 2018 ), the Red List of threatened plant species in Benin (Neuenschwander et al. 2011), the Biodiversity Atlas for West Africa (Sinsin et al. 2010 ), and the online database of the Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA, 2018 ) were used as complementary data. (Brehm et al. 2008a ). To identify priority plant species associated with cocoyam cultivation for conservation, we adopted the approach proposed by Brehm et al. ( 2010 ) and subsequently applied by Idohou et al. (2012) to crop wild relatives in Benin. Eight criteria were considered: (i) native status, (ii) economic value, (iii) ethnobotanical relevance, (iv) global distribution, (v) national distribution, (vi) in situ and ex situ conservation status, (vii) legal framework, and (viii) threat status according to the IUCN Red List. The prioritization process combined four complementary methods: Point Scoring Procedure (PSP); Point Scoring Procedure with Weighting (PSPW); Compound Ranking System (CRS); and Binomial Ranking System (BRS). In PSP, each inventoried species was assigned a score for each criterion (Table 1 ), and the overall score was obtained by summing the individual values. Species with higher overall scores were considered to have greater conservation priority. PSPW followed a similar procedure but incorporated criterion-specific weights (Table 1 ). Table 1 shows the weighting according to PSP, and the weights (%) of each criterion to the PSPW method, refer to the appendix. CRS was based on ranking species according to each criterion, with ranks subsequently combined into a composite score (Table 2 ) (refer to the appendix). BRS relied on a set of binary (yes/no) questions, where positive answers (yes = 1) were systematically given precedence over negative ones (no = 0). Combinations of different criteria achieved different orders of importance (Table 3 ) (refer to appendix). Table 1 Weighting according to PSP (Point Scoring Procedure) and weights (%) of each criterion to the PSPW method (adapted from Brehm et al., 2010 ). Criteria Evaluation of criteria Score attribution PSP (PSPW) Weight of Criteria (%) Origin of the species (a) Aboriginal; (b) introduced; (c) existence of doubt about the origin of the species; (d) no data (a) 4 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 2 ; (d) 1. 15 Economic value (in millions of ton) (a) > 2M; (b) 1.75M < P < 2M; (c) 1.5M < P < 1.75M; (d) 1.25M < P < 1.5M; (e) 1M < P < 1.25M; (f) 0.75M < P < 1M; (g) 0.5M < P < 0.75M; (h) 0.25M < P < 0.5M; (i) P < 0.25M; (j) no data (a) 9; (b) 8; (C) 7; (d) 6; (e) 5; (f) 4; g (3); (h) 2; (i) 1; (j) 0. 10 Ethnobotanical value (a) food (b) medicinal (c) cultural / cultural, (d) ornamental fodder (f) other (g) no data (a) 6 ; (b) 5 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 3 ; (e) 2 ; (f) 1 (g) 0 20 Global distribution (a) East / West / North / South / Central Africa; (b) all Africa (c) World; (d) no data (a) 6 ; (b) 5 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 3 ; (e) 2 ; (f) 1 ; (g) 0 15 National distribution (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 5 (f) 6 (g) 7 (h) 8 (i) 9 (j) 10 (k) no data (a) 10; (b) 9; (c) 8; (d) 7; (e) 6; (f) 5; (g) 4; (h) 3; (i) 2; (j) 1; (k) 0. 75 Conservation status (a) In situ (b) ex-situ (c) other or (d) no data (a) 4 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 2 ; (d) 1. 10 Legislation (a) international (b) national, (c) local or (d) no data (a) 4 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 2 ; (d) 1. 75 Threat Assessment Expected (a) ;NE (b); DD (c), LC (d), NT (e),VU (f),EN (g) CR (h) EW (i) ;, EX(j). (a) 1; (b) 2; (c) 3; (d) 4; (e) 5; (f) 6; (g) 7, (h) 8, (i) 9;(j)10 15 Attribution of Scores CR: critically endangered; EN: in danger; VU: vulnerable; NT: near-threatened; LC: minor concern; DD: Insufficient data; NE: Not rated; EW: extinct in the wild, EX: extinct, Expected. Table 2 Ranking allocation to the sub-criteria for each criterion Criteria Rank of sub-criteria R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 Origin of the species Aboriginal Introduced existence of doubt about the origin of the species; no data - - - - - - Economic value (in millions of ton) > 2M 1,75M < P < 2M 1,5M < P < 1,75M 1,25M < P < 1,5M 1M < P < 1,25M 0,75M < P < 1M 0,5M < P < 0,75M 0,25M < P < 0,5M P < 0,25M No data Ethnobotanical value 6 5 4 3 2 1 No data - - - Global distribution 1 region 2 region 3 region 4 region All Africa World No data - - - National distribution 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Conservation status In situ Ex situ Others No data - - - - - - Legislation International National Local No data - - - - - - Threat Assessment CR EN VU NT LC DD NE - - - CR: critically endangered; EN: in danger; VU: vulnerable; NT: near threatened; LC: minor concern; DD: Insufficient data; NE: Not rated. Ri = rank I the lower the rank of species, the higher the priority of the species. jRi = the number (j) of time where rank i appear for a given species. The lower the rank sum for a species, the higher the priority. It should be noted that Ʃj Table 3 Definition of prioritization criteria according to the BSR (Binomial Ranking System) method Criteria Evaluation of criteria Binomial ranking Origin of the species Existence Yes (1) No (0) Economic value (in millions of ton) Existence Yes (1) No (0) Ethnobotanical value Existence Yes (1) No (0) Global distribution - Yes (1) No (0) National distribution - Yes (1) No (0) Conservation status Existence Yes (1) No (0) Legislation Existence Yes (1) No (0) Threat Assessment Existence Yes (1) No (0) Each method produced a sub-list of eight priority species. The frequency of occurrence of species across the different sub-lists was then recorded to calculate an overall score for each. A super-ranking of the four methods was performed, which allowed us to identify the species with the highest overall scores and designate them as top-priority for conservation. In cases where two or more species had equal scores, cultural significance and socio-economic considerations were used as tie-breakers. 3. Results 3.1. Diversity of agroforestry species A total of 56 farm units in agroforestry systems were surveyed, revealing 48 trees or herbaceous species associated with cocoyam, across 26 families and 41 genera. Species diversity varied across the 6 agro-ecological zones, with the Bar Land Zone exhibiting the highest richness (32 species), followed by the Fisheries Zone (26 species), Central Cotton Zone (8), West Atacora Zone (5), and both the Food Crop and Depression Zones with 4 species each. The Musa genus was the most represented, with 3 different species ( Musa sapietum , Musa acuminata , Musa paradisiaca ), while legumes were the most dominant family, with 7 species. Regarding the family diversity, the Bar Land Zone was the most diversified, with 23 families, followed by the Fisheries Zone, with 18 families, and the Central Cotton Zone, with 6 families (Fig. 2 ). Within the identified families, Leguminoseae exhibited the highest species diversity, with 7 species, followed by Rubiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, and Musaceae (Fig. 3 ). Furthermore, more than 10 other families were represented by only a single species. 3.2. Species diversity according to the two cocoyam cultivars (red and white) found in the different agro-ecological zones The red cultivar of cocoyam was associated with greater species diversity, with species such as Moringa oleifera and Saccharum officinarum more frequently found in its vicinity, while these species were almost completely absent around the white cultivar. Some species, including Vernonia amygdalina and Tectona grandis , were commonly associated with both cultivars (Fig. 4 ). Caption Vernonia amygdalina (VERN), Tectona grandis L.f. (TECT), Spondias mombin (SPON), Musa sapietum (MUSA), Anacardium occidentale (ANAC), Nauclea latifolia (NAUC), Elaeis guineensis (ELAI), Citrus sinensis (L) (CITR), Artocarpus altilis (ARTO), Carica papaya L. (CARI), Newbouldia laevis (NEWB), Parkia bigomosa (PARK), Vitex domiana (VITE), Vitellaria paradoxa (VITE), Azadirachta indica (AZAD), Melia azedarach (MELI), Moringa oleifera (MORI), Musa paradisiaca (MUSP), Psidium guajava (PSID), Cocus nucifera (COCU), Rauvolfia vomitoria (RAUV), Jatropha multifida (JATR), Annona squamosa (ANNO), Morinda citrifolia (MORI), Khaya senegalensis (KHAY), Gmelina arborea (GMEL), Crescentia cujete L. (CRES), Leucena leucocephala (LEUC), Saccharum officinarum L. (SACC), Cassia alata (CASS), Morinda lucida (MORI), Acassia auriculiformus (ACAS), Annona muricata (ANNO), Anthocleista schweinfurthii (ANTH), Persea americana (PERS), Theobroma cacao (THEO), Citrus aurantifolia (CITR). 3.3. Species use recorded in association with cocoyam Different organs were used from the plant species in association with cocoyam cultivars. The utilization of leaves was the most commonly recorded (27%), followed by wood (25%), and fruits (20%) (Fig. 5 . Moreover, species associated with cocoyam were primarily utilized for therapeutic purposes (25%), followed by food (18%), and craft-related uses (10%) (Fig. 6 ). 3.4. Level of domestication of species in association with cocoyam Among the 48 species recorded, 23 were at the highest domestication level (Level 5), followed by 8 species receiving some care (Level 2), 7 under selective cultivation (Level 3), 5 well cultivated and reproduced (Level 4), 4 wild species (Level 0), and 1 merely spared during fieldwork (Level 1). Caption: Merely spared during fieldwork, MSF (Level 1); Wild species, WS (Level 0); Well cultivated and reproduced, WCR (Level 4); Under selective cultivation, USC (Level 3); Species receiving some care, SRC (Level 2); Highly cultivated with selection, HCS (Level 5). 4. Species prioritization in association with cocoyam 4.1. Prioritization using the PSP and PSPW methods PSP identified a list of priority plant species associated with cocoyam for conservation, revealing Vitellaria paradoxa to have the highest score of 93 from the Sapotaceae family, followed by Eleis guineensis with a score of 90 from the Arecaceae family, and Morinda lucida with a score of 70 from the Rubiaceae family. Meanwhile, their scores according to PSPW were 9.6, 7.9, and 7.37, respectively, with the same ranking (Table 4 ) (refer to the appendix). Table 4 PSP and PSPW prioritization method scores. Total score Scientific Name Scientific Name Family PSP PSPW Vitellaria paradoxa Sapotaceae 93 9.6 Elaeis guineensis Arecaceae 90 7.92 Morinda lucida Rubiaceae 74 7.37 Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae 68 6.45 Parkia biglobosa Leguminosea 66 6.25 Cola nitida Sterculiaceae 64 6.17 Rauvolfia vomitoria Apocynaceae 62 5.67 Newbouldia laevis Bignoniaceae 61 5.62 Caesalpinia bonduc Leguminosea 54 5.12 Vernonia amygdalina Asteraceae 52 5.07 Sarcocephalus latifolius Rubiaceae 52 5.05 Albizia zygia Leguminosea 51 4.9 Anogeissus leiocarpa Combretaceae 45 4.32 Spondias mombin Anacardiaceae 43 4.11 Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae 41 4 Vitex doniana Laminiaceae 39 3.85 Annona squamosa Annoceae 33 3.77 Crescentia cujete L Bignoniaceae 28 2.99 Jatropha multifida Euphorbiaceae 26 2.77 4.2. Prioritization according to the CRS method According to the rank scores derived from the CRS prioritization method (Table 5 ), Jatropha multifida was the highest priority, with a rank score of 19, followed by Crescentia cujete and Vitex doniana , with an equal score of 21, and Anogeissus leiocarpa , with a score of 23. Table 5 Rank scores derived from the CRS prioritization method. Scientific Name Rank of Sub criteria Total of Score Jatropha multifida R1-3R2-R3-3R5 19 Crescentia cujete L R1-3R2-2R3-2R6 21 Vitex doniana R1-3R2-R3-2R5 21 Anogeissus leiocarpa 2R1-2R2-R4-2R5 23 Spondias mombin R1-2R2-2R3-R4-R5 26 Annona squamosa 2R1-2R2-R3 -2R5-R7 26 Albizia zygia 2R1-2R2-2R4-2R5 26 Rauvolfia vomitoria 3R1-R2-2R3-R5 27 Vernonia amygdalina 2R1-2R2-R3-2R5 28 Newbouldia laevis 2R1-2R2-R3-2R5 28 Caesalpinia bonduc R1-3R2-R3-R4-3R5 28 Sarcocephalus latifolius 4R1-R2-2R5-R6 30 Morinda lucida 3R1-2R2-2R5-R6 31 Cola nitida 3R1-2R2-R3-R4-2R5-R9 34 Parkia biglobosa 4R1-R2-R4-R7-R8 39 Khaya senegalensis 5R1-2R2-2R3-R4 39 Anacardium occidentale 3R1-5R2-R3-R4 45 Elaeis guineensis 5R1-R2-R4-2R5-R10 45 Vitellaria paradoxa 6R1-2R2-2R3-2R4-R8 65 4.3. Prioritization according to the BRS method According to the binomial prioritization method (Table 6 ), Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae) and Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) ranked highest, with equal scores of 8, followed by Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae) and Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), each scoring 7. Table 6 The scores of the BRS prioritization method. Scientific Name Scientific Family Name Total of Score Vitellaria paradoxa Sapotaceae 8 Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae 8 Spondias mombin Anacardiaceae 7 Rauvolfia vomitoria Apocynaceae 7 Annona squamosa Annonaceae 7 Parkia biglobosa Leguminoseae 7 Elaeis guineensis Arecaceae 7 Cola nitida Sterculiaceae 7 Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae 7 Vernonia amygdalina Asteraceae 6 Newbouldia laevis Bignoniaceae 6 Anogeissus leiocarpa Combretaceae 6 Jatropha multifida Euphorbiaceae 6 Caesalpinia bonduc Leguminoseae 6 Albizia zygia Leguminoseae 6 Vitex doniana Lamiaceae 6 Morinda lucida Rubiaceae 6 Sarcocephalus latifolius Rubiaceae 6 5. Super-prioritization All four methods identified priority species for conservation. The combined results highlight Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae) as the top priority, followed by Morinda lucida (Rubiaceae), Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae), Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae), and Albizia zygia (Leguminosae) as the top five species for domestication and conservation. The list of these species is presented in Table 7 Table 7 Combination of the four prioritization methods (PSP, PSPW, CRS, BRS). Scientific Name Scientific family name PSP PSPW CRS BRS Vitellaria paradoxa Sapotaceae X X X X Morinda lucida Rubiaceae X X X X Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae X X X X Rauvolfia vomitoria Apocynaceae X X X X Albizia zygia Leguminoseae X X X X Parkia biglobosa Leguminoseae X X X X Anogeissus leiocarpa Combretaceae X X X X Sarcocephalus latifolius Rubiaceae X X X X Vitex doniana Lamiaceae X X X X Cola nitida Sterculiaceae X X X X Caesalpinia bonduc Leguminoseae X X X X Newbouldia laevis Bignoniaceae X X X X Notes: PSP, Point Score Procedure; PSPW, Point Score Procedure with Weighting; CRM, Compound Rank Method; BRS, Binomial Rank Method. 6. Discussion 6.1. Diversity, use, and domestication strategies of plant species in association with cocoyam The floristic diversity observed in cocoyam-based cropping systems in Benin, encompassing a total of 48 associated species, confirms the agroecological richness previously reported in traditional or integrated farming systems (Baudron, 2024 ). This diversity reflects the complex interactions among ecological factors, farming practices, and socio-economic dynamics. As highlighted by Esquivel et al. ( 2021 ) and Guinet et al. ( 2023 ), variability in agroecological contexts strongly influences the composition and structure of agroecosystems. Areas characterized by high rainfall and fertile soils tend to support greater species richness, while degraded or low-rainfall zones exhibit more limited floristic assemblages. The dominance of Musa species in taro associations underscores their nutritional, economic, and cultural importance, as confirmed in several African studies (Akouègnon et al. 2014 ; Tchoma et al. 2020 ). Likewise, the strong representation of Fabaceae reflects their ecological plasticity and functional role in soil fertility—traits identified by Houéhanou et al. ( 2016 ) as key determinants of agroforestry sustainability. However, the association of taro with high-value forest trees ( Vitellaria paradoxa , Khaya senegalensis , Parkia biglobosa , etc.) raises concerns about potential conflicts over land use in contexts of increasing pressure on woody resources (Camille 2021). From a socio-economic perspective, agroforestry emerges as a critical lever for rural resilience by enhancing food security, income diversification, and economic stability (Schroth et al. 2011 ; Sagastuy & Kause 2019 ; Ruf 2018 ). Such systems facilitate adaptation to land degradation and climatic variability while promoting carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. The effectiveness of these practices, however, depends on contextual factors such as land availability, planting density, and canopy size, which influence competition and the productivity of associated crops (Yousefi et al. 2024 ). The analysis of plant uses highlights the multifunctionality of associated species : leaves, wood, and fruits are the most exploited organs, primarily for medicinal, nutritional, and artisanal purposes (Agbodjento et al. 2023 ; van Noordwijk et al. 2022 ). These findings support those of Winara et al. ( 2022 ), who emphasized that plant diversity simultaneously contributes to household nutrition, health, and livelihoods. The predominance of medicinal uses, as previously noted by Talukdar et al. ( 2020 ) and Adjatin et al. (2012), underlines the central role of traditional knowledge in the local management and domestication of plant resources. Analysis of domestication levels reveals a gradient of human intervention ranging from wild to fully cultivated species (Vodounhê et al. 2012 ). This diversity of statuses illustrates a progressive and adaptive domestication process shaped by local needs, resource availability, and the socio-cultural value of species (Gbedomon et al. 2017 ; Brown, 2018 ; Locqueville et al. 2023 ). The coexistence of wild and domesticated forms within the same agroecosystem confirms the pivotal role of smallholder practices in in situ biodiversity conservation (Adjatin et al. 2012 ; Salako et al. 2018 ). However, the overexploitation of woody species and the growing pressure on plant resources may threaten ecological sustainability. As emphasized by Donovan ( 2017 ) and Turner-Skoff & Cavender ( 2019 ), the multiple benefits derived from trees may paradoxically encourage overuse, leading in some cases to the depletion or local disappearance of certain species (Nuenschwander et al. 2010). These results call for the implementation of sustainable management strategies and community-based conservation mechanisms integrating the ecological, economic, and cultural dimensions of domestication. In summary, the diversity and structure of plant associations in taro-based systems reflect a dynamic balance between production, conservation, and the sustainable use of plant resources. Recognizing farmers’ knowledge and supporting local domestication initiatives appear to be key levers for strengthening agroecological resilience and food security in tropical contexts. 6.2. Prioritization of species in association with cocoyam In recent years, increasing attention has been devoted to the conservation and prioritization of wild plant species in Benin. Previous studies have focused on non-timber forest products (Vodouhê et al. 2009 ), wild edible plants (N’Danikou et al. 2011 ), crop wild relatives (Idohou et al. 2013 ), neglected and underutilized species (Dansi et al. 2012 ), and woody species. However, none have specifically addressed plant species associated with cocoyam ( Colocasia esculenta ) cultivation. Conservation measures targeting these associated species are essential to ensure their long-term availability in cocoyam-producing agroecological zones. Given the increasing threats posed by human activities, land-use change, and environmental degradation, enhancing the sustainability and effectiveness of conservation actions is urgent, as species currently considered of low concern may become highly threatened in the near future (Agbani et al. 2018). In this study, we applied the prioritization framework developed by Brehm et al. ( 2010 ) and successfully implemented by Idohou et al. (2012) to identify cocoyam-associated species requiring conservation attention across different agroecological zones. Twelve priority species were identified and ranked by importance : Vitellaria paradoxa , Morinda lucida , Khaya senegalensis , Parkia biglobosa , Albizia zygia , Rauvolfia vomitoria , Anogeissus leiocarpa , Sarcocephalus latifolius , Vitex doniana , Cola nitida , Caesalpinia bonduc , and Newbouldia laevis . These species were subsequently assessed for domestication and conservation potential. According to Abessika et al. (2024), V. paradoxa and K. senegalensis face high and continuous exploitation pressures due to the demand for shea butter and khaya wood, limiting their natural regeneration. Both species are widely recognized as conservation priorities in West Africa (Vodouhê et al. 2011 ; Sop et al. 2013 ; Assogbadjo et al. 2012 ; Lokonon et al. 2019 ; Hounsou-Dindin et al. 2022 ) and are listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List for Benin (Adomou et al. 2011). P. biglobosa is similarly threatened by habitat loss and poor regeneration resulting from agricultural expansion and deforestation (Boffa, 1999 ), despite its recognized importance in traditional agroforestry systems (Sopkon, 1999 ; Yabi et al. 2013 ). Medicinal species such as M. lucida and R. vomitoria are subject to intense harvesting, which hampers their development and regeneration (Laila, 2019). Likewise, A. leiocarpa and A. zygia are considered vulnerable due to overexploitation, habitat degradation, and the high value of their timber, with unsustainable harvesting exceeding reforestation efforts (Ouédraogo et al. 2017 ; Kouassi et al. 2018). C. nitida and N. laevis are overharvested for their medicinal and ritual significance, while V. doniana suffers from excessive harvesting of its leaves, fruits, and wood, limiting regeneration (N’Danikou et al. 2015 ). Although C. bonduc and S. latifolius currently show greater adaptability to tropical environments, continued exploitation could eventually endanger these species. These findings highlight the need for strategies that promote both the development and protection of these valuable indigenous resources to prevent further biodiversity loss. Species prioritization revealed a tendency among farmers to favor multipurpose species, particularly those associated with cocoyam cultivation, as they meet multiple subsistence needs. Farmers generally value species offering several uses because they maximize returns on labor invested in resource collection. As the abundance of high-value plants increases, less-valued species tend to be neglected (Gaoue et al. 2017). Similar patterns have been reported in Mali (Faye et al. 2010 ), Togo (Padakale et al. 2015 ), and Tanzania (Wagner et al. 2019 ), where preferred agroforestry species provide multiple products and services, contributing significantly to household income. Farmers’ preferences, however, often vary with social class and farming experience (Moore et al. 2014). There is no single standardized method for developing conservation priority lists, as each approach depends on its specific objectives. The framework used in this study is methodologically flexible and integrates multiple ecological and socio-economic criteria. Unlike approaches applied by Teso et al. (2012), Crespo ( 2016 ), and Khoury et al. (2013) in Spain, Venezuela, and the United States, respectively, it requires substantial data and time due to its complexity and the variety of indicators considered. Moreover, data scarcity for many wild and underutilized species remains a limiting factor. The results derived from this method may not fully reflect local perceptions of conservation priorities, as scientific assessments often differ from community-based evaluations. Such discrepancies can undermine the acceptance and effectiveness of conservation measures (N’Danikou et al. 2011 ). To address this gap, it is essential to integrate local knowledge systematically into the prioritization process through participatory approaches that combine scientific and community perspectives. This inclusive strategy can produce co-constructed priority lists, strengthen local ownership of conservation initiatives, and enhance the long-term sustainability of implemented actions. 7. Conclusion This study assessed the diversity of agroforestry systems based on cocoyam, identifying 48 associated with cocoyam across 26 families and 41 genera throughout 6 agro-ecological zones. The species Colocasea esculenta was associated with greater species diversity, which was in contrast to Xanthosoma sagittifolium with lower diversity. These plant species associated with cocoyam cultivation provide various parts for use (leaves, root, bark, fruit, etc.) and many reasons for use. The most commonly used part by farmers in the study area is leaves, followed by wood and fruit. The highest level of domestication was level 5 of the species highly cultivated with some selection by farmers. Twelve priority species were identified for conservation, including Vitellaria paradoxa , Morinda lucida , khaya senegalensis , Rauvolfa vomitoria , Albizia zygia , Parkia biglobosa , Anogeissus leiocarpa , Sarcocephalus latifolius , Vitex doniana , Cola nitida , Caesalpinia bonduc , and Newbouldia laevis , for sustainable management through targeted conservation efforts. Farmers should maintain agroforestry practices to enhance the diversity of resources obtained from agro-ecosystems and to contribute to the conservation of endangered species in natural habitats with cocoyam and contributing to their sustainable use. This study revealed that most Territorial Agencies for Agricultural Development lack data on cocoyam cultivation and producers. We recommend that Communal Cell Chiefs integrate cocoyam into their local development plans to improve data availability and support. Given its importance, large-scale cocoyam production should be encouraged. Further research is needed to assess the impact of associated species on cocoyam and to compare their behavior in different ecosystems. Lastly, the cooking difficulty of the white cultivar, especially in northern regions, warrants laboratory analysis and regional trials to better understand and address the issue. Declarations Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Author Contribution Aboudou Hack Arouna: Conceptualization, Methodology, formal analysis validation, writing –original draft, writing-review & editing, visualization; Aboudou Hack Arouna, Delphin Demahou Sobakin, Padonou Elie Antoine and Mouritala Sikirou: Formal analysis, data curationPadonou Elie Antoine and Bruno Agossou Djossa: Validation and Review of the manuscript, Bokon Alexis Akakpo and Ghislain Comlan Akabassi: Review of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgments The authors express their profound gratitude to Nestlé Foundation which funded this research work through Valorization of genetic resources of cocoyam in Benin Project TRX-No. ZD81 311 TI 7913112 of November 7th 2023. We also thank all the farmers/producers and village chief we met and who provided information during the survey. 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(2009) Estimating the local value of non-timber forest products to pendjari biosphere reserve dwellers in Benin. Econ Bot.; 63:397–412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-009-9102-7 Vodouhê FG, Adégbidi A, Coulibaly O, & Sinsin B (2011) Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex Benth. harvesting as a tool for conservation and source of income for local people in Pendjari Biosphere Reserve. Acta botanica gallica, 158(4), 595–608. https://doi.org/10.1080/12538078.2011.10516297 Vodounhê FG, Dansi A, Avohou HT, Kpèki B, & Azihou F (2012) Plant domestication and its contributions to in situ conservation of genetic resources in Benin. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 58(6), 865–877. Wagner S, Rigal C, Liebig T, Mremi R, Hemp A, Jones M, Price E, Preziosi R (2019) Ecosystem services and importance of common tree species in coffee-agroforestry systems: local knowledge of small-scale farmers at Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Forests 10(11): Article 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/f1011 0963 Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, et al (2019) Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT0lancet commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems (L'alimentation dans l’anthropocène: la commission EAT0lancet sur les régimes alimentaires sains issus de systèmes alimentaires durables). Lancet 393, 4470492. Doi : 10.1016/S014006736(18)3178804 Winara A, Fauziyah E, Suhartono, Widiyanto A, Sanudin, Sudomo A, Siarudin, M., Hani, A, Indrajaya Y, Achmad, B, Diniyati, D, Handayani, W, Suhaendah, E, Maharani, D, Swestiani D, Murniati, Widyaningsih TS, Sulistiadi HBS, Azmi C, Diana M (2022) Assessing the Productivity and Socioeconomic Feasibility of Cocoyam and Teak Agroforestry for Food Security. Sustainability , 14 (19), 11981. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141911981 World Bank (2023, March 24). Benin: Promoting the restoration of forests to foster sustainable fuelwood production and strengthen climate resilience. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2023/03/24/benin-promoting-the-restoration-of-forests-to-foster-sustainable-fuelwood-production-and-strengthen-climate-resilience Yabi I, Yabi BF & Dadegnon S, (2013) Diversité des espèces végétales au sein des agro-forêts à base d’anacardier dans la commune de Savalou au Benin. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 7(2): p 696–706. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs. v7i2.24 Yao Kouakou Abessika Georges, Gbotto Ahou Anique, Gnamien Yah Gwladys, Kouame Brou Grâce Emmanuella, Akaffou Doffou Sélastique, et al (2024) Enhancing Timber and Medicinal Plant Resources: Propagation Techniques for Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. in Tropical Regions. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 46 (7), pp.292–298. ⟨hal-05141640⟩ Yousefi M, Marja R, Barmettler E et al (2024) The effectiveness of intercropping and agri-environmental schemes on ecosystem service of biological pest control: a meta-analysis. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 44, 15 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-024-00947-7 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 24 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 16 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 08 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 26 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 19 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 04 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 04 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 30 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7989752","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":551401341,"identity":"92982c71-5334-4aa8-aaaa-97b4dbd1a13b","order_by":0,"name":"Aboudou Hack 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18:11:41","extension":"xml","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":212827,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"dc7aa2f32f0442f988413d97f2ada28d1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/e05bb18f6dba363602b181d3.xml"},{"id":96942331,"identity":"11c5a69d-802c-4859-b8af-6388cd58cae7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 18:11:41","extension":"html","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":229896,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/e002b4cc3dc44fb18feea6d3.html"},{"id":96942318,"identity":"8b8a2984-4073-456e-9faf-e8b5f5914397","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 18:11:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":238243,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographical locations of the villages surveyed in the different agro-ecological study zones.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/6d057f5c4c4586bc6a157428.jpg"},{"id":96942319,"identity":"453c35ed-a261-4a40-b748-200ae143cc6c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 18:11:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":110672,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiversity of families according to the six agro-ecological zones.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/bb9da8815574850f2689b4f5.jpg"},{"id":96942322,"identity":"90788b6c-b44c-4765-9726-8249730c33b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 18:11:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":211253,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpecies diversity by family.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/53add4956a5d9b36c0896a6a.jpg"},{"id":97137164,"identity":"b5b89499-b6fb-4e6a-9fe6-3013205a163a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 09:57:24","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":272062,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpecies in the presence of red and white cocoyam cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/b1d4b74b2ba695413690053f.jpg"},{"id":96942320,"identity":"61f69e73-c0b1-40f4-b331-5bc44299602b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 18:11:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":110897,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParts of the species used in association with cocoyam.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/1a2ff601f21bcb124bfe3f4a.jpg"},{"id":97136023,"identity":"9d760139-43ed-4836-93de-e440e139b1d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 09:55:03","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":127658,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eReasons for using species in association with cocoyam.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/3baee254717372d9331f63c1.jpg"},{"id":97135848,"identity":"14e34a59-f21f-44bd-94a5-d6757397c54c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 09:54:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":242645,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLevel of domestication of species.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/fd1189a75a5452f2789e0e68.jpg"},{"id":97144703,"identity":"a92d115a-3e0e-4c6f-8f33-cabc3341c5e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 10:11:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2718408,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7989752/v1/807262c2-5034-4bd7-82ef-85007dbb6db8.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Diversity of cocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin, West Africa","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgroforestry systems are widely recognized as sustainable land-use strategies that integrate trees or shrubs with crops or livestock, fostering ecological and socio-economic interactions among components (FAO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These systems play a crucial role in national economies by supporting smallholder livelihoods, enhancing socio-economic resilience, and delivering important environmental benefits (Leakey and Prabh 2017; Castle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Through crop diversification, agroforestry increases productivity, ensures year-round harvests, reduces food and income insecurity, and provides additional revenue streams for farming households (Mariel et al. 2021; Hajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical studies further show that farmers adopting cash-crop agroforestry are better able to meet household needs, including education and living standards (Llopis et al. 2020; Iiyama et al. 2014), while also producing valuable resources such as fruits, fodder, and medicinal products (Thevs et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond economic value, agroforestry delivers sociocultural benefits, including improved landscape aesthetics and the demarcation of farmland (Gassner \u0026amp; Dobie \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Collectively, these attributes position agroforestry as a cornerstone for sustainable development and natural resource preservation (Smith \u0026amp; Mbow 2014; Castle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgroforestry practices are among the oldest farming systems globally, often associated with smallholder farmers operating with limited technology and resources in environments unsuitable for monoculture. Agroforestry can take multiple forms, including agrosilvicultural systems (trees combined with crops), silvopastoral systems (trees with livestock), and agrosilvopastoral systems (integration of trees, crops, and livestock). These systems are particularly relevant in regions facing population growth and rising food demand. The global population is projected to reach 9.1\u0026nbsp;billion by 2050 (UN, 2013), with Africa experiencing the fastest demographic increase (Mounthford \u0026amp; Rapport 2016). This demographic pressure necessitates intensified agronomic research on neglected and underutilized species, such as cocoyam (\u003cem\u003eXanthosoma sagittifolium\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003ewhite cutivar\u003c/em\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eColocasia esculenta\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eRed cultivar\u003c/em\u003e)), which offer potential as alternative food sources and climate-resilient crops.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCocoyam-based agroforestry involves integrating cocoyam cultivation with trees and other crops, thereby enhancing biodiversity, improving soil fertility, and diversifying household income. Despite its potential, cocoyam remains largely neglected in research and development programs, and guidance on profitable production systems in tropical contexts is limited. Yet, orphan crops such as cocoyam are increasingly recognized for their importance in addressing local food and livelihood challenges (Borelli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). They contribute to sustainable food systems by promoting dietary diversity, strengthening the resilience of underutilized cropping systems, and expanding cultivation into new agro-ecological zones (Mabhaudhi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Jamnadass et al. 2020; Ulian et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In Africa, cocoyam plays an important role in household food security, particularly in traditional home gardens where root crops serve as staple carbohydrate sources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven these considerations, studying cocoyam-based agroforestry is essential for both conservation and sustainable use. Such systems not only support the preservation of a multi-use, threatened species, but also provide insights into the diversity of associated non-timber forest products that enhance rural livelihoods. The present study aims to fill this gap by documenting cocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin. Specifically, it seeks to: (i) assess the diversity of species associated with cocoyam cultivation; (ii) identify domestication strategies applied to these associated species; and (iii) determine priority species for domestication and conservation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Study area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in the Republic of Benin, located between the latitudes of 6\u0026deg;10 N and 12\u0026deg;25 N and the longitudes of 0\u0026deg;45 E 3\u0026deg;55 E. Benin is characterized by three major climatic zones. The southern region is relatively humid (varying between 75% and 95%), with two rainy seasons and an annual rainfall amount ranging from 1.100 to 1.400 mm. In southern Benin, the climatic zone is classified as sub-equatorial, characterized by relatively high and stable humidity throughout the year. In contrast, the northern region experiences a single rainy season and a markedly drier climate, with relative humidity dropping to between 20% and 30% during the dry season and rising to moderate levels, ranging from 50% to 70%, during the rainy season (Vodounh\u0026egrave; et al. 2012). The annual rainfall varies between 800 and 950 mm, with a tropical dry climate. Average annual temperatures vary between 26\u0026deg;C and 28\u0026deg;C in southern localities, and can exceptionally reach 35\u0026deg;C to 40\u0026deg;C in northern localities (Adomou \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Akoegninou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The vegetation in the south is characterized by evergreen and semi-deciduous forests, degraded due to urban expansion, commonly referred to as Guinean-Congolese, while the north is characterized by savannahs, woodlands, and shrub savannahs, recognized under the category of Sudanian vegetation (Ako\u0026egrave;gninou et al. 2006) For ecological and agricultural purposes, Benin is divided into eight agro-ecological zones. However, this study was carried out specifically across six representative agro-ecological zones\u0026mdash;namely, the Depression Zone, South Borgou Crop Zone, West Atacora Zone, Central Cotton Zone, Fisheries Zone, and Bar Land Zone. Among these, the West Atacora Zone and the South Borgou Crop Zone were the two zones covered in the northern region, while the other five zones are located in the southern parts of the country (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This selection ensured that the study encompassed the main ecological gradients, land-use systems, and socio-economic contexts across Benin. The survey of agroforestry systems was conducted across these socio-econmic zones (Adja, A\u0026iuml;zo, Fon, Holli, Nago, Tori, Goun, Gourmantch\u0026eacute;, Otamari, Ditamari, Natimba, Mahi, Ou\u0026eacute;m\u0026eacute;) and the social structure (royal families and others) to capture both environmental variability and cultural diversity in resource management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Sampling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurveys of the species diversity associated with cocoyam cultivation were carried out in 16 municipalities throughout six agro-ecological zones. These municipalities were selected based on their agricultural status and the agro-ecological zone of interest according to cocoyam production. Specifically, 34 villages (2 or 3 per municipality) were selected randomly based on criteria such as accessibility and the agroforestry practice associated with cocoyam cultivation adopted by farmers, with the assistance of staff members of the Communal Cells of the Territorial Agency for Agricultural Development. This resulted in a total of 56 agroforestry systems. Each agroforestry system was considered as a sampling unit defined as a household-managed field or plot where tree and/or herbaceous plants and crops are integrated. The information collected on the species associated with cocoyam cultivation was as follows: their name (vernacular in local or vulgar languages); and the number of trees and/or herbaceous plants and crops integrated within each farm unit, in accordance to the methods used by Houndjo Kpoviwanou et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The socio-demographic factors of each cocoyam farmer (i.e., gender, age, origin, social background, level of education, number of years of farming activity), the level of domestication and the differences, as well as their knowledge on the use of the species associated with cocoyam cultivation, were obtained by surveying the farmers in their farm unit. Field surveys were conducted and flora inventories gathered in each farm unit and each agro-ecological zone, with the support of the owners using the flora of Benin (Ako\u0026egrave;gninou et al. 2006), the IUCN online database (IUCN \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), the Red List of threatened plant species in Benin (Neuenschwander et al. 2011), the Biodiversity Atlas for West Africa (Sinsin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), and the online database of the Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Data collection and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Diversity of plants species associated with cocoyam\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor each unit within the agroforestry system, the geographical coordinates were recorded, as well as the identity of the owner. The inventory focused on the cultivated crops and the associated trees, including the tree or crop\u0026rsquo;s identify (species and family), the individual number of trees, and information on the use of the tree.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData analysis involved calculating the relative frequency of each associated tree family within each agro-ecological zone using the following formula: Relative frequency (%) = (Number of occurrences of the family / Total occurrences of all families) \u0026times; 100. Additionally, species diversity per family, the number of individuals per species, and the agro-ecological zone for each agroforestry system were recorded. All calculations were performed using Microsoft Excel, while R software (version 4.3.0) was employed to generate graphs illustrating the plant diversity associated with cocoyam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Identification of the use and domestication strategies for the tree species associated with cocoyam\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were collected through individual questionnaire surveys focusing on harvested plant parts\u0026mdash;such as bark, wood, leaves, flowers, fruits, and roots\u0026mdash;and their respective uses, including food, medicinal, and medico-magical purposes. In addition, the mode of use and domestication level were assessed using the model developed by Vodounh\u0026egrave; et al. (2012), which defines six domestication levels from wild (Level 0) to fully cultivated species with pest and disease management (Level 5).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.3. Priority species to be combined with cocoyam\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe process of prioritization in this study involved ranking plant species associated with cocoyam, wherein the literature was searched to collect data regarding the species origin, its economic value, its ethnobotanical value, its global and national distribution, its conservation status (\u003cem\u003ein situ\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eex situ\u003c/em\u003e), existence of legislation, and threat assessments for prioritization purposes. The criteria used for prioritization of wild plant species were adapted from Brehm et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Scientific papers, the flora of Benin (Ako\u0026egrave;gninou et al. 2006), the IUCN online database (IUCN, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), the Red List of threatened plant species in Benin (Neuenschwander et al. 2011), the Biodiversity Atlas for West Africa (Sinsin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), and the online database of the Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) were used as complementary data. (Brehm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008a\u003c/span\u003e). To identify priority plant species associated with cocoyam cultivation for conservation, we adopted the approach proposed by Brehm et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and subsequently applied by Idohou et al. (2012) to crop wild relatives in Benin. Eight criteria were considered: (i) native status, (ii) economic value, (iii) ethnobotanical relevance, (iv) global distribution, (v) national distribution, (vi) \u003cem\u003ein situ\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eex situ\u003c/em\u003e conservation status, (vii) legal framework, and (viii) threat status according to the IUCN Red List.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe prioritization process combined four complementary methods: Point Scoring Procedure (PSP); Point Scoring Procedure with Weighting (PSPW); Compound Ranking System (CRS); and Binomial Ranking System (BRS). In PSP, each inventoried species was assigned a score for each criterion (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), and the overall score was obtained by summing the individual values. Species with higher overall scores were considered to have greater conservation priority. PSPW followed a similar procedure but incorporated criterion-specific weights (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the weighting according to PSP, and the weights (%) of each criterion to the PSPW method, refer to the appendix. CRS was based on ranking species according to each criterion, with ranks subsequently combined into a composite score (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (refer to the appendix). BRS relied on a set of binary (yes/no) questions, where positive answers (yes\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1) were systematically given precedence over negative ones (no\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0). Combinations of different criteria achieved different orders of importance (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) (refer to appendix).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeighting according to PSP (Point Scoring Procedure) and weights (%) of each criterion to the PSPW method\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(adapted from Brehm et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCriteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvaluation of criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScore attribution PSP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(PSPW) Weight of Criteria (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrigin of the species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) Aboriginal; (b) introduced; (c) existence of doubt about the origin of the species; (d) no data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 4 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 2 ; (d) 1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic value (in millions of ton)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2M; (b) 1.75M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2M; (c) 1.5M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.75M; (d) 1.25M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.5M; (e) 1M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.25M; (f) 0.75M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1M; (g) 0.5M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.75M; (h) 0.25M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.5M; (i) P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.25M; (j) no data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 9; (b) 8; (C) 7; (d) 6; (e) 5; (f) 4; g (3); (h) 2; (i) 1; (j) 0.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthnobotanical value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) food (b) medicinal (c) cultural / cultural, (d) ornamental fodder (f) other (g) no data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 6 ; (b) 5 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 3 ; (e) 2 ; (f) 1 (g) 0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal distribution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) East / West / North / South / Central Africa; (b) all Africa (c) World; (d) no data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 6 ; (b) 5 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 3 ; (e) 2 ; (f) 1 ; (g) 0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational distribution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 5 (f) 6 (g) 7 (h) 8 (i) 9 (j) 10 (k) no data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 10; (b) 9; (c) 8; (d) 7; (e) 6; (f) 5; (g) 4; (h) 3; (i) 2; (j) 1; (k) 0.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConservation status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) In situ (b) ex-situ (c) other or (d) no data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 4 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 2 ; (d) 1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLegislation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) international (b) national, (c) local or (d) no data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 4 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 2 ; (d) 1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThreat Assessment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpected (a)\u0026nbsp;;NE (b); DD (c), LC (d),\u0026nbsp;NT (e),VU (f),EN (g) CR (h) EW (i)\u0026nbsp;;, EX(j).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a) 1; (b) 2; (c) 3; (d) 4; (e) 5; (f) 6; (g) 7, (h) 8, (i) 9;(j)10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eAttribution of Scores CR: critically endangered; EN: in danger; VU: vulnerable; NT: near-threatened; LC: minor concern; DD: Insufficient data; NE: Not rated; EW: extinct in the wild, EX: extinct, Expected.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRanking allocation to the sub-criteria for each criterion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCriteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRank of sub-criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrigin of the species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAboriginal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntroduced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eexistence of doubt about the origin of the species;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eno data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic value (in millions of ton)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,75M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,5M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1,75M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,25M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1,5M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1,25M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,75M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,5M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,75M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,25M\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,5M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,25M\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthnobotanical value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal distribution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 region\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 region\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 region\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 region\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfrica\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorld\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational distribution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConservation status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn situ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEx situ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLegislation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInternational\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThreat Assessment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003eCR: critically endangered; EN: in danger; VU: vulnerable; NT: near threatened; LC: minor concern; DD: Insufficient data; NE: Not rated. Ri\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;rank I the lower the rank of species, the higher the priority of the species. jRi\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;the number (j) of time where rank i appear for a given species. The lower the rank sum for a species, the higher the priority. It should be noted that Ʃj\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDefinition of prioritization criteria according to the BSR (Binomial Ranking System) method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCriteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvaluation of criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBinomial ranking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrigin of the species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExistence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (1) No (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic value (in millions of ton)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExistence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (1) No (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthnobotanical value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExistence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (1) No (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal distribution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (1) No (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational distribution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (1) No (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConservation status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExistence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (1) No (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLegislation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExistence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (1) No (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThreat Assessment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExistence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (1) No (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEach method produced a sub-list of eight priority species. The frequency of occurrence of species across the different sub-lists was then recorded to calculate an overall score for each. A super-ranking of the four methods was performed, which allowed us to identify the species with the highest overall scores and designate them as top-priority for conservation. In cases where two or more species had equal scores, cultural significance and socio-economic considerations were used as tie-breakers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Diversity of agroforestry species\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 56 farm units in agroforestry systems were surveyed, revealing 48 trees or herbaceous species associated with cocoyam, across 26 families and 41 genera. Species diversity varied across the 6 agro-ecological zones, with the Bar Land Zone exhibiting the highest richness (32 species), followed by the Fisheries Zone (26 species), Central Cotton Zone (8), West Atacora Zone (5), and both the Food Crop and Depression Zones with 4 species each. The \u003cem\u003eMusa\u003c/em\u003e genus was the most represented, with 3 different species (\u003cem\u003eMusa sapietum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMusa acuminata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMusa paradisiaca\u003c/em\u003e), while legumes were the most dominant family, with 7 species.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding the family diversity, the Bar Land Zone was the most diversified, with 23 families, followed by the Fisheries Zone, with 18 families, and the Central Cotton Zone, with 6 families (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Within the identified families, Leguminoseae exhibited the highest species diversity, with 7 species, followed by Rubiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, and Musaceae (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, more than 10 other families were represented by only a single species.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2. Species diversity according to the two cocoyam cultivars (red and white) found in the different agro-ecological zones\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe red cultivar of cocoyam was associated with greater species diversity, with species such as \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSaccharum officinarum\u003c/em\u003e more frequently found in its vicinity, while these species were almost completely absent around the white cultivar. Some species, including \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTectona grandis\u003c/em\u003e, were commonly associated with both cultivars (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCaption\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e (VERN), \u003cem\u003eTectona grandis\u003c/em\u003e L.f. (TECT), \u003cem\u003eSpondias mombin\u003c/em\u003e (SPON), \u003cem\u003eMusa sapietum\u003c/em\u003e (MUSA), \u003cem\u003eAnacardium occidentale\u003c/em\u003e (ANAC), \u003cem\u003eNauclea latifolia\u003c/em\u003e (NAUC), \u003cem\u003eElaeis guineensis\u003c/em\u003e (ELAI), \u003cem\u003eCitrus sinensis\u003c/em\u003e (L) (CITR), \u003cem\u003eArtocarpus altilis\u003c/em\u003e (ARTO), \u003cem\u003eCarica papaya\u003c/em\u003e L. (CARI), \u003cem\u003eNewbouldia laevis\u003c/em\u003e (NEWB), \u003cem\u003eParkia bigomosa\u003c/em\u003e (PARK), \u003cem\u003eVitex domiana\u003c/em\u003e (VITE), \u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e (VITE), \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e (AZAD), \u003cem\u003eMelia azedarach\u003c/em\u003e (MELI), \u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e (MORI), \u003cem\u003eMusa paradisiaca\u003c/em\u003e (MUSP), \u003cem\u003ePsidium guajava\u003c/em\u003e (PSID), \u003cem\u003eCocus nucifera\u003c/em\u003e (COCU), \u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e (RAUV), \u003cem\u003eJatropha multifida\u003c/em\u003e (JATR), \u003cem\u003eAnnona squamosa\u003c/em\u003e (ANNO), \u003cem\u003eMorinda citrifolia\u003c/em\u003e (MORI), \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e (KHAY), \u003cem\u003eGmelina arborea\u003c/em\u003e (GMEL), \u003cem\u003eCrescentia cujete\u003c/em\u003e L. (CRES), \u003cem\u003eLeucena leucocephala\u003c/em\u003e (LEUC), \u003cem\u003eSaccharum officinarum\u003c/em\u003e L. (SACC), \u003cem\u003eCassia alata\u003c/em\u003e (CASS), \u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e (MORI), \u003cem\u003eAcassia auriculiformus\u003c/em\u003e (ACAS), \u003cem\u003eAnnona muricata\u003c/em\u003e (ANNO), \u003cem\u003eAnthocleista schweinfurthii\u003c/em\u003e (ANTH), \u003cem\u003ePersea americana\u003c/em\u003e (PERS), \u003cem\u003eTheobroma cacao\u003c/em\u003e (THEO), \u003cem\u003eCitrus aurantifolia\u003c/em\u003e (CITR).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Species use recorded in association with cocoyam\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferent organs were used from the plant species in association with cocoyam cultivars. The utilization of leaves was the most commonly recorded (27%), followed by wood (25%), and fruits (20%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Moreover, species associated with cocoyam were primarily utilized for therapeutic purposes (25%), followed by food (18%), and craft-related uses (10%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Level of domestication of species in association with cocoyam\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong the 48 species recorded, 23 were at the highest domestication level (Level 5), followed by 8 species receiving some care (Level 2), 7 under selective cultivation (Level 3), 5 well cultivated and reproduced (Level 4), 4 wild species (Level 0), and 1 merely spared during fieldwork (Level 1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaption: Merely spared during fieldwork, MSF (Level 1); Wild species, WS (Level 0); Well cultivated and reproduced, WCR (Level 4); Under selective cultivation, USC (Level 3); Species receiving some care, SRC (Level 2); Highly cultivated with selection, HCS (Level 5).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Species prioritization in association with cocoyam","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1. Prioritization using the PSP and PSPW methods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePSP identified a list of priority plant species associated with cocoyam for conservation, revealing \u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e to have the highest score of 93 from the Sapotaceae family, followed by \u003cem\u003eEleis guineensis\u003c/em\u003e with a score of 90 from the Arecaceae family, and \u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e with a score of 70 from the Rubiaceae family. Meanwhile, their scores according to PSPW were 9.6, 7.9, and 7.37, respectively, with the same ranking (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) (refer to the appendix).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePSP and PSPW prioritization method scores.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScientific Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScientific Name Family\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePSP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePSPW\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSapotaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eElaeis guineensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArecaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnacardium occidentale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnacardiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeguminosea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCola nitida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSterculiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNewbouldia laevis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBignoniaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia bonduc\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeguminosea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSarcocephalus latifolius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia zygia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeguminosea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombretaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpondias mombin\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnacardiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitex doniana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLaminiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnona squamosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnoceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCrescentia cujete L\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBignoniaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJatropha multifida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2. Prioritization according to the CRS method\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the rank scores derived from the CRS prioritization method (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eJatropha multifida\u003c/em\u003e was the highest priority, with a rank score of 19, followed by \u003cem\u003eCrescentia cujete\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eVitex doniana\u003c/em\u003e, with an equal score of 21, and \u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e, with a score of 23.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRank scores derived from the CRS prioritization method.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScientific Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRank of Sub criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal of Score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJatropha multifida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR1-3R2-R3-3R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCrescentia cujete\u003c/em\u003e L\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR1-3R2-2R3-2R6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitex doniana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR1-3R2-R3-2R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2R1-2R2-R4-2R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpondias mombin\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR1-2R2-2R3-R4-R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnona squamosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2R1-2R2-R3 -2R5-R7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia zygia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2R1-2R2-2R4-2R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3R1-R2-2R3-R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2R1-2R2-R3-2R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNewbouldia laevis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2R1-2R2-R3-2R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia bonduc\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR1-3R2-R3-R4-3R5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSarcocephalus latifolius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4R1-R2-2R5-R6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3R1-2R2-2R5-R6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCola nitida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3R1-2R2-R3-R4-2R5-R9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4R1-R2-R4-R7-R8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5R1-2R2-2R3-R4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnacardium occidentale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3R1-5R2-R3-R4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eElaeis guineensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5R1-R2-R4-2R5-R10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6R1-2R2-2R3-2R4-R8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3. Prioritization according to the BRS method\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the binomial prioritization method (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e (Sapotaceae) and \u003cem\u003eAnacardium occidentale\u003c/em\u003e (Anacardiaceae) ranked highest, with equal scores of 8, followed by \u003cem\u003eSpondias mombin\u003c/em\u003e (Anacardiaceae) and \u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e (Apocynaceae), each scoring 7.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe scores of the BRS prioritization method.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScientific Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScientific Family Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal of Score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSapotaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnacardium occidentale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnacardiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpondias mombin\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnacardiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnona squamosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnonaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeguminoseae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eElaeis guineensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArecaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCola nitida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSterculiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNewbouldia laevis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBignoniaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCombretaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJatropha multifida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia bonduc\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeguminoseae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia zygia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeguminoseae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitex doniana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSarcocephalus latifolius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Super-prioritization","content":"\u003cp\u003eAll four methods identified priority species for conservation. The combined results highlight \u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e (Sapotaceae) as the top priority, followed by \u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e (Rubiaceae), \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e (Meliaceae), \u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e (Apocynaceae), and \u003cem\u003eAlbizia zygia\u003c/em\u003e (Leguminosae) as the top five species for domestication and conservation. The list of these species is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombination of the four prioritization methods (PSP, PSPW, CRS, BRS).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScientific Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScientific family name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePSP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePSPW\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCRS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBRS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSapotaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia zygia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeguminoseae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeguminoseae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCombretaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSarcocephalus latifolius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitex doniana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCola nitida\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSterculiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia bonduc\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeguminoseae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNewbouldia laevis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBignoniaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eNotes: PSP, Point Score Procedure; PSPW, Point Score Procedure with Weighting; CRM, Compound Rank Method; BRS, Binomial Rank Method.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.1. Diversity, use, and domestication strategies of plant species in association with cocoyam\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe floristic diversity observed in cocoyam-based cropping systems in Benin, encompassing a total of 48 associated species, confirms the agroecological richness previously reported in traditional or integrated farming systems (Baudron, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This diversity reflects the complex interactions among ecological factors, farming practices, and socio-economic dynamics. As highlighted by Esquivel et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Guinet et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), variability in agroecological contexts strongly influences the composition and structure of agroecosystems. Areas characterized by high rainfall and fertile soils tend to support greater species richness, while degraded or low-rainfall zones exhibit more limited floristic assemblages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dominance of \u003cem\u003eMusa\u003c/em\u003e species in taro associations underscores their nutritional, economic, and cultural importance, as confirmed in several African studies (Akou\u0026egrave;gnon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e ; Tchoma et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, the strong representation of Fabaceae reflects their ecological plasticity and functional role in soil fertility\u0026mdash;traits identified by Hou\u0026eacute;hanou et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) as key determinants of agroforestry sustainability. However, the association of taro with high-value forest trees (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e, etc.) raises concerns about potential conflicts over land use in contexts of increasing pressure on woody resources (Camille 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom a socio-economic perspective, agroforestry emerges as a critical lever for rural resilience by enhancing food security, income diversification, and economic stability (Schroth et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e ; Sagastuy \u0026amp; Kause 2019 ; Ruf \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Such systems facilitate adaptation to land degradation and climatic variability while promoting carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. The effectiveness of these practices, however, depends on contextual factors such as land availability, planting density, and canopy size, which influence competition and the productivity of associated crops (Yousefi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of plant uses highlights the multifunctionality of associated species : leaves, wood, and fruits are the most exploited organs, primarily for medicinal, nutritional, and artisanal purposes (Agbodjento et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e ; van Noordwijk et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These findings support those of Winara et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who emphasized that plant diversity simultaneously contributes to household nutrition, health, and livelihoods. The predominance of medicinal uses, as previously noted by Talukdar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Adjatin et al. (2012), underlines the central role of traditional knowledge in the local management and domestication of plant resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of domestication levels reveals a gradient of human intervention ranging from wild to fully cultivated species (Vodounh\u0026ecirc; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). This diversity of statuses illustrates a progressive and adaptive domestication process shaped by local needs, resource availability, and the socio-cultural value of species (Gbedomon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e ; Brown, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e ; Locqueville et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The coexistence of wild and domesticated forms within the same agroecosystem confirms the pivotal role of smallholder practices in \u003cem\u003ein situ\u003c/em\u003e biodiversity conservation (Adjatin et al. 2012 ; Salako et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the overexploitation of woody species and the growing pressure on plant resources may threaten ecological sustainability. As emphasized by Donovan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and Turner-Skoff \u0026amp; Cavender (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the multiple benefits derived from trees may paradoxically encourage overuse, leading in some cases to the depletion or local disappearance of certain species (Nuenschwander et al. 2010). These results call for the implementation of sustainable management strategies and community-based conservation mechanisms integrating the ecological, economic, and cultural dimensions of domestication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the diversity and structure of plant associations in taro-based systems reflect a dynamic balance between production, conservation, and the sustainable use of plant resources. Recognizing farmers\u0026rsquo; knowledge and supporting local domestication initiatives appear to be key levers for strengthening agroecological resilience and food security in tropical contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.2. Prioritization of species in association with cocoyam\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, increasing attention has been devoted to the conservation and prioritization of wild plant species in Benin. Previous studies have focused on non-timber forest products (Vodouh\u0026ecirc; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), wild edible plants (N\u0026rsquo;Danikou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), crop wild relatives (Idohou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), neglected and underutilized species (Dansi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), and woody species. However, none have specifically addressed plant species associated with cocoyam (\u003cem\u003eColocasia esculenta\u003c/em\u003e) cultivation. Conservation measures targeting these associated species are essential to ensure their long-term availability in cocoyam-producing agroecological zones. Given the increasing threats posed by human activities, land-use change, and environmental degradation, enhancing the sustainability and effectiveness of conservation actions is urgent, as species currently considered of low concern may become highly threatened in the near future (Agbani et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we applied the prioritization framework developed by Brehm et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and successfully implemented by Idohou et al. (2012) to identify cocoyam-associated species requiring conservation attention across different agroecological zones. Twelve priority species were identified and ranked by importance : \u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAlbizia zygia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSarcocephalus latifolius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eVitex doniana\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCola nitida\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia bonduc\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eNewbouldia laevis\u003c/em\u003e. These species were subsequently assessed for domestication and conservation potential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Abessika et al. (2024), \u003cem\u003eV. paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eK. senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e face high and continuous exploitation pressures due to the demand for shea butter and khaya wood, limiting their natural regeneration. Both species are widely recognized as conservation priorities in West Africa (Vodouh\u0026ecirc; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e ; Sop et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e ; Assogbadjo et al. 2012 ; Lokonon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e ; Hounsou-Dindin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and are listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List for Benin (Adomou et al. 2011). \u003cem\u003eP. biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e is similarly threatened by habitat loss and poor regeneration resulting from agricultural expansion and deforestation (Boffa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), despite its recognized importance in traditional agroforestry systems (Sopkon, 1999 ; Yabi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedicinal species such as \u003cem\u003eM. lucida\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eR. vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e are subject to intense harvesting, which hampers their development and regeneration (Laila, 2019). Likewise, \u003cem\u003eA. leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. zygia\u003c/em\u003e are considered vulnerable due to overexploitation, habitat degradation, and the high value of their timber, with unsustainable harvesting exceeding reforestation efforts (Ou\u0026eacute;draogo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e ; Kouassi et al. 2018). \u003cem\u003eC. nitida\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eN. laevis\u003c/em\u003e are overharvested for their medicinal and ritual significance, while \u003cem\u003eV. doniana\u003c/em\u003e suffers from excessive harvesting of its leaves, fruits, and wood, limiting regeneration (N\u0026rsquo;Danikou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Although \u003cem\u003eC. bonduc\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. latifolius\u003c/em\u003e currently show greater adaptability to tropical environments, continued exploitation could eventually endanger these species.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings highlight the need for strategies that promote both the development and protection of these valuable indigenous resources to prevent further biodiversity loss. Species prioritization revealed a tendency among farmers to favor multipurpose species, particularly those associated with cocoyam cultivation, as they meet multiple subsistence needs. Farmers generally value species offering several uses because they maximize returns on labor invested in resource collection. As the abundance of high-value plants increases, less-valued species tend to be neglected (Gaoue et al. 2017). Similar patterns have been reported in Mali (Faye et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), Togo (Padakale et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), and Tanzania (Wagner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), where preferred agroforestry species provide multiple products and services, contributing significantly to household income. Farmers\u0026rsquo; preferences, however, often vary with social class and farming experience (Moore et al. 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere is no single standardized method for developing conservation priority lists, as each approach depends on its specific objectives. The framework used in this study is methodologically flexible and integrates multiple ecological and socio-economic criteria. Unlike approaches applied by Teso et al. (2012), Crespo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and Khoury et al. (2013) in Spain, Venezuela, and the United States, respectively, it requires substantial data and time due to its complexity and the variety of indicators considered. Moreover, data scarcity for many wild and underutilized species remains a limiting factor.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results derived from this method may not fully reflect local perceptions of conservation priorities, as scientific assessments often differ from community-based evaluations. Such discrepancies can undermine the acceptance and effectiveness of conservation measures (N\u0026rsquo;Danikou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). To address this gap, it is essential to integrate local knowledge systematically into the prioritization process through participatory approaches that combine scientific and community perspectives. This inclusive strategy can produce co-constructed priority lists, strengthen local ownership of conservation initiatives, and enhance the long-term sustainability of implemented actions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study assessed the diversity of agroforestry systems based on cocoyam, identifying 48 associated with cocoyam across 26 families and 41 genera throughout 6 agro-ecological zones. The species \u003cem\u003eColocasea esculenta\u003c/em\u003e was associated with greater species diversity, which was in contrast to \u003cem\u003eXanthosoma sagittifolium\u003c/em\u003e with lower diversity. These plant species associated with cocoyam cultivation provide various parts for use (leaves, root, bark, fruit, etc.) and many reasons for use. The most commonly used part by farmers in the study area is leaves, followed by wood and fruit. The highest level of domestication was level 5 of the species highly cultivated with some selection by farmers. Twelve priority species were identified for conservation, including \u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ekhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRauvolfa vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAlbizia zygia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSarcocephalus latifolius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eVitex doniana\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCola nitida\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia bonduc\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eNewbouldia laevis\u003c/em\u003e, for sustainable management through targeted conservation efforts. Farmers should maintain agroforestry practices to enhance the diversity of resources obtained from agro-ecosystems and to contribute to the conservation of endangered species in natural habitats with cocoyam and contributing to their sustainable use. This study revealed that most Territorial Agencies for Agricultural Development lack data on cocoyam cultivation and producers. We recommend that Communal Cell Chiefs integrate cocoyam into their local development plans to improve data availability and support. Given its importance, large-scale cocoyam production should be encouraged. Further research is needed to assess the impact of associated species on cocoyam and to compare their behavior in different ecosystems. Lastly, the cooking difficulty of the white cultivar, especially in northern regions, warrants laboratory analysis and regional trials to better understand and address the issue.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAboudou Hack Arouna: Conceptualization, Methodology, formal analysis validation, writing \u0026ndash;original draft, writing-review \u0026amp; editing, visualization; Aboudou Hack Arouna, Delphin Demahou Sobakin, Padonou Elie Antoine and Mouritala Sikirou: Formal analysis, data curationPadonou Elie Antoine and Bruno Agossou Djossa: Validation and Review of the manuscript, Bokon Alexis Akakpo and Ghislain Comlan Akabassi: Review of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors express their profound gratitude to Nestl\u0026eacute; Foundation which funded this research work through Valorization of genetic resources of cocoyam in Benin Project TRX-No. ZD81 311 TI 7913112 of November 7th 2023. We also thank all the farmers/producers and village chief we met and who provided information during the survey.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdomou AC (2005) Vegetation patterns and environmental gradients in Benin: implications for biogeography and conservation, th\u0026egrave;se de doctorat, Universit\u0026eacute; de Wageningen, Wageningen, Pays0Bas.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdomou AC Phytog\u0026eacute;ographie du B\u0026eacute;nin. Phytogeography of Benin. In: Neuenschwander P, Sinsin B, Goergen G, editors. 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Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 46 (7), pp.292\u0026ndash;298. ⟨hal-05141640⟩\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYousefi M, Marja R, Barmettler E et al (2024) The effectiveness of intercropping and agri-environmental schemes on ecosystem service of biological pest control: a meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eAgron. Sustain. Dev.\u003c/em\u003e 44, 15 \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-024-00947-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13593-024-00947-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"agroforestry-systems","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"agfo","sideBox":"Learn more about [Agroforestry Systems](http://link.springer.com/journal/10457)","snPcode":"10457","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10457/3","title":"Agroforestry Systems","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Cocoyam, agroforestry, ethnobotanical knowledge, domestication, prioritization, Benin","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7989752/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7989752/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eCocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin remain poorly characterized, despite their ecological and cultural importance to local livelihoods. Limited documentation of associated plant species and traditional management practices constrains efforts toward the sustainable use of this neglected crop. This study explored the species diversity, domestication levels, and ethnobotanical knowledge related to cocoyam-associated plants across six agro-ecological zones and seven departments of Benin.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were collected using semi-structured interviews across the region of the field study. Species diversity associated with cocoyam production was listed in accordance to an inventory based on the flora of Benin through 56 farm units, commonly called agroforestry systems; on the flora of Benin IUCN online database; on the Red List of threatened plant species in Benin; on the Biodiversity Atlas for West Africa; and on the online database of the Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. Meanwhile, the domestication status was assessed using six levels ranging from wild (level 0) to fully cultivated species with pest and disease management (level 5). Species prioritization was determined using eight criteria (native status, economic and ethnobotanical value, global and national distribution, \u003cem\u003ein situ\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eex situ\u003c/em\u003e conservation status, legislation, and threat assessment) combined across four prioritization methods (point scoring, weighted point scoring, compound ranking, and binomial ranking). A super-prioritization of these methods was applied to identify the highest-priority species for conservation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn total, 48 species representing 26 families and 41 genera were documented. The Bar Land Zone showed the highest diversity (85.18% of families), followed by the Fisheries (66.66%) and Food Crops (20%) zones. The Leguminosae family dominated, followed by Rubiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, and Musaceae. Level 5 species were the most represented (23 species). Leaves were the most used plant part (27%), followed by wood (25%) and fruits (20%), primarily for therapeutic (25%), nutritional (18%), and craft (10%) purposes, reflecting the multifunctional value of these plants in rural communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwelve plant species (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMorinda lucida\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAlbizia zygia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSarcocephalus latifolius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eVitex doniana\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCola nitida\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia bonduc\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eNewbouldia laevis\u003c/em\u003e) were prioritized for domestication and conservation for sustainable valorization of agrobiodiversity in Benin.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Diversity of cocoyam-based agroforestry systems in Benin, West Africa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-27 18:11:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7989752/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-24T12:36:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-16T12:51:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-08T17:49:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"123088778441802483882491346391461289104","date":"2026-01-07T15:53:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"337596364636548868728356791873860456174","date":"2026-01-07T14:05:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-26T21:34:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"316064683228795067510929500777187608438","date":"2025-11-26T04:34:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"166737926760563937868980222261243072434","date":"2025-11-19T10:25:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-19T08:17:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-04T12:30:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-04T11:09:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Agroforestry Systems","date":"2025-10-30T13:04:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"agroforestry-systems","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"agfo","sideBox":"Learn more about [Agroforestry Systems](http://link.springer.com/journal/10457)","snPcode":"10457","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10457/3","title":"Agroforestry Systems","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5ce08b11-8df2-4bc4-91c5-170eb1e34ea5","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-10T11:41:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-27 18:11:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7989752","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7989752","identity":"rs-7989752","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}