Strain and Deflection Assessment of SFRC Using Digital Image Correlation

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Adam This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8508374/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The two-dimensional Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique is a recognized and widely utilized method in the field of experimental mechanics. It is a valuable and accurate way to measure the in-plane deformation of an object's surface. This technology is used in many industries, including engineering and medical imaging. It allows for highly accurate remote deformation assessment. The present methodology identifies the correspondence between images in their pre-deformed state (i.e., reference image) and post-deformed state (i.e., degraded image). The measurement of Strain and deflection is a fundamental component of the material testing process. Several contact-based units are available for strain and deflection estimation, including strain gauges, extensometers, LVDTs, dial gauges, seismic waves, and acoustic emission techniques. Nonetheless, these techniques have some problems, such as sensitivity concerns, external noise susceptibility, and breakage. The present study showcases the outcomes of implementing the DIC approach to measure the deflection and Strain of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) specimens under loading conditions. The study employs cost-effective cameras, such as the Nikon D3400 DSLR and mobile phone (iPhone 13 Pro Max) cameras, to implement DIC. The results demonstrate the capability of DIC in measuring the deflection of the sample under loading, with a Root Mean Square (RMS) error value of 0.03 compared to dial gauges, and a maximum discrepancy of 0.266 in deflection at peak load between DIC and Dial Gauge measurements. The DIC approach showed exceptional efficacy in calculating the modulus of elasticity of SFRC gained from cameras, achieving an absolute percentage error between 0% and 8.5%. SFRC Digital Image Correlation (DIC) Strain Deflection Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. Introduction For many years, measurements of strain and deflection have been vital for improving structural engineering theory. As assets constructed during the past century's infrastructure booms continue to degrade with age, the capacity to detect strain precisely and correctly will become more significant for field monitoring. Engineers will need precise strain data collected at various points on the structures to effectively estimate the remaining service life and capacity of these complex structures. Vibrating wire and foil strain gages are the two most common techniques for measuring strain; however, they have numerous serious drawbacks. Accurately determining displacement measurements for structures and materials under various kinds of loading, such as mechanical or thermal loading, is a crucial aspect of materials testing. Traditional strain measurement instruments, such as strain gauges, transducers, and Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), generally furnish average values of strains or displacements at designated positions and gauge lengths, which are insufficient for assessing non-homogeneous material behavior. In the past ten years, various techniques for measuring complete deformation fields have been suggested for characterizing composite materials (Grédiac, 2004 ). Strain gauges and other strain measurement equipment can only give linear point measurements of strain. To measure strain distributions or fields calls for a sizable number of gauges. Although foil gages can be utilized in the laboratory, they are often unsuitable for long-term field monitoring due to concerns with long-term stability. Although vibrating wire strain gages are far more stable, the price of each gage renders them unaffordable for the kind of widespread monitoring needed to verify sophisticated structural analyses. The necessity to bind foil gages to the structure might significantly affect the strain measurements if the structural material's rigidity is not much larger than the strain gage's stiffness (see, for example, (Walters, 2002 ) and (Howard, 2010 )). To measure surface stresses, a method known as DIC offers an alternative to traditional strain gages by overcoming several drawbacks. DIC is an optical method that utilizes images to obtain full-field measurements of shape, displacement, and deformation without physical contact (Pan, 2018 ). DIC analyzes two digital pictures (a reference image and a distorted image) to calculate how much movement has taken place. DIC has demonstrated potential for field monitoring and has been employed as an alternative strain measurement method in controlled laboratory settings. Research is ongoing to address the remaining gaps in our understanding, such as the effects of different lighting and temperature fluctuations and other field-specific difficulties that are outside the scope of this paper. these issues still necessitate further investigation and investigation is ongoing. In the early 1980s, the DIC approach became widely used in academic research, as evidenced by various scholarly sources (MA Sutton, 1983; W. H. Peters, 1982 ). This method has been adapted in diverse ways to suit different research contexts. Over time, the researchers used the DIC method to determine the mechanical characteristics of materials using deformation measurements (F. Hild, 2006 ). For example, Sutton (SUTTON, 1988 ) measured the strain of paper using the DIC method, and Choi and Thorpe (Choi, 1991) and Huang and Liu (Y.H. Huang, 2010) determined the mechanical characteristics of timber and concrete, respectively. (Blikharskyy, Kopiika, Khmil, Selejdak, & Blikharskyy, 2022 ) documented its evolution in concrete research, particularly for crack propagation and stress–strain assessment, while (Mousa, Yussof, Hussein, Assi, & Ghahari, 2023 ) provided a systematic overview of DIC applications in laboratory-based structural engineering tests. In 2010, Tung and Shih (Shih-Heng Tung, 2010 ) conducted a tensile test on a steel specimen, observing that the strain values obtained from the strain gauge and the DIC technique were comparable. According to their report, the modulus of elasticity for a steel specimen, as determined by the DIC technique, was 201 GPa, compared to a benchmark value of 206 GPa. Multiple researchers have elaborated on the concept and examined material mechanical properties through the finite element-based integrated DIC method (Debasis Deb, 2015 ; Julien Réthoré, 2007; M.D.C. Ferreira, 2011 ; S. Sozen, 2011 ; Stéphane Roux, 2012 ; Weizhuo Wang, 2011). According to (Leclerc, 2009), the DIC method was employed to update material characteristics in finite element simulations, thereby minimizing the discrepancy between actual and simulated displacements. The DIC method offers an effective solution for measuring high-temperature deformation due to its inherent non-contact strain measurement capability (Yali Dong, 2015 ). The DIC method was used by (Lyons, 1996) to quantify the full-field surface deformations of an object inside a furnace. Through experimentation, they demonstrated that the DIC method could accurately calculate the displacements and strains of an Inconel 718 bar at temperatures as high as 650°C. However, extra safety measures must be taken because radiation from a heated surface increases the decorrelation problem. Following that, Grant, Stone (B M B Grant, 2009) used a wavelength filtering method in conjunction with blue light to calculate Young's modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion of a nickel-based super-alloy at temperatures up to 1400°C. Furthermore, Pan, Wu (Bing Pan, 2010 ) determined thermal deformation at temperatures varying from room temperature to 550ºC using transient aerodynamic heating modeling devices and the developed reliability-guided DIC method (Pan, 2009 ). This averted the use of a high-temperature furnace, and thus the errors involved with altering the refractive index along the optical route were prevented. Using the DIC method, Hamrat and Boulekbache (M. Hamrat, 2016) have suggested a practical study on the flexural behavior of three different kinds of concrete: regular strength concrete (NSC), high strength concrete (HSC), and high strength fiber concrete (HSFC). They have analyzed the strain components using the DIC methodology as well as the traditional measuring methods (strain gauges, LVDT sensors). The mutual comprehension of the two measurement techniques suggests that DIC is a useful measuring device for determining displacement. In earlier studies, researchers have utilized the DIC method to quantify axial strains in artificially and experimentally produced images with irregular levels of efficacy. According to Smith, Li (Smith, 1998), a standard deviation of 100 µƐ was observed in strain readings. The DIC method has been effectively employed in assessing the deformation behavior of materials. The researchers Mathieu and Hild (Florent Mathieu, 2012) used IC methodology to identify the parameters that govern the propagation of cracks in commercially pure titanium; the researchers were able to accurately determine the location of the crack tip, stress intensity factor, T-stress, and plastic zone size. Additionally, they developed a sophisticated crack propagation law based on the results of a single experiment using the DIC approach. The authors Bhattacharjee and Deb (Sudipta Bhattacharjee, 2016 ) utilized the multi-level extended DIC method, which is founded on the finite element method (FEM), to quantify the deformation of geomaterials subjected to uniaxial loading conditions. The previously mentioned study has led to the creation of an indicator that can be utilized to identify the beginning of micro-crack formation and yield in geomaterials. The fracture test response of notched concrete beams with two kinds of discrete macro synthetic fibers was investigated by (Kamasani Chiranjeevi Reddy, 2017) ; the present work employed the DIC technique to assess the impact of high-modulus polypropylene macro fibers on crack propagation and opening. The study by Gali and Subramaniam (Gali, 2017 ) aimed to evaluate the crack propagation and post-cracking behavior of SFRC beams. The researchers utilized the DIC technique to gain full-field displacements. The present study analyzed the surface displacements and strains during the fracture test of notched beams composed of SFRC with differing volume fractions (Vf) of steel fibers, specifically 0.5% and 0.75%. More recently, DIC has been applied not only to strain and deflection, but also to bond–slip behavior in concrete. For instance, (DANHASH, OUDEH, DIAB, & WARDEH, 2023) used 2D DIC with GOM software to track pull‑out tests on steel‑reinforced recycled aggregate concrete. Their results were in close agreement with conventional LVDT/comparator data, reinforcing DIC’s reliability. They observed that both compressive strength and bond strength decrease with higher recycled aggregate content (up to ~ 13% and ~ 35%, respectively) although the slip behavior did not follow a clear trend. Notably, the measured bond‑slip curves closely matched existing models. In addition to recycled‑concrete bond–slip studies, (Wei et al., 2022 ) applied 3D‑DIC in pull‑out tests of M‑section steel within concrete, enabling segmentation of bond phases and the calibration of a constitutive bond–slip model. (Chen, Zhao, Zeng, Zhang, & Yang, 2023 ) similarly monitored full‑field rebar strain and crack progression in fiber‑reinforced concrete using DIC, from which they derived a bond–slip relationship. (Luo, Pan, Tang, Sun, & Pan, 2022 ) combined 2D‑DIC with acoustic emission techniques to characterize splitting‑tensile failure mechanisms in SFRC, reinforcing DIC’s utility for detecting interface damage and failure paths beyond traditional strain measurement. Building on these earlier studies,(Mehmandari et al., 2024 ) demonstrated the capability of DIC to capture strain localization and crack bridging effects in fiber-reinforced concretes. Similarly, (Zhang et al., 2025 ) applied DIC to high-strength SFRC beams, achieving precise measurement of fracture behavior and crack opening displacements. (Aryanto, Revolis, Oribe, & Yo, 2023 ) further validated the method in flexural testing of RC and FRC beams, showing strong agreement with traditional instruments. In addition (López-Rebollo, Teijón-López-Zuazo, García-Martin, Sánchez-Aparicio, & González-Aguilera, 2025 ) extended DIC applications to sustainable construction, using it to assess recycled concrete beams within a reliability-based design framework. The authors Lai, Shi (Shigang Lai, 2017) have presented a new technique that utilizes DIC to quantify the propagation of cracks in graphite beam specimens characterized as brittle materials. The study used the DIC technique employing a step function to quantify the cross-correlation of displacements. The method of cross-correlation effectively determined the trajectory of a propagating fracture through the utilization of DIC outcomes. The DIC method was utilized to assess the structural integrity of artificial constructions. For instance, the DIC method was employed to measure the dynamic displacement of a bridge, as reported by Lee and Shinozuka (Lee, 2006 ); the study revealed that the method utilized was cost-effective and uncomplicated when compared to the employment of Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) and dial gauges. The DIC methodology has been extensively validated as a reliable method for quantifying high-speed dynamic phenomena, including the detonation of thin metal frames and measuring shape variations (Reu PL, 2008 ). The DIC technique has effectively documented micro-scale components' deformation characteristics in micro-manufacturing industries. Given the current trajectory of technological progress, it is likely that the DIC method will soon achieve a high level of efficacy in measuring nanoscale deformation. This paper focuses on the methodology known as 2-D DIC, which entails utilizing a single camera to measure displacements within a two-dimensional plane (as exemplified in (D. J. White, 2003 ). This methodology presents a notable benefit in that it only necessitates using a singular camera, thereby reducing equipment expenses and enabling the incorporation of supplementary measurement regions without necessitating their overlap. This paper presents the findings of a study conducted on Steel fiber reinforced concrete prisms and cubes subjected to third-point bending and compression tests, during these tests, deflection and strain measurements were taken using DIC approach with a Digital Single-Lens Reflex Camera (DSLR) and a mobile phone camera, and compared to those from conventional methods such as strain gauges and dial gauges. 2. Experimental Procedure The study employed steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) to cast twelve prisms measuring (10*10*40) cm, which were subjected to third point bending testing. Additionally, six cubes measuring (15*15*15) (Fig. 1 ) cm were produced for compression testing, with three distinct steel fiber content percentages of (0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%). The third-point bending test was conducted using the Walter + bai machine / Switzerland, which has a maximum capacity of 100 KN. The compression test was conducted using the Besmak Material Testing Machine /Turkey, which has a maximum capacity of 200 KN. Two distinct camera models, namely the Nikon D3400 DSLR camera and the iPhone 13 Pro Max camera, were employed to DIC method. These cameras were utilized to capture the samples while they were subjected to loading. The specimens were rendered suitable for DIC analysis through the application of white and black paint, which was utilized to generate a speckle pattern (Fig. 2 ). Two distinct photo acquisition modes were employed in the third point bending test to capture the samples during mechanical testing. These modes included video mode at 60 frames per second and 1 image per second capture mode. However, in the compression test, only the video mode was utilized due to the unavailability of bending in the cube samples. As per the recommendation of Hoult, Take (Neil A. Hoult, 2013). the cameras were positioned and adjusted on a tripod at a distance of 0.8m from the samples to minimize the impact of out of plane motion. The images captured during sample loading were analyzed using GOM Correlate 2021 software. In order to quantify strain and deflection in a traditional manner, a strain gauge measuring 60mm in length and dial gauges were implemented on the specimens, as depicted in (Fig. 3 ). 3. Results Deflection and Strain were measured in both methods (DIC and traditional measuring tools) for prism and cube samples during testing. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Scatter Index (SI), and Absolute percentage error (APE) are used for the purpose of accuracy comparison between the Dial Gauge and DIC reading where: $$\:RMSE=\sqrt{{\sum\:}_{}^{}\frac{{(actual\:observation-forcast\:observation)}^{2}}{number\:of\:observations}}$$ $$\:SI=\frac{RMSE}{\:Average\:of\:Actual\:values\:}$$ The model works better when the SI values are smaller. And, APE= \(\:\left|\frac{Actual\:Value-Predicted\:value\:}{Actual\:value}\right|*100\) 3.1 Bending test at the Third-point Four samples were tested for each steel % in the third-point bending test. Two samples were recorded in video mode at 60 frames per second, while the other two were recorded at a rate of one image per second. For compression test each camera recorded three cubes containing different steel fiber percentages. Figure 4 shows the load-deflection curves for six samples recorded with both photo acquisition mode, having three different steel fiber percentages. Table 1 and Table 2 show the RMSE for deflection measured with DIC and dial gauge for the prism samples tested for Third point bending test, Figure 5 shows the bar chart for SI values. Table 1 . RMSE and SI values of deflection for all samples tested using one image/sec mode Content of steel fiber (%) Sample ID one image/sec mode iPhone Camera Nikon Camera R ±RMSE SI R ±RMSE SI 1.5% SFM 1.5-1 0.98 0.094 0.425 0.99 0.057 0.256 SFM 1.5-2 0.99 0.114 0.540 0.99 0.030 0.142 1% SFM 01-1 0.545 0.249 1.100 0.96 0.062 0.274 SFM 01-2 0.94 0.111 0.679 0.98 0.079 0.484 0.5% SFM 0.5-1 0.29 0.227 1.194 0.95 0.067 0.354 SFM 0.5-2 0.55 0.240 0.958 0.92 0.146 0.582 Table 2 . RMSE and SI values of deflection for all samples tested using Mode of 60fps video Content of steel fiber (%) Sample ID Mode of 60fps video iPhone Camera Nikon Camera R ±RMSE SI R ±RMSE SI 1.5% SFM 1.5-3 0.98 0.095 0.290 0.99 0.059 0.182 SFM 1.5-4 0.99 0.124 0.327 0.99 0.032 0.074 1% SFM 01-3 0.97 0.072 0.289 0.98 0.036 0.145 SFM 01-4 0.95 0.185 0.773 0.99 0.053 0.221 0.5% SFM 0.5-3 0.984 0.075 0.380 0.98 0.086 0.432 SFM 0.5-4 0.95 0.068 0.495 0.99 0.057 0.411 Table 3 . Average Variation in deflection measurements in mm of dial gauge DIC at maximum load Mode of image acquisition Content of s teel fiber 0.5% 1% 1.5% One image/second-iPhone Camera 0.073 0.164 0.266 One image/second-Nikon Camera 0.110 0.156 0.094 60fps-iPhone Camera 0.129 0.168 0.097 60fps-Nikon Camera 0.126 0.070 0.052 The disparity in deflection measurements between DIC and dial gauge at maximum load was also Investigated for prism samples subjected to a third-point bending test, Table 3 show the average deflection for two samples of each steel content recorded with different photo acquisition mode and Figure 6 present the results as a bar chart. Strain measurements were conducted on prism samples subjected to a third-point bending test. Table 4 and Table 5 presents the RMSE values for strain measurement over all prism samples. Table 4 . The RMSE and SI values of strain for all samples tested using Photos Steel (%) Sample ID Photo iPhone Nikon RMSE SI RMSE SI 1.50% SFM1.5-1 0.000416361 1.04337681 0.000161844 0.405571923 SFM1.5-2 0.000123603 0.6083034 0.000121616 0.598524631 1% SFM01-1 n/a n/a 2.0678E-05 0.271923806 SFM01-2 n/a n/a 0.000106956 0.609636446 0.50% SFM0.5-1 n/a n/a n/a n/a SFM0.5-2 n/a n/a n/a n/a Table 5 . The RMSE and SI values of strain for all samples tested using Video Steel (%) Sample ID Video iPhone Nikon RMSE SI RMSE SI 1.50% SFM1.5-3 2.97E-05 0.295702108 0.00010517 1.046125 SFM1.5-4 0.000824 2.068114407 0.000135259 0.339686 1% SFM01-3 3.62E-05 0.290367816 3.58226E-05 0.287004 SFM01-4 4.92E-05 0.442650218 4.86887E-05 0.43802 0.50% SFM0.5-3 n/a n/a 1.87106E-05 0.201607 SFM0.5-4 n/a n/a 4.87416E-05 0.580279 3.2 Compression Test Strain measurements were obtained from cube samples subjected to compression testing using DIC and strain gauges. The Modulus of Elasticity was computed using Stress and Strain Data from the Compression Test. The calculated Modulus of Elasticity derived from strain data obtained from the Strain Gauge and DIC, together with the corresponding equivalent strain measured by both methods, is presented in Table 6 and Table 7 for the iPhone and Nikon cameras, respectively. Table 6 . The modulus of elasticity of SFRC Measured with DIC and Strain Gauge Utilizing iPhone Camera The modulus of elasticity of concrete with steel fibers. Rate Max Stress, MPa Ultimate Strain, Stain Gauges Ultimate Strain, iPhone Stress Ratio 40% Equivalent Measured Strain Equivalent Strain, DIC Secant M.E, Measured, (MPa) E-S. G Secant M.E, DIC (MPa) E-DIC Absolute percentage error (APE)% 1.5% 29.00 0.231% 0.316% 11.60 0.048% 0.035% 24229 33591 38.6396467 1% 31.42 0.313% 0.358% 12.57 0.097% 0.077% 13024 16322 25.32248157 0.5% 36.77 0.365% 0.292% 14.71 0.110% 0.056% 13316 26390 98.18263743 Table 7 . The modulus of elasticity of SFRC Measured with DIC and Strain Gauge Utilizing Nikon Camera The modulus of elasticity of concrete with steel fibers. Rate Max Stress, MPa Ultimate Strain, Stain Gauges Ultimate Strain, Nikon Stress Ratio 40% Equivalent Measured Strain Equivalent Strain, DIC Secant M.E, Measured, (MPa) E-SG Secant M.E, DIC (MPa) E-DIC Absolute percentage error (APE)% 1.5% 35.8 0.280% 0.285% 14.32 0.071% 0.066% 20255 21697 7.11922982 1% 32.75 0.246% 0.260% 13.10 0.080% 0.080% 16375 16287 0.53740458 0.5% 38.37 0.365% 0.370% 15.35 0.110% 0.102% 13896 15080 8.520437536 4. Discussion of Results The findings of this study demonstrate the convergence observed between the two methods employed for measuring deformation in concrete. As depicted in Fig. 4, there is a notable convergence between the load deflection curve obtained through DIC and the curves obtained through the use of dial gauges. By contrasting the RMSE and SI values in Table 1 , it is possible to compare the two methods of quantifying deflection. It is demonstrated that the smallest RMSE and SI values are 0.03 and 0.0740, respectively. Which shows that the DIC method exhibits superior performance in measuring deflection when compared to dial gauges. The capabilities of the cameras used in the DIC process have a notable impact, where Nikon camera generally recorded the lowest RMSE and SI values independent of the mode utilized for image acquisition. This led to the Nikon camera being used in Manual mode and utilizing typical DIC settings, whereas no application was available for the iPhone camera to adjust all the camera characteristics while still capturing in the 1 image/s mode. In terms of the image acquisition mode, it is clear that the 60fps video mode captures the sample's deflection more accurately than the 1image/s mode. Concrete is regarded as a brittle substance. Upon loading, a sudden failure occurs without obvious bending. More bending occurs because steel fiber makes concrete more ductile. Inaccurate deformation data were supplied, as samples with 0.5% and 1.0% steel fiber exhibited less deformation compared to those with 1.5% steel fiber, as evidenced by the tables where RMSE and SI values remain at minimal levels. At maximum loading, the largest average deflection difference recorded by the iPhone camera in 1 image/second mode is merely 0.266 mm, as shown in Table 2. The Nikon camera outperforms the iPhone camera in both 60fps video mode and 1 image/s capture mode. Strain is another essential parameter that must be observed for concrete underloading, as previously detailed. A non-contact approach would be beneficial for measuring strain due to the high cost and fragility of strain gauges. They are susceptible to fracture and rupture during application and testing. The Nikon camera, featuring a 60-fps image acquisition mode, demonstrates a greater capacity to monitor strain in prism samples compared to the iPhone camera, as shown in Table 3 . The Nikon camera outperformed the iPhone camera in the 1 image/s mode. DIC and strain gauges are employed on the cube samples to generate a Stress-Strain Diagram, which facilitates the calculation of the Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (E). Both cameras yield quite precise data for ultimate strain measurements, as illustrated in Tables 4 and 5 . Nikon camera results are more precise than those of the iPhone, as demonstrated by APE values. Furthermore, the strain recorded by the Nikon camera during loading closely resembles that obtained from the strain gauge, demonstrating that the Nikon camera delivers precise data concerning both increasing strain and ultimate strain. 5. Conclusion DIC is a highly efficient technique employed in the analysis of optical images to identify surface deformation on a given test specimen precisely. This method eliminates the requirement for physically connected measuring equipment, making it a convenient and effective approach for deformation detection. It provides accurate data and a helpful overall picture of the researched element. Nonetheless, a good system and high-resolution cameras are needed to get reasonable results. Furthermore, the specimen must be specially prepared beforehand, which can take time. A robust and easy to use GOM Correlate Professional software assesses 2D surfaces. The entire structure's strain field is created, providing a clear picture of crack development during each load phase. In conclusion, the cameras used in this study produced satisfactory results despite not being specifically created to implement DIC. As is well known, DIC systems use rapid and precise cameras, incorporating a comprehensive system for testing, recording, and analyzing sample data. Declarations The authors declare no affiliations or conflicts of interest related to the submitted work, indicating that they have no financial support or influence in this matter. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Consent for publication: All participants provided consent for publication of anonymized data and findings. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author Contribution 1. **[Merna Alec Zaya, Assistant Lecturer]:** Conceptualization, methodology, data collection, Data analysis, writing—original draft.2. **[Farsat Heeto Abdulrahman, Assistant Professor, PhD]:** Validation, writing—review & editing, Supervision, project administration, final approval of manuscript3. **[Sarhat M. Adam, Assistant Professor, PhD]:** Supervision, final approval of manuscript. Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by the Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Duhok, in allowing them to use their laboratory for this study. Data Availability The data sets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Aryanto, A., Revolis, M., Oribe, Y., & Yo, H. (2023). Application of digital image correlation method in RC and FRC beams under bending test. Geomate Journal, 24 (101), 118-125. B M B Grant, H. J. 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07:46:44","extension":"xml","order_by":39,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":134893,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"55e692e8c0024b799e4fce7f81f41c681structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/f94abe1224905b6f684dc7a0.xml"},{"id":100023288,"identity":"6ff94645-4cf9-414f-b7a9-6507e031473b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 08:11:34","extension":"html","order_by":40,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":149932,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/7c84d3fcd776720ab81f9e55.html"},{"id":100023245,"identity":"edf7b6bd-2924-4c89-97fc-887acf32c9d8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 08:11:33","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51823,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) Sample of Cube, B) Sample of Prism, utilized in experimental test\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/8f5964627b0dd92e5de1e6cf.jpg"},{"id":100023246,"identity":"3d7fec9f-02e3-41f0-885f-06fc5413574f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 08:11:33","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62106,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFabricated speckle pattern\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/82fd729b45f2174582cefeb4.jpg"},{"id":100023248,"identity":"8cd69cad-3661-439f-9f5e-12b7683d1dc2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 08:11:33","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":98366,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInsertion of Strain gauges and dial gauges on the samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/dbe80718ec481197df7af465.jpg"},{"id":100023249,"identity":"e11f6dff-fd2f-4286-8cfb-445882e1d996","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 08:11:33","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":111870,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLoad vs Deflection curves\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/05631eb6a8f2ebd9e294809f.jpg"},{"id":100023254,"identity":"cd1ab875-3193-41c6-b9e4-b42c33144818","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 08:11:33","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44700,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe average values of SI for all samples tested\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/2167f2a2c54a6ca5ba84afc6.jpg"},{"id":100362295,"identity":"9a499f6d-f91d-4f97-ba30-1fc06808e003","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:46:32","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40562,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe average Discrepancy in Deflection Values between Dial Gauge and DIC at Maximum Load\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/f70af1c5ece9b28217504093.jpg"},{"id":100911033,"identity":"0d755a5c-82ac-4841-91d9-0afc90df10aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-22 16:54:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1235566,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8508374/v1/dd424049-e4c1-4e42-8ff7-6b80f5ebc8d3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Strain and Deflection Assessment of SFRC Using Digital Image Correlation","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor many years, measurements of strain and deflection have been vital for improving structural engineering theory. As assets constructed during the past century's infrastructure booms continue to degrade with age, the capacity to detect strain precisely and correctly will become more significant for field monitoring. Engineers will need precise strain data collected at various points on the structures to effectively estimate the remaining service life and capacity of these complex structures. Vibrating wire and foil strain gages are the two most common techniques for measuring strain; however, they have numerous serious drawbacks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccurately determining displacement measurements for structures and materials under various kinds of loading, such as mechanical or thermal loading, is a crucial aspect of materials testing. Traditional strain measurement instruments, such as strain gauges, transducers, and Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), generally furnish average values of strains or displacements at designated positions and gauge lengths, which are insufficient for assessing non-homogeneous material behavior. In the past ten years, various techniques for measuring complete deformation fields have been suggested for characterizing composite materials (Gr\u0026eacute;diac, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrain gauges and other strain measurement equipment can only give linear point measurements of strain. To measure strain distributions or fields calls for a sizable number of gauges. Although foil gages can be utilized in the laboratory, they are often unsuitable for long-term field monitoring due to concerns with long-term stability. Although vibrating wire strain gages are far more stable, the price of each gage renders them unaffordable for the kind of widespread monitoring needed to verify sophisticated structural analyses. The necessity to bind foil gages to the structure might significantly affect the strain measurements if the structural material's rigidity is not much larger than the strain gage's stiffness (see, for example, (Walters, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) and (Howard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo measure surface stresses, a method known as DIC offers an alternative to traditional strain gages by overcoming several drawbacks. DIC is an optical method that utilizes images to obtain full-field measurements of shape, displacement, and deformation without physical contact (Pan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). DIC analyzes two digital pictures (a reference image and a distorted image) to calculate how much movement has taken place. DIC has demonstrated potential for field monitoring and has been employed as an alternative strain measurement method in controlled laboratory settings. Research is ongoing to address the remaining gaps in our understanding, such as the effects of different lighting and temperature fluctuations and other field-specific difficulties that are outside the scope of this paper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethese issues still necessitate further investigation and investigation is ongoing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the early 1980s, the DIC approach became widely used in academic research, as evidenced by various scholarly sources (MA Sutton, 1983; W. H. Peters, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). This method has been adapted in diverse ways to suit different research contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver time, the researchers used the DIC method to determine the mechanical characteristics of materials using deformation measurements (F. Hild, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Sutton (SUTTON, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) measured the strain of paper using the DIC method, and Choi and Thorpe (Choi, 1991) and Huang and Liu (Y.H. Huang, 2010) determined the mechanical characteristics of timber and concrete, respectively. (Blikharskyy, Kopiika, Khmil, Selejdak, \u0026amp; Blikharskyy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) documented its evolution in concrete research, particularly for crack propagation and stress\u0026ndash;strain assessment, while (Mousa, Yussof, Hussein, Assi, \u0026amp; Ghahari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) provided a systematic overview of DIC applications in laboratory-based structural engineering tests. In 2010, Tung and Shih (Shih-Heng Tung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a tensile test on a steel specimen, observing that the strain values obtained from the strain gauge and the DIC technique were comparable. According to their report, the modulus of elasticity for a steel specimen, as determined by the DIC technique, was 201 GPa, compared to a benchmark value of 206 GPa. Multiple researchers have elaborated on the concept and examined material mechanical properties through the finite element-based integrated DIC method (Debasis Deb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Julien R\u0026eacute;thor\u0026eacute;, 2007; M.D.C. Ferreira, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; S. Sozen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; St\u0026eacute;phane Roux, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Weizhuo Wang, 2011). According to (Leclerc, 2009), the DIC method was employed to update material characteristics in finite element simulations, thereby minimizing the discrepancy between actual and simulated displacements. The DIC method offers an effective solution for measuring high-temperature deformation due to its inherent non-contact strain measurement capability (Yali Dong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The DIC method was used by (Lyons, 1996) to quantify the full-field surface deformations of an object inside a furnace. Through experimentation, they demonstrated that the DIC method could accurately calculate the displacements and strains of an Inconel 718 bar at temperatures as high as 650\u0026deg;C. However, extra safety measures must be taken because radiation from a heated surface increases the decorrelation problem. Following that, Grant, Stone (B M B Grant, 2009) used a wavelength filtering method in conjunction with blue light to calculate Young's modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion of a nickel-based super-alloy at temperatures up to 1400\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, Pan, Wu (Bing Pan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) determined thermal deformation at temperatures varying from room temperature to 550\u0026ordm;C using transient aerodynamic heating modeling devices and the developed reliability-guided DIC method (Pan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). This averted the use of a high-temperature furnace, and thus the errors involved with altering the refractive index along the optical route were prevented. Using the DIC method, Hamrat and Boulekbache (M. Hamrat, 2016) have suggested a practical study on the flexural behavior of three different kinds of concrete: regular strength concrete (NSC), high strength concrete (HSC), and high strength fiber concrete (HSFC). They have analyzed the strain components using the DIC methodology as well as the traditional measuring methods (strain gauges, LVDT sensors). The mutual comprehension of the two measurement techniques suggests that DIC is a useful measuring device for determining displacement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn earlier studies, researchers have utilized the DIC method to quantify axial strains in artificially and experimentally produced images with irregular levels of efficacy. According to Smith, Li (Smith, 1998), a standard deviation of 100 \u0026micro;Ɛ was observed in strain readings. The DIC method has been effectively employed in assessing the deformation behavior of materials. The researchers Mathieu and Hild (Florent Mathieu, 2012) used IC methodology to identify the parameters that govern the propagation of cracks in commercially pure titanium; the researchers were able to accurately determine the location of the crack tip, stress intensity factor, T-stress, and plastic zone size. Additionally, they developed a sophisticated crack propagation law based on the results of a single experiment using the DIC approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors Bhattacharjee and Deb (Sudipta Bhattacharjee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) utilized the multi-level extended DIC method, which is founded on the finite element method (FEM), to quantify the deformation of geomaterials subjected to uniaxial loading conditions. The previously mentioned study has led to the creation of an indicator that can be utilized to identify the beginning of micro-crack formation and yield in geomaterials. The fracture test response of notched concrete beams with two kinds of discrete macro synthetic fibers was investigated by (Kamasani Chiranjeevi Reddy, 2017) ; the present work employed the DIC technique to assess the impact of high-modulus polypropylene macro fibers on crack propagation and opening. The study by Gali and Subramaniam (Gali, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) aimed to evaluate the crack propagation and post-cracking behavior of SFRC beams. The researchers utilized the DIC technique to gain full-field displacements. The present study analyzed the surface displacements and strains during the fracture test of notched beams composed of SFRC with differing volume fractions (Vf) of steel fibers, specifically 0.5% and 0.75%. More recently, DIC has been applied not only to strain and deflection, but also to bond\u0026ndash;slip behavior in concrete. For instance, (DANHASH, OUDEH, DIAB, \u0026amp; WARDEH, 2023) used 2D DIC with GOM software to track pull‑out tests on steel‑reinforced recycled aggregate concrete. Their results were in close agreement with conventional LVDT/comparator data, reinforcing DIC\u0026rsquo;s reliability. They observed that both compressive strength and bond strength decrease with higher recycled aggregate content (up to ~\u0026thinsp;13% and ~\u0026thinsp;35%, respectively) although the slip behavior did not follow a clear trend. Notably, the measured bond‑slip curves closely matched existing models. In addition to recycled‑concrete bond\u0026ndash;slip studies, (Wei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) applied 3D‑DIC in pull‑out tests of M‑section steel within concrete, enabling segmentation of bond phases and the calibration of a constitutive bond\u0026ndash;slip model. (Chen, Zhao, Zeng, Zhang, \u0026amp; Yang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) similarly monitored full‑field rebar strain and crack progression in fiber‑reinforced concrete using DIC, from which they derived a bond\u0026ndash;slip relationship. (Luo, Pan, Tang, Sun, \u0026amp; Pan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) combined 2D‑DIC with acoustic emission techniques to characterize splitting‑tensile failure mechanisms in SFRC, reinforcing DIC\u0026rsquo;s utility for detecting interface damage and failure paths beyond traditional strain measurement. Building on these earlier studies,(Mehmandari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated the capability of DIC to capture strain localization and crack bridging effects in fiber-reinforced concretes. Similarly, (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) applied DIC to high-strength SFRC beams, achieving precise measurement of fracture behavior and crack opening displacements. (Aryanto, Revolis, Oribe, \u0026amp; Yo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) further validated the method in flexural testing of RC and FRC beams, showing strong agreement with traditional instruments. In addition (L\u0026oacute;pez-Rebollo, Teij\u0026oacute;n-L\u0026oacute;pez-Zuazo, Garc\u0026iacute;a-Martin, S\u0026aacute;nchez-Aparicio, \u0026amp; Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Aguilera, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) extended DIC applications to sustainable construction, using it to assess recycled concrete beams within a reliability-based design framework. The authors Lai, Shi (Shigang Lai, 2017) have presented a new technique that utilizes DIC to quantify the propagation of cracks in graphite beam specimens characterized as brittle materials. The study used the DIC technique employing a step function to quantify the cross-correlation of displacements. The method of cross-correlation effectively determined the trajectory of a propagating fracture through the utilization of DIC outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe DIC method was utilized to assess the structural integrity of artificial constructions. For instance, the DIC method was employed to measure the dynamic displacement of a bridge, as reported by Lee and Shinozuka (Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e); the study revealed that the method utilized was cost-effective and uncomplicated when compared to the employment of Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) and dial gauges. The DIC methodology has been extensively validated as a reliable method for quantifying high-speed dynamic phenomena, including the detonation of thin metal frames and measuring shape variations (Reu PL, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The DIC technique has effectively documented micro-scale components' deformation characteristics in micro-manufacturing industries. Given the current trajectory of technological progress, it is likely that the DIC method will soon achieve a high level of efficacy in measuring nanoscale deformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis paper focuses on the methodology known as 2-D DIC, which entails utilizing a single camera to measure displacements within a two-dimensional plane (as exemplified in (D. J. White, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). This methodology presents a notable benefit in that it only necessitates using a singular camera, thereby reducing equipment expenses and enabling the incorporation of supplementary measurement regions without necessitating their overlap.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis paper presents the findings of a study conducted on Steel fiber reinforced concrete prisms and cubes subjected to third-point bending and compression tests, during these tests, deflection and strain measurements were taken using DIC approach with a Digital Single-Lens Reflex Camera (DSLR) and a mobile phone camera, and compared to those from conventional methods such as strain gauges and dial gauges.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental Procedure","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study employed steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) to cast twelve prisms measuring (10*10*40) cm, which were subjected to third point bending testing. Additionally, six cubes measuring (15*15*15) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) cm were produced for compression testing, with three distinct steel fiber content percentages of (0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe third-point bending test was conducted using the Walter\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;bai machine / Switzerland, which has a maximum capacity of 100 KN. The compression test was conducted using the Besmak Material Testing Machine /Turkey, which has a maximum capacity of 200 KN. Two distinct camera models, namely the Nikon D3400 DSLR camera and the iPhone 13 Pro Max camera, were employed to DIC method. These cameras were utilized to capture the samples while they were subjected to loading. The specimens were rendered suitable for DIC analysis through the application of white and black paint, which was utilized to generate a speckle pattern (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo distinct photo acquisition modes were employed in the third point bending test to capture the samples during mechanical testing. These modes included video mode at 60 frames per second and 1 image per second capture mode. However, in the compression test, only the video mode was utilized due to the unavailability of bending in the cube samples. As per the recommendation of Hoult, Take (Neil A. Hoult, 2013). the cameras were positioned and adjusted on a tripod at a distance of 0.8m from the samples to minimize the impact of out of plane motion. The images captured during sample loading were analyzed using GOM Correlate 2021 software. In order to quantify strain and deflection in a traditional manner, a strain gauge measuring 60mm in length and dial gauges were implemented on the specimens, as depicted in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eDeflection and Strain were measured in both methods (DIC and traditional measuring tools) for prism and cube samples during testing. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Scatter Index (SI), and Absolute percentage error (APE) are used for the purpose of accuracy comparison between the Dial Gauge and DIC reading where:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\:RMSE=\\sqrt{{\\sum\\:}_{}^{}\\frac{{(actual\\:observation-forcast\\:observation)}^{2}}{number\\:of\\:observations}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\:SI=\\frac{RMSE}{\\:Average\\:of\\:Actual\\:values\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe model works better when the SI values are smaller.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnd, APE=\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\left|\\frac{Actual\\:Value-Predicted\\:value\\:}{Actual\\:value}\\right|*100\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Bending test at the Third-point\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFour samples were tested for each steel % in the third-point bending test. Two samples were recorded in video mode at 60 frames per second, while the other two were recorded at a rate of one image per second. For compression test each camera recorded three cubes containing different steel fiber percentages.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e shows the load-deflection curves for six samples recorded with both photo acquisition mode, having three different steel fiber percentages.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable \u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eand\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e show the RMSE for deflection measured with DIC and dial gauge for the prism samples tested for Third point bending test, \u003cstrong\u003eFigure \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e shows the bar chart for SI values.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e. RMSE and SI values of deflection for all samples tested using one image/sec mode\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"575\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContent of steel fiber (%)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample ID\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 425px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eone image/sec mode\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eiPhone Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 217px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNikon Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;RMSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;RMSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.5%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 1.5-1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.094\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.425\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.256\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 1.5-2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.114\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.540\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.142\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 01-1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.545\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.249\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.274\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 01-2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.679\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.079\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.484\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.5%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 0.5-1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.227\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.194\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 0.5-2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.958\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.582\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e. RMSE and SI values of deflection for all samples tested using Mode of 60fps video\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"572\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContent of steel fiber (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample ID\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 419px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMode of 60fps video\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eiPhone Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 211px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNikon Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;RMSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;RMSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.5%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 1.5-3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.095\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.059\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.182\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 1.5-4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.327\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 01-3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.289\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.145\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 01-4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.185\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.773\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.221\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.5%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 0.5-3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.984\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.075\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.380\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.086\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.432\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSFM 0.5-4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.495\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.411\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e Average Variation in deflection measurements in mm of dial gauge DIC at maximum load\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMode of image acquisition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 288px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContent\u003c/strong\u003e of s\u003cstrong\u003eteel fiber\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.5%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.5%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOne image/second-iPhone Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.073\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.164\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOne image/second-Nikon Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.156\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.094\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60fps-iPhone Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.129\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60fps-Nikon Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.126\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe disparity in deflection measurements between DIC and dial gauge at maximum load was also Investigated for prism samples subjected to a third-point bending test, \u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e show the average deflection for two samples of each steel content recorded with different photo acquisition mode and \u003cstrong\u003eFigure \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e present the results as a bar chart.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrain measurements were conducted on prism samples subjected to a third-point bending test. \u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e and\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u003c/strong\u003e presents the RMSE values for strain measurement over all prism samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e The RMSE and SI values of strain for all samples tested using Photos\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"529\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSteel (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 378px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhoto\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eiPhone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNikon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRMSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRMSE\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM1.5-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000416361\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.04337681\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000161844\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.405571923\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM1.5-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000123603\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6083034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000121616\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.598524631\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM01-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0678E-05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.271923806\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM01-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000106956\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.609636446\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM0.5-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM0.5-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e The RMSE and SI values of strain for all samples tested using Video\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"530\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSteel (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 378px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eiPhone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNikon\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRMSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRMSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM1.5-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.97E-05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.295702108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00010517\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.046125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM1.5-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000824\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.068114407\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000135259\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.339686\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM01-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.62E-05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.290367816\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.58226E-05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.287004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM01-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.92E-05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.442650218\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.86887E-05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43802\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM0.5-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.87106E-05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.201607\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSFM0.5-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.87416E-05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.580279\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Compression Test\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrain measurements were obtained from cube samples subjected to compression testing using DIC and strain gauges. The Modulus of Elasticity was computed using Stress and Strain Data from the Compression Test. The calculated Modulus of Elasticity derived from strain data obtained from the Strain Gauge and DIC, together with the corresponding equivalent strain measured by both methods, is presented in \u003cstrong\u003eTable 6\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003eTable 7\u003c/strong\u003e for the iPhone and Nikon cameras, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e The modulus of elasticity of SFRC Measured with DIC and Strain Gauge Utilizing iPhone Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"633\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" style=\"width: 633px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe modulus of elasticity of concrete with steel fibers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMax Stress, MPa\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"54\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUltimate Strain, Stain Gauges\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"54\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUltimate Strain, iPhone\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"53\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStress Ratio 40%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEquivalent Measured Strain \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"84\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEquivalent Strain, DIC\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecant M.E, Measured, (MPa)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE-S. G\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecant M.E, DIC (MPa)\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;E-DIC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbsolute percentage error (APE)%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.231%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.316%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.048%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24229\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33591\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.6396467\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.313%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.358%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.077%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16322\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.32248157\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.365%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.292%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.110%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13316\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26390\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98.18263743\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e The modulus of elasticity of SFRC Measured with DIC and Strain Gauge Utilizing Nikon Camera\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"left\" width=\"633\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" style=\"width: 633px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe modulus of elasticity of concrete with steel fibers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"62\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMax Stress, MPa\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"53\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUltimate Strain, Stain Gauges\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"53\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUltimate Strain, Nikon\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"52\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStress Ratio 40%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEquivalent Measured Strain \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"83\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEquivalent Strain, DIC\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecant M.E, Measured, (MPa)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE-SG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecant M.E, DIC (MPa)\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;E-DIC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbsolute percentage error (APE)%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.280%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.285%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.071%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.066%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20255\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21697\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.11922982\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.246%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.260%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.080%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.080%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16375\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16287\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53740458\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.365%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.370%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.110%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.102%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13896\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.520437536\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion of Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate the convergence observed between the two methods employed for measuring deformation in concrete. As depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;4, there is a notable convergence between the load deflection curve obtained through DIC and the curves obtained through the use of dial gauges. By contrasting the RMSE and SI values in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, it is possible to compare the two methods of quantifying deflection. It is demonstrated that the smallest RMSE and SI values are 0.03 and 0.0740, respectively. Which shows that the DIC method exhibits superior performance in measuring deflection when compared to dial gauges. The capabilities of the cameras used in the DIC process have a notable impact, where Nikon camera generally recorded the lowest RMSE and SI values independent of the mode utilized for image acquisition. This led to the Nikon camera being used in Manual mode and utilizing typical DIC settings, whereas no application was available for the iPhone camera to adjust all the camera characteristics while still capturing in the 1 image/s mode. In terms of the image acquisition mode, it is clear that the 60fps video mode captures the sample's deflection more accurately than the 1image/s mode.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcrete is regarded as a brittle substance. Upon loading, a sudden failure occurs without obvious bending. More bending occurs because steel fiber makes concrete more ductile. Inaccurate deformation data were supplied, as samples with 0.5% and 1.0% steel fiber exhibited less deformation compared to those with 1.5% steel fiber, as evidenced by the tables where RMSE and SI values remain at minimal levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt maximum loading, the largest average deflection difference recorded by the iPhone camera in 1 image/second mode is merely 0.266 mm, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;2. The Nikon camera outperforms the iPhone camera in both 60fps video mode and 1 image/s capture mode. Strain is another essential parameter that must be observed for concrete underloading, as previously detailed. A non-contact approach would be beneficial for measuring strain due to the high cost and fragility of strain gauges. They are susceptible to fracture and rupture during application and testing. The Nikon camera, featuring a 60-fps image acquisition mode, demonstrates a greater capacity to monitor strain in prism samples compared to the iPhone camera, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The Nikon camera outperformed the iPhone camera in the 1 image/s mode. DIC and strain gauges are employed on the cube samples to generate a Stress-Strain Diagram, which facilitates the calculation of the Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (E). Both cameras yield quite precise data for ultimate strain measurements, as illustrated in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Nikon camera results are more precise than those of the iPhone, as demonstrated by APE values. Furthermore, the strain recorded by the Nikon camera during loading closely resembles that obtained from the strain gauge, demonstrating that the Nikon camera delivers precise data concerning both increasing strain and ultimate strain.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eDIC is a highly efficient technique employed in the analysis of optical images to identify surface deformation on a given test specimen precisely. This method eliminates the requirement for physically connected measuring equipment, making it a convenient and effective approach for deformation detection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt provides accurate data and a helpful overall picture of the researched element. Nonetheless, a good system and high-resolution cameras are needed to get reasonable results. Furthermore, the specimen must be specially prepared beforehand, which can take time. A robust and easy to use GOM Correlate Professional software assesses 2D surfaces. The entire structure's strain field is created, providing a clear picture of crack development during each load phase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the cameras used in this study produced satisfactory results despite not being specifically created to implement DIC. As is well known, DIC systems use rapid and precise cameras, incorporating a comprehensive system for testing, recording, and analyzing sample data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no affiliations or conflicts of interest related to the submitted work, indicating that they have no financial support or influence in this matter.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll participants provided consent for publication of anonymized data and findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e1. **[Merna Alec Zaya, Assistant Lecturer]:** Conceptualization, methodology, data collection, Data analysis, writing\u0026mdash;original draft.2. **[Farsat Heeto Abdulrahman, Assistant Professor, PhD]:** Validation, writing\u0026mdash;review \u0026amp; editing, Supervision, project administration, final approval of manuscript3. **[Sarhat M. Adam, Assistant Professor, PhD]:** Supervision, final approval of manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by the Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Duhok, in allowing them to use their laboratory for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data sets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp\u003eAryanto, A., Revolis, M., Oribe, Y., \u0026amp; Yo, H. (2023). Application of digital image correlation method in RC and FRC beams under bending test. \u003cem\u003eGeomate Journal, 24\u003c/em\u003e(101), 118-125. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB M B Grant, H. J. S., […], and M Preuss. (2009). 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Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/18/15/3631\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"SFRC, Digital Image Correlation (DIC), Strain, Deflection","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8508374/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8508374/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe two-dimensional Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique is a recognized and widely utilized method in the field of experimental mechanics. It is a valuable and accurate way to measure the in-plane deformation of an object's surface. This technology is used in many industries, including engineering and medical imaging. It allows for highly accurate remote deformation assessment. The present methodology identifies the correspondence between images in their pre-deformed state (i.e., reference image) and post-deformed state (i.e., degraded image). The measurement of Strain and deflection is a fundamental component of the material testing process. Several contact-based units are available for strain and deflection estimation, including strain gauges, extensometers, LVDTs, dial gauges, seismic waves, and acoustic emission techniques. Nonetheless, these techniques have some problems, such as sensitivity concerns, external noise susceptibility, and breakage. The present study showcases the outcomes of implementing the DIC approach to measure the deflection and Strain of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) specimens under loading conditions. The study employs cost-effective cameras, such as the Nikon D3400 DSLR and mobile phone (iPhone 13 Pro Max) cameras, to implement DIC. The results demonstrate the capability of DIC in measuring the deflection of the sample under loading, with a Root Mean Square (RMS) error value of 0.03 compared to dial gauges, and a maximum discrepancy of 0.266 in deflection at peak load between DIC and Dial Gauge measurements. The DIC approach showed exceptional efficacy in calculating the modulus of elasticity of SFRC gained from cameras, achieving an absolute percentage error between 0% and 8.5%.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Strain and Deflection Assessment of SFRC Using Digital Image Correlation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-12 08:11:28","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8508374/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"278c9bf3-54a6-4e1c-a984-f35098fe7106","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 12th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-10T19:39:26+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-12 08:11:28","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8508374","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8508374","identity":"rs-8508374","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}