The Performance of a Concept 3D Printed Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Mono-Parabolic Leaf Spring

The Performance of a Concept 3D Printed Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Mono-Parabolic Leaf Spring | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Performance of a Concept 3D Printed Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Mono-Parabolic Leaf Spring Benjamin Gibbs, Naser A. Alsaleh, Adel Abdel-Wahab, Farrukh Hafeez, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6972829/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 24 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract For decades, steel leaf springs have been widely used in automotive suspension systems but concerns over emissions and fuel efficiency remain. Fibre-reinforced composite leaf springs have emerged as a promising alternative due to their excellent strength-to-weight ratio, stiffness, and energy absorption. This study explores the feasibility of using a novel 3D-printed carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) mono-parabolic leaf spring (PLS) to replace conventional steel springs and reduce vehicle weight. A steel multi-leaf spring was mechanically tested, theoretically analysed, and simulated using finite element analysis (FEA), achieving 98.68% accuracy between simulated and actual deflection forces. A CFRP mono-PLS was then designed, 3D printed with optimised fibre reinforcement using Eiger simulations and mechanically tested. An FEA model based on equivalent homogeneous material (EHM) properties was developed, alongside theoretical analysis. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to examine the microstructure of the printed material. The results demonstrated significant weight savings with the CFRP spring, while achieving comparable von Mises stress and deflection characteristics to steel. These findings highlight the potential of CFRP springs for automotive applications and support the use of additive manufacturing and design optimisation to enhance the mechanical performance and cost-efficiency of future suspension components. 3D printing carbon fibre-reinforced polymer parabolic leaf spring finite element analysis microstructure analysis Full Text Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 24 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revisions Needed 22 Aug, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 10 Jul, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 10 Jul, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 27 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 25 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6972829","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":483452483,"identity":"1dfa3112-7845-4770-8282-db8d1e31bfff","order_by":0,"name":"Benjamin Gibbs","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Benjamin","middleName":"","lastName":"Gibbs","suffix":""},{"id":483452484,"identity":"72c25000-e478-4af7-98c5-7695d48b687e","order_by":1,"name":"Naser A. Alsaleh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Naser","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Alsaleh","suffix":""},{"id":483452485,"identity":"b71303a4-f3ef-406e-aa90-602fe9127604","order_by":2,"name":"Adel Abdel-Wahab","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABFklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBCDBIYDzA0MjA0MCfwSPDBBNkJaGCFaJGeQrMXgBgEt/A3MD5huMNjl8R1vbJP4ucMuz/h278FPQBF5Bom0BGxaJA6wGTDnMCQXS5452CbZeya52OzOuWRpoIhhg0TaAazWHGAAaWFO3HAjse0Gbxtz4rYbOQZALcwJDBLpDdh0yB9g/wDUUp+44f7Dtpt/2+oTN8/IMf4NFMGpxeAAD8iWw0BbGNtu87YBGRI5ZkBbDgO1YHeY4WGegsM5BseBfkls/y3bdrxY4s4ZM2ugiGEbzzOs3pc73r7xcU5FNTDEDh82fNtWncc/u8f4NlBEnp89zQCr95nBIYDpYEIROQpGwSgYBaMAHwAA8rBkD10OcScAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0068-6300","institution":"University of Birmingham","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adel","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdel-Wahab","suffix":""},{"id":483452486,"identity":"9cd25b4c-af01-42fd-900b-3cfa22ea5896","order_by":3,"name":"Farrukh Hafeez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Farrukh","middleName":"","lastName":"Hafeez","suffix":""},{"id":483452487,"identity":"5f458eec-a9cb-4f7f-af57-d94a6e9c3a7f","order_by":4,"name":"Sabbah Ataya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sabbah","middleName":"","lastName":"Ataya","suffix":""},{"id":483452488,"identity":"81472913-6adf-4408-839e-b311b509afe0","order_by":5,"name":"Khamis Essa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Khamis","middleName":"","lastName":"Essa","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-25 09:17:43","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6972829/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6972829/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-025-17018-0","type":"published","date":"2025-11-24T15:58:02+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97179413,"identity":"25d00d56-24d7-4ae9-adb4-489bbb0db206","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 16:15:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1318734,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ManuscriptIJAMT.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6972829/v1_covered_7d6c305e-e72a-4904-b4f7-f6efcfc675f4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"The Performance of a Concept 3D Printed Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Mono-Parabolic Leaf Spring","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jamt","sideBox":"Learn more about [The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology](https://www.springer.com/journal/170)","snPcode":"170","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/170/3","title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"3D printing, carbon fibre-reinforced polymer, parabolic leaf spring, finite element analysis, microstructure analysis","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6972829/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6972829/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eFor decades, steel leaf springs have been widely used in automotive suspension systems but concerns over emissions and fuel efficiency remain. Fibre-reinforced composite leaf springs have emerged as a promising alternative due to their excellent strength-to-weight ratio, stiffness, and energy absorption. This study explores the feasibility of using a novel 3D-printed carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) mono-parabolic leaf spring (PLS) to replace conventional steel springs and reduce vehicle weight.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA steel multi-leaf spring was mechanically tested, theoretically analysed, and simulated using finite element analysis (FEA), achieving 98.68% accuracy between simulated and actual deflection forces. A CFRP mono-PLS was then designed, 3D printed with optimised fibre reinforcement using Eiger simulations and mechanically tested. An FEA model based on equivalent homogeneous material (EHM) properties was developed, alongside theoretical analysis. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to examine the microstructure of the printed material.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results demonstrated significant weight savings with the CFRP spring, while achieving comparable von Mises stress and deflection characteristics to steel. These findings highlight the potential of CFRP springs for automotive applications and support the use of additive manufacturing and design optimisation to enhance the mechanical performance and cost-efficiency of future suspension components.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Performance of a Concept 3D Printed Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Mono-Parabolic Leaf Spring","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-14 06:15:07","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6972829/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revisions Needed","date":"2025-08-22T22:58:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-07-10T10:39:11+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-10T10:38:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-27T05:39:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","date":"2025-06-25T05:16:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jamt","sideBox":"Learn more about [The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology](https://www.springer.com/journal/170)","snPcode":"170","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/170/3","title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8293dea2-431a-40c7-8f45-31f4e65270d1","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 14th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-01T16:10:17+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6972829","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-025-17018-0","journal":{"identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-24 15:58:02","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 24th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-14 06:15:07","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00170-025-17018-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-025-17018-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6972829","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6972829","identity":"rs-6972829","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}