{"paper_id":"9aa2377a-6325-43f3-bcbc-2a22a87f3470","body_text":"Amino acid-modified porous carbon foams derived from wheat powder with enhanced adsorption performance for VOCs | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Amino acid-modified porous carbon foams derived from wheat powder with enhanced adsorption performance for VOCs Weiqiu Huang, Xinhan Chai, Xufei Li, Xinya Wang, Yankang Zhou, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3889232/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Porous Carbon Foam (PCF), known for its high surface area and abundant functional groups, is considered to exhibit superior adsorption capacity and wide applicability for gases. Wheat, being a widely cultivated and easily accessible crop globally, contains abundant carbon elements. In this study, wheat powder served as the carbon precursor, and β-alanine, rich in amino and carboxyl groups, was introduced into the hierarchical pore structure of wheat powder. Subsequently, the material underwent secondary hydrothermal treatment with the activation agent potassium hydroxide (KOH), resulting in Hydrothermal Wheat Powder PCF (HWPCF) rich in a three-dimensional interconnected structure with layered pores as the representative feature. This structural treatment increased the specific surface area (2278 m 2 ·g − 1 ) and total pore volume (1.17 cm 3 ·g − 1 ) of PCF, accelerating the rapid mass transfer of gas molecules and significantly enhancing the utilization of adsorption sites in the modified PCF. HWPCF exhibited outstanding adsorption performance for acetone (608.7 mg/g) and n-hexane (517.6 mg/g). Additionally, the modified PCF showed good adsorption capacity for CO 2 (4.99 mmol·g − 1 ). This study highlights the effective modification of expired wheat powder with β-alanine, reducing the overall carbon footprint of the production process and achieving the reuse of waste in an environmentally friendly manner. Porous carbon foam Wheat powder Hydrothermal β-Alanine modification VOCS Adsorption Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Highlights Wheat powder-based porous carbon foam was synthesized via hydrothermal carbonization followed by KOH activation. The addition of β-alanine promoted the cleavage of polysaccharides between the ring structural units. The resulting HWPCF demonstrated exceptional textural characteristics along with remarkable adsorption capacity towards VOC S . 1. Introduction Amid the rapid development of urbanization and industrialization, coupled with the continued surge in energy consumption within the oil and gas transportation sector, an excess of volatile organic compound (VOCs) have been released into the ecological environment, This not only poses a serious threat to human health but also significantly impedes the sustainable development of the social economy[ 1 – 5 ]. In addressing the challenge of VOCs removal, adsorption stands out as an efficient and cost-effective control strategy due to its capacity for regenerating and reusing adsorbents. The pivotal role of adsorption materials in the techniques cannot be overstated[ 6 – 12 ]. Porous carbon foam (PCF) emerges as a widely employed solution for the adsorption and separation of VOCs within the realm of oil and gas storage and transportation. This preference is attributed to its diverse raw material sources, expansive surface area, distinctive porous structure, and controlled surface functional groups[ 13 – 15 ]. The emitted VOCs consist mostly of molecules with different sizes. The multistage pore structure of porous carbon foam enables it to effectively adapt to the adsorption of VOCs, making it a highly efficient adsorbent. The distribution of pore structure and surface chemical properties of PCF is the key factor in determining its adsorption capacity. According to the different pore sizes, the internal pore structure is mainly categorized as macropores (> 50nm), mesopores (2-50nm) and micropores (< 2nm). The size and shape of these pores allow them to adsorb organic molecules of different sizes, In the process of VOCs adsorption, micropores serve as main adsorption sites while mesopore can effectively enhance mass transfer processes by providing additional sites for adsorption, macropores typically act as transport channel of VOCs[ 16 – 18 ]. Zhang et.al[ 19 ] prepared micro-mesoporous AC derived from coconut shell with the specific surface area of 2763 m 2 g − 1 and pore volume of 2.376 cm 3 g − 1 through carbonization and H 3 PO 4 activation at 865 ℃ for 2 h. The obtained porous carbon exhibited excellent adsorption capacity for benzene (1846 mg g − 1 ), methanol (1777 mg g − 1 ), n-hexane (1510 mg g − 1 ) and cyclohexane (1766 mg g − 1 ). Therefore, PCF with a high specific surface areas combined with reasonable pore size distribution has superior adsorption capacities along with faster transport velocities when it comes to dealing with VOCs. The surface chemical properties of PCF are determined by the presence of various functional groups, including acid, neutral, and alkaline groups. The type and amount of functional groups in PCF primarily consists of carbon with minor amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements. These factors also affect its adsorption capacity. Heteroatoms in PCF form distinct surface groups, Since the atomic size of heteroatoms is similar to that of carbon atoms, incorporating them into the structure of PCF does not disrupt its original framework; instead, it allows for better integration. Heteroatom modification primarily depends on the interaction between heteroatoms and specific molecules to enhance its adsorption capabilities. Among them, oxygen and functional nitrogen groups have been identified as the primary factors influencing VOCs adsorption[ 20 ]. It has been established that introducing heteroatoms into the surface of porous carbon is beneficial for optimizing the adsorption capacity of VOCs. There are two types of methods for introducing heteroatoms into the PCF surface: post-treatment methods and in-situ synthetic methods. Post-treatment methods involve using dopants rich in heteroatoms to modify the surface of raw porous carbon. In-situ synthetic methods involve preparing porous carbon using biomass or polymers with a high content of heteroatoms (or treated with dopants) as precursors by carbonization. Porous carbon materials synthesized in-situ contain a higher fraction of heteroatoms, which are uniformly distributed over the carbon skeleton, compared to post-processing methods. The in-situ synthesis method is more suitable for the synthesis of excellent heteroatom-doped porous carbon due to its simplicity and efficiency. Generally, in-situ doping methods include pyrolysis, activation, hydrothermal and so on. The use of biomass by converting it into functional carbon is currently of great interest due to its non-toxic, renewable and versatile properties. Several efforts had been successfully made to prepare biomass-derived active carbons as novel adsorbents for VOCs and CO 2 capture materials. Singh et.al[ 21 ] synthesized arundo donax-based activated microporous carbons having a specific surface area and micropore volume of 1122 m 2 g − 1 and 0.50 cm 3 g − 1 by combination of arundo donax and solid KOH at 600℃ for 2 h. The preparation of porous carbon by hydrothermal carbonization has applied universally in realizing efficient conversion and application of biomass resources due to its advantages of economy and environmental friendliness. It is commonly believed that hydrothermal carbonization is a thermochemical conversion technique that uses subcritical water to convert wet/dry biomass into carbonaceous products via feedstock fractionation. After hydrolysis, dehydration, decarboxylation, condensation, polymerization, aromatization, and structural adjustment of biomass, the resulting hydrogenic carbon contains more surface functional groups than pyrolytic carbon, and is an excellent carbon precursor for the preparation of new porous and morphologically rich carbon materials. Yang et al[ 22 – 25 ] developed an ultrahigh performance of N-doping engineering carbon using porous carbon derived from banana peels as raw materials by impregnating with melamine/urea and its acetone adsorption capacity was 44.89 mmol g − 1 under 30 kPa of acetone partial pressure which shows nearly 1.83 folds enhancement of polar VOCs compared to the original AC. Hydrothermal carbonization[ 26 – 28 ] has promising applications in biomass conversion to carbon as an alternative to direct carbonization. Ma et.al [ 29 – 33 ]fabricated N,O-doped porous carbon using waste tobacco stem as the carbon precursor and ethylenediamine as the nitrogen source by a hydrothermal method and investigated the acetone adsorption in carbon slit pore model by molecular simulations. The simulations results suggested that oxygen and nitrogen functional groups doped on the porous carbon surface can enhance the carbon surface polarity and promote the affinity between the carbon surface and the acetone molecule. This study places a specific focus on utilizing wheat powder as a precursor for the synthesis of porous carbon foam (PCF) materials. The investigation involves exploring the preparation of PCF using wheat powder as a carbon precursor. Wheat, the world's second most-produced grain after maize, is not only a major food resource for mankind, but also plays a critical role as an industrial raw material. It has become an ideal raw material for large-scale synthesis of high-value carbon materials due to its wide range of sources, biomass sustainability and rich polysaccharide structure[ 34 , 35 ]. Hong et.al[ 36 ] prepared the AC using sustainable wheat powder as carbon precursor by carbonization at 900 for 2 h, followed by KOH activation at 700 for 1 h, which exhibited a specific surface area of 1438 m 2 g − 1 and pore volume of 0.654 cm 3 g − 1 at the KOH/C ratio of 3 and great capture for CO 2 of 5.70 mol kg − 1 . Wu et al.[ 37 ] fabricated activated carbon having a specific surface area of 1313 m 2 g − 1 and a pore volume of 0.716 cm 3 g − 1 . derived from wheat powder by one-step pyrolysis (700℃ for 2 h) by chemical activation with KOH. To the best of our knowledge, previous studies of wheat powder AC using wheat powder have been made by pyrolysis carbonization followed by chemical activation without further modification, and their textural properties are dominated by microporous structures, which are mainly used for CO 2 capture. Previous studies have investigated the adsorption performance of some volatile organic compound (VOCs) on phosphoric acid, urea, melamine, and amino acid-modified porous carbon foam (PCF), enhancing their environmental friendliness and availability[ 38 , 39 ]. However, research on the adsorption performance of VOCs on amino acid-modified activated carbon is relatively scarce To address this research gap, our study utilized sustainable wheat powder as a raw material, mixed with β-alanine, and employed a hydrothermal alkaline activation method to prepare PCF. This preparation process ensured that the resulting material exhibited a well-defined micro-mesoporous structure, a significant surface area, and relatively abundant functional groups. Subsequently, we systematically investigated the adsorption behavior of acetone and n-hexane as representative VOCs and CO 2 . Through this research, we aim to gain a deeper understanding of the performance of amino acid-modified activated carbon in VOCs and CO 2 adsorption, providing valuable insights for the design of environmentally friendly adsorbents. 2. Experimental sections 2.1 Materials and reagents All chemicals and regents were of analytical grad and used without further purification. Wheat powder was purchased from a supermarket. β-alanine was obtained from Aladdin Reagent Company. Potassium hydroxide (KOH, 85 wt%) was supplied by Lingfeng Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. Hydrochloric acid (HCl, 38 wt%) was sourced from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd. The deionized (DI) water was provided by the laboratory. 2.2 Synthesis of HWPFC-x The mixture of 5 g wheat powder and β-alanine (the weights of β-alanine was 0, 0.5 g, 1 g, 1.5 g) was stirred and sealed with 75 mL deionized water in Teflon-lined autoclave (100 mL). The mixture was then subjected to hydrothermal treatment at a temperature of 200℃ for a duration of 24 h followed by natural cooling to room temperature. The resulting dark precipitate was separated from the aqueous solution and collected by filtration. Subsequently, the collected samples were washed multiple times with deionized water before being dried at 105°C in a vacuum oven. The treated samples were further impregnated in KOH solution at an impregnation ratio of 1:3. The mixture was then dried and transferred into a vacuum atmosphere sintering furnace, which had been maintained at 800 ℃ for 1 h under N 2 flow at 5℃·min − 1 . The prepared samples were treated with 2 mol·L − 1 HCl (hydrochloric acid solution) at 60℃ for 2 h followed by deionized water until achieving a neutral pH levels, they were then dried once more at 105°C. The PCF produced through this process was labeled as HWPCF-x, with x representing the mass amount of β-alanine used (x = 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5). For comparison, the PCF produced without the addition of β-alanine, but following the same steps, is designated as WPCF. A schematic illustration depicting the synthesis procedure is provided in Fig. 1 . 2.3 Materials characterization Adsorption and desorption isotherms of N 2 at 77 K and CO 2 at 273 K were obtained with automatic volumetric adsorption apparatuses (Quantachrome Autosorb Q 2 ). Prior to testing, powder samples weighing 30–40 mg were transferred to the outgassing station and dried for 3 h to remove moisture and impurities from in the pores. The specific surface area was calculated by the multi-point Brunner-Emmett-Teller (BET) equation in the relative pressure ( P/P 0 ) range of 0.05–0.35 according to nitrogen adsorption data. The pore size distribution (PSD) was determined by employing the original density functional theory (DFT) model, and the smaller PSD ranging from 0.2–1.6 nm were acquired from CO 2 adsorption isotherms. The total pore volume of the samples was determined from the N 2 adsorption volume at P/P 0 = 0.995. The micropore volume and micropore surface areas were estimated by the t-plot method. The surface functional groups of samples were analyzed with Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of samples were recorded on a Thermo Fisher IS50 instrument in the wavelength range of 4000 − 500 cm − 1 . The surface morphology of the samples was observed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) images on a ZEISS SUPRA-55 instrument. A thermos gravimetric analyzer (TGA/DSC3+, METTLER Instrument) was used for measuring the thermal stability of the samples heated at a heating rate of 10°C min − 1 under N 2 flow (50 mL min − 1 ) to 800℃. 2.4 VOCs adsorption performance The static adsorption experiment of VOCs was performed on the modified thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA/DSC3+, METTLER Instrument). Before the adsorption test, the sample was heated to 373 K and kept for 30 min to remove residual gas in the pores. After cooling down to the adsorption temperature (303 K), the VOCs adsorption was completed by bubbling into the adsorption chamber. In addition, to further assess sample regeneration, the sample was subsequently heated to 373 K at a rate of 10 K/min at the end of adsorption to complete the desorption of the adsorbent. After the temperature of the adsorption chamber cooled down to the adsorption temperature (30℃), the adsorption procedure above continued. Regeneration performance was tested by repeating the above adsorption-regeneration process for five cycles. 2.5 Isosteric heat of adsorption and adsorption kinetics Isoheat of adsorption (Q st ) can reflect the degree of homogeneity of the adsorbent surface[ 40 ]. Representative samples were selected in each chapter, and CO 2 adsorption isotherms of samples at 0℃ and 25℃ were obtained by Quantachrome Autosorb Q 2 instrument. Based on the above adsorption data, the equivalent adsorption heat of activated carbon was calculated according to Virial equation (Eq. 1 , 2 ). Isoheat of adsorption (Q st ) can reflect the degree of homogeneity of the adsorbent surface[ 40 ]. Representative samples were selected in each chapter, and CO 2 adsorption isotherms of samples at 0℃ and 25℃ were obtained by Quantachrome Autosorb Q 2 instrument. Based on the above adsorption data, the equivalent adsorption heat of activated carbon was calculated according to Virial equation (Eq. 1 , 2 ). $$\\text{ln}p=\\text{ln}q+\\frac{1}{\\text{T}\\sum _{i=0}^{m}{a}_{i}{q}^{i}}+\\sum _{i=0}^{n}{{b}_{i}q}^{i}$$ 1 Where, R = 8.314 J/(mol·K); T (K) is the test temperature; p is the relative pressure (kPa); q is the adsorption capacity (mmol/g).a i and b i are Virial coefficients; m and n are the coefficients used to describe isotherms. $${Q_{{\\text{st}}}}= - {\\text{R}}\\sum\\limits_{{{\\text{i=0}}}}^{{\\text{m}}} {{{\\text{a}}_{\\text{i}}}} {{\\text{q}}^{\\text{i}}}$$ 2 Where, Q st is the equivalent adsorption heat of the test sample (kJ/ mol). Adsorption kinetics is considered as one of the key parameters of adsorption system, and the study of adsorption kinetics is helpful to explore the chemisorption mechanism. In each chapter, n-hexane adsorption curves of representative samples were selected, and the pseudo-first-order kinetic model (Eq. 3 – 3 ) and pseudo-second-order kinetic model (Eq. 3 – 4 ) were used to fit the experimental data [ 41 – 43 ]. The diffusion mechanism of adsorbents was further studied by Weber-Morris model (Eq. 3 – 5 ) [ 44 ]. $${q_t}={q_e} - {q_e}{e^{ - {k_1}t}}$$ 3 Where, q t is the adsorption amount at t (min) time (mg/g); q e is the equilibrium adsorption capacity (mg/g); k 1 is the rate constant for the pseudo-first-order model (1/min). $${q_t}=\\frac{{{k_2}{q_e}^{2}t}}{{1+{k_2}{q_e}t}}$$ 4 Where k 2 is a pseudo-second-order rate constant, g/(mg⋅min). $${q_t}={K_{di}}{t^{0.5}}+{c_i}$$ 5 Where, K di is the internal diffusion rate constant, mg/(g·min0.5); c i is the linear intercept (mg/g). 3. Results and discussion 3.1 Characterization The morphologies of the synthesized WPCF and HWPCF are illustrated in Fig. 2 . As depicted in Fig. 2 (a, b), WPCF exhibited large irregular-shaped block structure, while the HWPCF primarily composed of smooth flakes. These differences were attributed to carbon microspheres mainly formed in the hydrothermal carbonization process and the subsequent KOH activation caused induces significant surface damage and modification[ 45 , 46 ]. To further validate this phenomenon, Fig. 2 (c, d) shows the morphology of HWPCF-0 before and after KOH activation. The noticeable difference underscores the impact of KOH activation on hydrothermal carbon spheres. It is evident that the original carbon microsphere undergo damaged and ruptured, leading to distinct globular breaks. In order to investigate the effect of β-alanine addition on morphology, Fig. 2 (e, f) showcases the morphology of HWPCF-1 before and after KOH activation. As is shown, the modified HWPCF-1 with the addition of β-alanine exhibited a three-dimensional internet with hierarchical porous structure. This transformation can be attributed to the hydrothermal condensation reaction between wheat powder and β-alanine, inducing an etching reaction on carbon microspheres and resulting in the formation of more abundant pores[ 47 ]. The N 2 adsorption-desorption isotherms for WPCF and HWPCF are depicted in Fig. 3 (a). According to the IUPAC classification, the samples exhibited characteristics of type Ⅰ isotherms. The adsorption isotherms for all five samples showed a steep increase at a lower relative partial pressure ( P/P 0 < 0.1), indicative of microporous structures. For WPCF, HWPCF-1 and HWPCF-1.5, hysteresis loops were observed at relative partial pressure ( P/P 0 = 0.45), confirming the presence of mecropore. Figure 3 (b) further reveals detailed pore size distribution of adsorbents. All five samples exhibited both micropore and mecropore with size of 0.4-4 nm. With the β-alanine increased, the pore size distribution of HWPCF became higher and wider, indicating that the improvement in structural properties was mainly dominated by the micropore formation and expansion. Specifically, the textural properties of the obtained samples are summarized in Table 1 . The structural properties of HWPCF were superior to WPCF, and the addition of β-alanine further optimized these properties. Among them, HWPCF-1 exhibited the highest specific surface area and total pore volume of 2278 m 2 /g and 1.17 cm 3 /g, respectively. It contributed to the reasons that hydrogen carbon contained more surface groups compared to the pyrolysis carbon occurred more sufficient reaction with KOH and the gas (CH 3 , NH 3 , CO 2 ) produced from β-alanine modified carbon on the activated process promoted the porosity of carbon through foaming, proving proper introduction of β-alanine could contribute to the improved structural properties. S micro is calculated by the t-plot method. The S micro followed the trend of first increasing and then decreasing corresponding to the BET results. It was explained that when a large amount of β-alanine was used for hydrothermal carbonization, more gases (CH 3 , NH 3 , CO 2 ) generated through a high-temperature driven drastic reaction further reaction of small-sized pores in carbon, resulting in enlarged pores. Hence, the S micro of HWPCF-1 and HWPCF-1.5 are less than that of HWPCF-0.5. It was also responsible for the increase in the specific surface area and pore volume of the samples. Table 1 Pore parameters of WPCF and HWPCF. Sample S BET (m 2 ·g -1 ) V Total (cm 3 ·g -1 ) S Micro (m 2 ·g -1 ) Average pore diameter (nm) WPCF 1348 0.65 1039 1.9 HWPCF-0 1821 0.80 1566 1.8 HWPCF-0.5 1945 0.87 1682 1.8 HWPCF-1 2278 1.17 1334 2.0 HWPCF-1.5 1836 0.96 1035 2.1 Table 2 Comparison of Specific Surface Area Using Wheat Powder as a Precursor Material Carbon precursor Activation method/Additive Impregnation ratio Activation temperature (℃) S BET (m 2 /g) V tot (cm 3 /g) Ref. WPCF KOH 1: 3 800 1348 0.65 This work HWPCF-1 KOH + β-丙氨酸 1: 3 + 1g 800 2278 1.17 This work HPC KOH 1: 1 700 1313 0.716 [ 37 ] Si/SENBIOM-5 - - 750 198.110 - [ 48 ] WFC - - 800 1.325 - [ 49 ] N-MC-W SiO 2 + H2O - 850 672 0.86 [ 50 ] The FTIR spectra of WPCF and HWPCF are depicted in Fig. 4 , showcasing four discernible bonds observed in the spectrum. The bonds at 3441 cm − 1 were attributed to the O-H stretching vibrations, while peaks observed at 2316 cm − 1 and 1578 cm − 1 were attributed to the C = C and C = N stretching vibrations, respectively. The peak was observed at 1100 cm − 1 , which was the characteristic of stretched vibrations of C-N. It was noticeable that HWPCF exhibited stronger characteristics of groups than WPCF, because hydrochar by hydrothermal carbonization possess more oxygenated functional group(OFG). However, the addition of β-alanine made some changes in this situation. With the incorporation of β-alanine, the O-H peak intensity of HWPCF weakens, while the C-N peak intensifies. This can be attributed to the fact that the addition of β-alanine enhances the dehydration and polymerization reactions between wheat powder and alanine during the hydrothermal process, indicating an increase in the aromatization degree of HWPCF. Highly thermally stable porous materials confer an advantage in adsorption applications. The weight loss behavior of WPCF and HWPCF under a nitrogen atmosphere was investigated over the temperature range of 30℃ to 800℃. As shown in Fig. 5 which illustrating the TG/DTG curves of WPCF and HWPCF. It was observed from the TG curves that all samples exhibited a similar trend of weight loss. At temperatures equal to or below 100°C, all five samples displayed significant weight reduction primarily attributed to the presence of water vapor or steam. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the addition of β-alanine enriched the O surface functional group content of PCF, thereby enhancing its affinity for water vapor and facilitating water binding. However, a slight decrease in weight was merely observed between 100℃ to 800℃. The DTG curve results corroborated this observation, showing a single exothermic peak at 70°C, consistent with the TG results. This indicates the excellent thermal stability of the samples at high temperatures. The overall high-thermal stability observed in the TG/DTG curves enhances the suitability of these materials for adsorption applications. 3.2 Adsorption-desorption properties To study the effect of β-alanine modification on the adsorption performance of samples, the CO 2 adsorption performance was studied. The CO 2 adsorption isotherms are shown in Fig. 5 . With the increase of β-alanine addition, the CO 2 adsorption amount increased first and then decreases. Among the samples, HWPCF-1 possessed the largest specific surface area, while HWPCF-0.5 exhibited the highest CO 2 adsorption amount, reaching up to 4.99 mmol·g − 1 . This was explained by the fact that HWPCF-0.5 possessed higher microporous areas, which was consistent with the results that micropores determined the amount of CO 2 adsorption in other papers. In addition, it was noted that HWPCF-0.5, HWPCF-1 and HWPCF-1.5 showed higher adsorption rate at low pressure than HWPCF-0 and WPCF, because the surface chemical properties of the sample improved by chemical reaction between β-alanine and wheat powder, and the doping of nitrogen atoms promoted HWPCF to have higher affinity for CO 2 through quadrupole moment effect. The static adsorption curves of WPCF and HWPCF for acetone and n-hexane vapor at 30℃ is shown in Fig. 6 . It was observed that hydrothermal carbonization-derived samples exhibited higher VOCs adsorption compared to pyrolytic carbon-based ones, due to their larger specific surface area resulting from hydrothermal carbon treatment process employed during sample preparation. Among them, HWPCF-1 exhibited the highest adsorption capacities for acetone and n-hexane, reaching 608.7 mg/g and 517.6 mg/g, respectively. This is 102% higher for acetone and 87.1% higher for n-hexane compared to WPCF (301.9 mg/g and 276.6 mg/g). With the increase of the β-alanine addition amount, the decrease of the adsorption amount was observed in HWPCF-1.5, which was related to the excessive etching of the carbon structure caused by the foaming action of the excess gas and KOH activation, and the destruction of the PCF pore structure. The hydrothermal carbonization treatment and the addition of β-alanine have yielded a sample with exceptional specific surface area and abundant surface functional groups, thereby enhancing the potential of HWPCF as an outstanding adsorbent. Compared to HWPCF-0 and HWPCF-0.5, both HWPCF-1 and HWPCF-1.5 exhibited higher acetone vapor adsorption capacity under identical adsorption time due to their possession of more mesopores that provide mass transfer channels for acetone molecules while reducing steric hindrance. Reusability Desorption performance, regeneration efficiency, and multiple recycling times also play an important role in determining the efficiency and economy of the entire adsorption process in terms of adsorption techniques. HWPCF-1 not only possessed a large specific surface area and pore volume, but also showed a high amount of adsorption. As shown in Fig. 8 , the cyclic adsorption graphs of WPCF and the modified HWPCF-1 are presented. The adsorption amount of acetone and n-hexane vapor on HWPCF-1 decreased slightly during the 5 adsorption-desorption cycles. Acetone retained 93% of its initial adsorption capacity, while n-hexane retained 97%. This may be caused by the reason that wheat powder based AC had abundance of functional groups on the surface by chemical reaction with β-alanine, which improve the adhesion force with hydrophilic acetone. At the same time, it was observed that the complete desorption of n-hexane took longer time and required a higher temperature than acetone. This was attributed to the high boiling point of VOCs with a strong affinity for the sorbent. n-Hexane (69℃) exhibits a higher boiling point than acetone (56.5℃). As a result, it was more difficult to desorb compared to the low boiling point VOCs. Reusability results show that HWPCF-1 has great adsorption performance beyond common and excellent desorption capability after multiple cycles and improved recycling utilization, which is promising for wide applications in the PCF industry. 3.3 Adsorption capacity analysis The Virial model was utilized to analyze the isosteric adsorption heat curves of CO 2 adsorption isotherms of WPCF and HWPCF-0.5 at temperatures of 273 K and 298 K, as shown in Fig. 9 . The trend of the equal adsorption heat curves of the two carbon materials is generally similar, with Q st gradually decreasing with the increase of CO 2 adsorption amount. This is because, in the initial stage of adsorption, the adsorption molecules are more likely to come into contact with positions having suitable energy, and a large number of empty adsorption sites make it easier for CO 2 to adsorb. With the continuous filling of adsorption pores, the surface coverage of the two carbon materials increases. The adsorbate becomes difficult to be adsorbed on the surface of the carbon material, resulting in a reduction in adsorption heat, indicating that the surfaces of HWPCF-0.5 and WPCF are uneven[ 51 ]. Table 2 presents the equation parameters of the Virial model. Upon observing the data in Fig. 9 , it is evident that the fitting degree of the Virial model to the CO 2 adsorption data of the two carbon materials exceeds 0.99, effectively capturing the variation in their adsorption heat. The initial adsorption heat of HWPCF-0.5 reached 44.1 kJ mol, indicating that CO 2 adsorption on HWPCF-0.5 was constrained by both physical and chemical adsorption. This is attributed to the improvement in surface chemical properties of HWPCF-0.5 following β-alanine modification, which increased the affinity between activated carbon and CO 2 due to the increased surface N functional group. The adsorption heat of WPCF is less than 40 kJ/mol, suggesting that CO 2 is primarily physically adsorbed on its surface. Table 3 Equation parameters for the Virial model Materials a 0 a 1 a 2 a 3 b 0 b 1 R 2 Q st (kJ/mol) WPCF -3688 228 18 13 14.8 1.5 0.99 30.7 HWPCF-1 -5298 839 -84 34 22.6 2.9 0.99 44.1 To examine the adsorption kinetics characteristics of acetone and n-hexane molecules on WPCF and HWPCF-1, the fitting curves and parameters of the kinetic model were obtained. These are respectively presented in Fig. 10 and Table 3 . Based on the fitted regression coefficient (R 2 ), it can be inferred that both kinetic models effectively describe the adsorption of acetone vapor and n-hexane vapor by WPCF and HWPCF-1. In the case of acetone vapor adsorption on WPCF and HWPCF-1, the first-order kinetic model exhibits a higher R 2 than the latter, suggesting that the adsorption of acetone molecules on WPCF and HWPCF-1 is predominantly surface adsorption[ 52 , 53 ]. The modified HWPCF-1 exhibits a better fit for the adsorption of n-hexane vapor with the second-order kinetic model, indicating that the adsorption of n-hexane on HWPCF-1 includes both surface adsorption and adsorption within the pores[ 54 ]. The difference in the adsorption state between acetone and n-hexane is attributed to the weak interaction between acetone molecules and pores with smaller kinetic diameter. The differences in the adsorption state between WPCF and HWPCF-1 are mainly due to two reasons: firstly, the doping of N and O atoms of alanine enhances the adsorption; secondly, the smaller pore size of WPCF weakens the adsorption of n-hexane molecules in WPCF pores due to larger steric hindrance. The modified HWPCF-1 exhibits a more abundant and ordered pore structure, and the reasonable pore size distribution optimizes the diffusion of n-hexane molecules within the pores. Table 4 Fitting parameters of pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order model for the adsorption of acetone and n-hexane vapor on WPCF and HWPCF-1 adsorbent Adsorbed gas pseudo-first-order model pseudo-second-order model q e k 1 R 2 q e k 2 R 2 WPCF Acetone vapor 443.2 0.299 0.991 522.1 6.86×10 − 4 0.968 HWPCF-1 586.3 0.284 0.996 616 4.79×10 − 4 0.981 WPCF N-hexane vapor 274.9 0.098 0.978 297.5 2.01×10 − 4 0.967 HWPCF-1 497.7 0.157 0.988 518.8 2.85×10 − 4 0.994 Figure 11 displays the Weber-Morris model fitting curve for the adsorption of acetone and n-hexane vapor by WPCF and HWPCF-1. The curve is divided into three parts, indicating that the adsorption is controlled by multiple reaction mechanisms[ 55 ]. In the initial stage, the surface of porous carbon contains numerous vacant active sites, and the adsorption process primarily involves surface adsorption. As adsorption progresses, the number of active sites decreases, and the adsorbate must be transported through the pores to the interior for complete adsorption, with intragranular diffusion playing a significant role. During these stages, both WPCF and HWPCF-1 exhibit the highest rate constant K d2 , indicating that the adsorption rates of these samples are primarily controlled by internal diffusion, consistent with the findings of the adsorption kinetics. The third stage represents the adsorption equilibrium, where the initial diffusion of n-hexane and acetone molecules occupies the majority of active sites, causing subsequent gas molecules to encounter increased diffusion resistance and a noticeable decrease in adsorption rate[ 56 ]. The adsorption rate of acetone for the same sample was observed to be higher than that of n-hexane (161.2 > 129.7, 221.3 > 177.7). This is attributed to the smaller kinetic diameter of acetone molecules compared to n-hexane molecules, resulting in reduced steric hindrance during adsorption and a higher adsorption rate. The results demonstrate a good fit between the calculated values of the Weber-Morris model and the experimental data, indicating that the adsorption rates of acetone and n-hexane vapor are limited by a combination of intraparticle diffusion, membrane diffusion, and pore filling. 4. Conclusion According to the above results, we successfully synthesized wheat powder based Porous Carbon Foam (PCF) by hydrothermal carbonization and KOH activation using sustainable wheat powder as raw material and β-alanine as modifier. The addition of β-alanine can promote the cleavage of the inner ring structure of polysaccharide. With the increase of β-alanine dosage, KOH is expected to penetrate and occupy more potential sites, which is conducive to opening and expanding pore structures. The obtained samples have reasonable micromesoporous structure distribution, large specific surface area and functional groups. The activated carbon of wheat powder prepared by hydrothermal method has good adsorption properties for acetone and n-hexane vapor, and the adsorption capacity of HWPCF-1 reaches 554.9 mg/g and 608.7 mg/g, respectively. HWPCF has a unique layered porous carbon structure that ensures rapid diffusion and desorption of volatile organic compound (VOCs) by shortening the diffusion path. After 5 cycles of testing, the sample maintained excellent adsorption capacity, confirming its reusability. This study provides a new approach to improve the pore structure and surface chemical properties of biomass porous carbon through the effective utilization of sustainable waste (wheat powder) and the strategy of amino acid modification using β-alanine. Declarations Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no know competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgments This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52174058), the Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Technology (No. CDYQCY202301) and the Postgraduate Research and Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province (No. KYCX23_3029). References Wang, X., W. Huang, L. Fu, X. Sun, J. Zhong, S. Dong & J. Zhu (2021) Preparation of superhydrophilic/underwater superoleophobic membranes for separating oil-in-water emulsion: mechanism, progress, and perspective. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research 18:285–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-020-00428-y Adebajo, M. O., R. L. Frost, J. T. Kloprogge, O. Carmody & S. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-3889232\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":269536325,\"identity\":\"958967e2-fe5e-4384-bd6c-d19116a1fa7b\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Weiqiu 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powder\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/224d111bc634cf375dcc2826.png\"},{\"id\":50367804,\"identity\":\"5eb2ed74-1fe7-48dc-bae3-3d1556a61911\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:16\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":1817582,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSEM images of the morphology of the synthesized WPCF and HWPCF.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage2.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/4ca7faf45c5cb38022c2386d.png\"},{\"id\":50367806,\"identity\":\"a44ef0f3-010a-4d45-82ce-2c048a9a6d04\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:16\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":43795,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e(a) N\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption-desorption isotherms at 77 K, (b) pore size distributions of WPCF and HWPCF.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage3.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/4a848597c1a0be0e286e93df.png\"},{\"id\":50367811,\"identity\":\"0f94fe4b-6eb3-4dcc-be03-d9957087a195\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:19\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"Figure 4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":18242,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFTIR spectra of WPCF and HWPCF.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage4.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/4853fa246097eb91043e6032.png\"},{\"id\":50367789,\"identity\":\"dcca2277-e84b-4b80-aa50-1936077351dc\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:11\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":18446,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTG/DTG curves of WPCF and HWPCF in nitrogen\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage5.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/bbae45bf71b15b84e8a53a38.png\"},{\"id\":50367793,\"identity\":\"bc08b55b-2b0d-4597-b989-f9c5dcd958ac\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:14\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":18038,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption isotherms at 0℃\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage6.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/7009242ef27677d229a114cb.png\"},{\"id\":50367800,\"identity\":\"013f4f0b-c97d-4484-8a4e-dab34c435e0d\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:15\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":27205,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eWPCF and HWPCF adsorb (a) acetone and (b) n-hexane vapor at 30℃\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage7.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/79bcca6eeab01e86cb081208.png\"},{\"id\":50367799,\"identity\":\"7d36a805-69fa-47e7-9422-bdc472e96c48\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:15\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":8,\"title\":\"Figure 8\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":239622,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e(a) and (b) are the five continuous adsorption plots of WPCF and HWPCF-1 in acetone;(c) and (d) are the five continuous adsorption plots of WPCF and HWPCF-1 in n-hexane.\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage8.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/9c90515e7a8c8747386faab7.png\"},{\"id\":50367805,\"identity\":\"8a8402e0-1ef8-46d7-b1dd-c0491784804d\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:16\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":9,\"title\":\"Figure 9\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":12239,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eIsosteric heat of adsorption\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage9.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/592acabc4e4ff0816a75da1c.png\"},{\"id\":50367808,\"identity\":\"083faea9-6107-48b7-b1fc-12832fca3ea6\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:17\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":10,\"title\":\"Figure 10\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":99511,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ePseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order model fitting curve of WPCF and HWPCF-1\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage10.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/16ca6cbdd32295456a02b05c.png\"},{\"id\":50367791,\"identity\":\"d8cd71f8-975d-45f9-b85d-ed3fb642fcc3\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:16:13\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":11,\"title\":\"Figure 11\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":96334,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eFitting curve of particle internal diffusion model of (a) acetone and (b)n-hexane vapor adsorption.\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage11.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/6d3c834e5552ef0358f890d3.png\"},{\"id\":50368742,\"identity\":\"91b620d1-0670-48f6-bb92-c222ce18308d\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-30 12:25:32\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":3129067,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3889232/v1/248e596a-96cf-4bd2-93e7-34a23dccc459.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Amino acid-modified porous carbon foams derived from wheat powder with enhanced adsorption performance for VOCs\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Highlights\",\"content\":\"\\u003cul\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eWheat powder-based\\u0026nbsp;porous carbon foam\\u0026nbsp;was synthesized via hydrothermal carbonization followed by KOH activation.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eThe addition of \\u0026beta;-alanine promoted the cleavage of polysaccharides between the ring structural units.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eThe resulting HWPCF demonstrated exceptional textural characteristics along with remarkable adsorption capacity towards VOC\\u003csub\\u003eS\\u003c/sub\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ul\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"1. Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eAmid the rapid development of urbanization and industrialization, coupled with the continued surge in energy consumption within the oil and gas transportation sector, an excess of volatile organic compound (VOCs) have been released into the ecological environment, This not only poses a serious threat to human health but also significantly impedes the sustainable development of the social economy[\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR2 CR3 CR4\\\" citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e]. In addressing the challenge of VOCs removal, adsorption stands out as an efficient and cost-effective control strategy due to its capacity for regenerating and reusing adsorbents. The pivotal role of adsorption materials in the techniques cannot be overstated[\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR7 CR8 CR9 CR10 CR11\\\" citationid=\\\"CR6\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e12\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Porous carbon foam (PCF) emerges as a widely employed solution for the adsorption and separation of VOCs within the realm of oil and gas storage and transportation. This preference is attributed to its diverse raw material sources, expansive surface area, distinctive porous structure, and controlled surface functional groups[\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR14\\\" citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e13\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e15\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe emitted VOCs consist mostly of molecules with different sizes. The multistage pore structure of porous carbon foam enables it to effectively adapt to the adsorption of VOCs, making it a highly efficient adsorbent. The distribution of pore structure and surface chemical properties of PCF is the key factor in determining its adsorption capacity. According to the different pore sizes, the internal pore structure is mainly categorized as macropores (\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;50nm), mesopores (2-50nm) and micropores (\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;2nm). The size and shape of these pores allow them to adsorb organic molecules of different sizes, In the process of VOCs adsorption, micropores serve as main adsorption sites while mesopore can effectively enhance mass transfer processes by providing additional sites for adsorption, macropores typically act as transport channel of VOCs[\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR17\\\" citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e16\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e18\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Zhang et.al[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e19\\u003c/span\\u003e] prepared micro-mesoporous AC derived from coconut shell with the specific surface area of 2763 m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e and pore volume of 2.376 cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e through carbonization and H\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003ePO\\u003csub\\u003e4\\u003c/sub\\u003e activation at 865 ℃ for 2 h. The obtained porous carbon exhibited excellent adsorption capacity for benzene (1846 mg g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e), methanol (1777 mg g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e), n-hexane (1510 mg g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e) and cyclohexane (1766 mg g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e). Therefore, PCF with a high specific surface areas combined with reasonable pore size distribution has superior adsorption capacities along with faster transport velocities when it comes to dealing with VOCs.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe surface chemical properties of PCF are determined by the presence of various functional groups, including acid, neutral, and alkaline groups. The type and amount of functional groups in PCF primarily consists of carbon with minor amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements. These factors also affect its adsorption capacity. Heteroatoms in PCF form distinct surface groups, Since the atomic size of heteroatoms is similar to that of carbon atoms, incorporating them into the structure of PCF does not disrupt its original framework; instead, it allows for better integration. Heteroatom modification primarily depends on the interaction between heteroatoms and specific molecules to enhance its adsorption capabilities. Among them, oxygen and functional nitrogen groups have been identified as the primary factors influencing VOCs adsorption[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e20\\u003c/span\\u003e]. It has been established that introducing heteroatoms into the surface of porous carbon is beneficial for optimizing the adsorption capacity of VOCs. There are two types of methods for introducing heteroatoms into the PCF surface: post-treatment methods and in-situ synthetic methods. Post-treatment methods involve using dopants rich in heteroatoms to modify the surface of raw porous carbon. In-situ synthetic methods involve preparing porous carbon using biomass or polymers with a high content of heteroatoms (or treated with dopants) as precursors by carbonization. Porous carbon materials synthesized in-situ contain a higher fraction of heteroatoms, which are uniformly distributed over the carbon skeleton, compared to post-processing methods. The in-situ synthesis method is more suitable for the synthesis of excellent heteroatom-doped porous carbon due to its simplicity and efficiency. Generally, in-situ doping methods include pyrolysis, activation, hydrothermal and so on.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe use of biomass by converting it into functional carbon is currently of great interest due to its non-toxic, renewable and versatile properties. Several efforts had been successfully made to prepare biomass-derived active carbons as novel adsorbents for VOCs and CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e capture materials. Singh et.al[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR21\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e21\\u003c/span\\u003e] synthesized arundo donax-based activated microporous carbons having a specific surface area and micropore volume of 1122 m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e and 0.50 cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e by combination of arundo donax and solid KOH at 600℃ for 2 h. The preparation of porous carbon by hydrothermal carbonization has applied universally in realizing efficient conversion and application of biomass resources due to its advantages of economy and environmental friendliness. It is commonly believed that hydrothermal carbonization is a thermochemical conversion technique that uses subcritical water to convert wet/dry biomass into carbonaceous products via feedstock fractionation. After hydrolysis, dehydration, decarboxylation, condensation, polymerization, aromatization, and structural adjustment of biomass, the resulting hydrogenic carbon contains more surface functional groups than pyrolytic carbon, and is an excellent carbon precursor for the preparation of new porous and morphologically rich carbon materials. Yang et al[\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR23 CR24\\\" citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e22\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e25\\u003c/span\\u003e] developed an ultrahigh performance of N-doping engineering carbon using porous carbon derived from banana peels as raw materials by impregnating with melamine/urea and its acetone adsorption capacity was 44.89 mmol g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e under 30 kPa of acetone partial pressure which shows nearly 1.83 folds enhancement of polar VOCs compared to the original AC. Hydrothermal carbonization[\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR27\\\" citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e26\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e28\\u003c/span\\u003e] has promising applications in biomass conversion to carbon as an alternative to direct carbonization. Ma et.al [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR30 CR31 CR32\\\" citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e29\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR33\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e33\\u003c/span\\u003e]fabricated N,O-doped porous carbon using waste tobacco stem as the carbon precursor and ethylenediamine as the nitrogen source by a hydrothermal method and investigated the acetone adsorption in carbon slit pore model by molecular simulations. The simulations results suggested that oxygen and nitrogen functional groups doped on the porous carbon surface can enhance the carbon surface polarity and promote the affinity between the carbon surface and the acetone molecule. This study places a specific focus on utilizing wheat powder as a precursor for the synthesis of porous carbon foam (PCF) materials. The investigation involves exploring the preparation of PCF using wheat powder as a carbon precursor. Wheat, the world's second most-produced grain after maize, is not only a major food resource for mankind, but also plays a critical role as an industrial raw material. It has become an ideal raw material for large-scale synthesis of high-value carbon materials due to its wide range of sources, biomass sustainability and rich polysaccharide structure[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR34\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e34\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR35\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e35\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Hong et.al[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR36\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e36\\u003c/span\\u003e] prepared the AC using sustainable wheat powder as carbon precursor by carbonization at 900 for 2 h, followed by KOH activation at 700 for 1 h, which exhibited a specific surface area of 1438 m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e and pore volume of 0.654 cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e at the KOH/C ratio of 3 and great capture for CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e of 5.70 mol kg\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Wu et al.[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR37\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e37\\u003c/span\\u003e] fabricated activated carbon having a specific surface area of 1313 m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e and a pore volume of 0.716 cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. derived from wheat powder by one-step pyrolysis (700℃ for 2 h) by chemical activation with KOH. To the best of our knowledge, previous studies of wheat powder AC using wheat powder have been made by pyrolysis carbonization followed by chemical activation without further modification, and their textural properties are dominated by microporous structures, which are mainly used for CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e capture. Previous studies have investigated the adsorption performance of some volatile organic compound (VOCs) on phosphoric acid, urea, melamine, and amino acid-modified porous carbon foam (PCF), enhancing their environmental friendliness and availability[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR38\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e38\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR39\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e39\\u003c/span\\u003e]. However, research on the adsorption performance of VOCs on amino acid-modified activated carbon is relatively scarce To address this research gap, our study utilized sustainable wheat powder as a raw material, mixed with β-alanine, and employed a hydrothermal alkaline activation method to prepare PCF. This preparation process ensured that the resulting material exhibited a well-defined micro-mesoporous structure, a significant surface area, and relatively abundant functional groups. Subsequently, we systematically investigated the adsorption behavior of acetone and n-hexane as representative VOCs and CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e. Through this research, we aim to gain a deeper understanding of the performance of amino acid-modified activated carbon in VOCs and CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption, providing valuable insights for the design of environmentally friendly adsorbents.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2. Experimental sections\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Materials and reagents\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAll chemicals and regents were of analytical grad and used without further purification. Wheat powder was purchased from a supermarket. β-alanine was obtained from Aladdin Reagent Company. Potassium hydroxide (KOH, 85 wt%) was supplied by Lingfeng Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. Hydrochloric acid (HCl, 38 wt%) was sourced from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd. The deionized (DI) water was provided by the laboratory.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Synthesis of HWPFC-x\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe mixture of 5 g wheat powder and β-alanine (the weights of β-alanine was 0, 0.5 g, 1 g, 1.5 g) was stirred and sealed with 75 mL deionized water in Teflon-lined autoclave (100 mL). The mixture was then subjected to hydrothermal treatment at a temperature of 200℃ for a duration of 24 h followed by natural cooling to room temperature. The resulting dark precipitate was separated from the aqueous solution and collected by filtration. Subsequently, the collected samples were washed multiple times with deionized water before being dried at 105\\u0026deg;C in a vacuum oven. The treated samples were further impregnated in KOH solution at an impregnation ratio of 1:3. The mixture was then dried and transferred into a vacuum atmosphere sintering furnace, which had been maintained at 800 ℃ for 1 h under N\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e flow at 5℃\\u0026middot;min\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The prepared samples were treated with 2 mol\\u0026middot;L\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e HCl (hydrochloric acid solution) at 60℃ for 2 h followed by deionized water until achieving a neutral pH levels, they were then dried once more at 105\\u0026deg;C. The PCF produced through this process was labeled as HWPCF-x, with x representing the mass amount of β-alanine used (x\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0, 0.5, 1, 1.5). For comparison, the PCF produced without the addition of β-alanine, but following the same steps, is designated as WPCF. A schematic illustration depicting the synthesis procedure is provided in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.3 Materials characterization\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAdsorption and desorption isotherms of N\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e at 77 K and CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e at 273 K were obtained with automatic volumetric adsorption apparatuses (Quantachrome Autosorb Q\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e). Prior to testing, powder samples weighing 30\\u0026ndash;40 mg were transferred to the outgassing station and dried for 3 h to remove moisture and impurities from in the pores. The specific surface area was calculated by the multi-point Brunner-Emmett-Teller (BET) equation in the relative pressure (\\u003cem\\u003eP/P\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e) range of 0.05\\u0026ndash;0.35 according to nitrogen adsorption data. The pore size distribution (PSD) was determined by employing the original density functional theory (DFT) model, and the smaller PSD ranging from 0.2\\u0026ndash;1.6 nm were acquired from CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption isotherms. The total pore volume of the samples was determined from the N\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption volume at \\u003cem\\u003eP/P\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.995. The micropore volume and micropore surface areas were estimated by the t-plot method. The surface functional groups of samples were analyzed with Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of samples were recorded on a Thermo Fisher IS50 instrument in the wavelength range of 4000\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;500 cm\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The surface morphology of the samples was observed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) images on a ZEISS SUPRA-55 instrument. A thermos gravimetric analyzer (TGA/DSC3+, METTLER Instrument) was used for measuring the thermal stability of the samples heated at a heating rate of 10\\u0026deg;C min\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e under N\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e flow (50 mL min\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e) to 800℃.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec6\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.4 VOCs adsorption performance\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe static adsorption experiment of VOCs was performed on the modified thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA/DSC3+, METTLER Instrument). Before the adsorption test, the sample was heated to 373 K and kept for 30 min to remove residual gas in the pores. After cooling down to the adsorption temperature (303 K), the VOCs adsorption was completed by bubbling into the adsorption chamber. In addition, to further assess sample regeneration, the sample was subsequently heated to 373 K at a rate of 10 K/min at the end of adsorption to complete the desorption of the adsorbent. After the temperature of the adsorption chamber cooled down to the adsorption temperature (30℃), the adsorption procedure above continued. Regeneration performance was tested by repeating the above adsorption-regeneration process for five cycles.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.5 Isosteric heat of adsorption and adsorption kinetics\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIsoheat of adsorption (Q\\u003csub\\u003est\\u003c/sub\\u003e) can reflect the degree of homogeneity of the adsorbent surface[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR40\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e40\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Representative samples were selected in each chapter, and CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption isotherms of samples at 0℃ and 25℃ were obtained by Quantachrome Autosorb Q\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e instrument. Based on the above adsorption data, the equivalent adsorption heat of activated carbon was calculated according to Virial equation (Eq.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). Isoheat of adsorption (Q\\u003csub\\u003est\\u003c/sub\\u003e) can reflect the degree of homogeneity of the adsorbent surface[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR40\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e40\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Representative samples were selected in each chapter, and CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption isotherms of samples at 0℃ and 25℃ were obtained by Quantachrome Autosorb Q\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e instrument. Based on the above adsorption data, the equivalent adsorption heat of activated carbon was calculated according to Virial equation (Eq.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Equ1\\\" class=\\\"Equation\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv format=\\\"TEX\\\" class=\\\"mathdisplay\\\" id=\\\"FileID_Equ1\\\" name=\\\"EquationSource\\\"\\u003e\\n$$\\\\text{ln}p=\\\\text{ln}q+\\\\frac{1}{\\\\text{T}\\\\sum _{i=0}^{m}{a}_{i}{q}^{i}}+\\\\sum _{i=0}^{n}{{b}_{i}q}^{i}$$\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"EquationNumber\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhere, R\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;8.314 J/(mol\\u0026middot;K); T (K) is the test temperature; p is the relative pressure (kPa); q is the adsorption capacity (mmol/g).a\\u003csub\\u003ei\\u003c/sub\\u003e and b\\u003csub\\u003ei\\u003c/sub\\u003e are Virial coefficients; m and n are the coefficients used to describe isotherms.\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Equ2\\\" class=\\\"Equation\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv format=\\\"TEX\\\" class=\\\"mathdisplay\\\" id=\\\"FileID_Equ2\\\" name=\\\"EquationSource\\\"\\u003e\\n$${Q_{{\\\\text{st}}}}= - {\\\\text{R}}\\\\sum\\\\limits_{{{\\\\text{i=0}}}}^{{\\\\text{m}}} {{{\\\\text{a}}_{\\\\text{i}}}} {{\\\\text{q}}^{\\\\text{i}}}$$\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"EquationNumber\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhere, Q\\u003csub\\u003est\\u003c/sub\\u003e is the equivalent adsorption heat of the test sample (kJ/ mol).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAdsorption kinetics is considered as one of the key parameters of adsorption system, and the study of adsorption kinetics is helpful to explore the chemisorption mechanism. In each chapter, n-hexane adsorption curves of representative samples were selected, and the pseudo-first-order kinetic model (Eq.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e) and pseudo-second-order kinetic model (Eq.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e) were used to fit the experimental data [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR42\\\" citationid=\\\"CR41\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e41\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR43\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e43\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The diffusion mechanism of adsorbents was further studied by Weber-Morris model (Eq.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Equ5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e) [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR44\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e44\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Equ3\\\" class=\\\"Equation\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv format=\\\"TEX\\\" class=\\\"mathdisplay\\\" id=\\\"FileID_Equ3\\\" name=\\\"EquationSource\\\"\\u003e\\n$${q_t}={q_e} - {q_e}{e^{ - {k_1}t}}$$\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"EquationNumber\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhere, q\\u003csub\\u003et\\u003c/sub\\u003e is the adsorption amount at t (min) time (mg/g); q\\u003csub\\u003ee\\u003c/sub\\u003e is the equilibrium adsorption capacity (mg/g); k\\u003csub\\u003e1\\u003c/sub\\u003e is the rate constant for the pseudo-first-order model (1/min).\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Equ4\\\" class=\\\"Equation\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv format=\\\"TEX\\\" class=\\\"mathdisplay\\\" id=\\\"FileID_Equ4\\\" name=\\\"EquationSource\\\"\\u003e\\n$${q_t}=\\\\frac{{{k_2}{q_e}^{2}t}}{{1+{k_2}{q_e}t}}$$\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"EquationNumber\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhere k\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e is a pseudo-second-order rate constant, g/(mg\\u0026sdot;min).\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Equ5\\\" class=\\\"Equation\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv format=\\\"TEX\\\" class=\\\"mathdisplay\\\" id=\\\"FileID_Equ5\\\" name=\\\"EquationSource\\\"\\u003e\\n$${q_t}={K_{di}}{t^{0.5}}+{c_i}$$\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"EquationNumber\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhere, K\\u003csub\\u003edi\\u003c/sub\\u003e is the internal diffusion rate constant, mg/(g\\u0026middot;min0.5); c\\u003csub\\u003ei\\u003c/sub\\u003e is the linear intercept (mg/g).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. Results and discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec9\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.1 Characterization\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe morphologies of the synthesized WPCF and HWPCF are illustrated in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e. As depicted in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e (a, b), WPCF exhibited large irregular-shaped block structure, while the HWPCF primarily composed of smooth flakes. These differences were attributed to carbon microspheres mainly formed in the hydrothermal carbonization process and the subsequent KOH activation caused induces significant surface damage and modification[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR45\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e45\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR46\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e46\\u003c/span\\u003e]. To further validate this phenomenon, Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e (c, d) shows the morphology of HWPCF-0 before and after KOH activation. The noticeable difference underscores the impact of KOH activation on hydrothermal carbon spheres. It is evident that the original carbon microsphere undergo damaged and ruptured, leading to distinct globular breaks. In order to investigate the effect of β-alanine addition on morphology, Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e (e, f) showcases the morphology of HWPCF-1 before and after KOH activation. As is shown, the modified HWPCF-1 with the addition of β-alanine exhibited a three-dimensional internet with hierarchical porous structure. This transformation can be attributed to the hydrothermal condensation reaction between wheat powder and β-alanine, inducing an etching reaction on carbon microspheres and resulting in the formation of more abundant pores[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR47\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e47\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe N\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption-desorption isotherms for WPCF and HWPCF are depicted in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e (a). According to the IUPAC classification, the samples exhibited characteristics of type Ⅰ isotherms. The adsorption isotherms for all five samples showed a steep increase at a lower relative partial pressure (\\u003cem\\u003eP/P\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.1), indicative of microporous structures. For WPCF, HWPCF-1 and HWPCF-1.5, hysteresis loops were observed at relative partial pressure (\\u003cem\\u003eP/P\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.45), confirming the presence of mecropore. Figure\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e (b) further reveals detailed pore size distribution of adsorbents. All five samples exhibited both micropore and mecropore with size of 0.4-4 nm. With the β-alanine increased, the pore size distribution of HWPCF became higher and wider, indicating that the improvement in structural properties was mainly dominated by the micropore formation and expansion. Specifically, the textural properties of the obtained samples are summarized in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e. The structural properties of HWPCF were superior to WPCF, and the addition of β-alanine further optimized these properties. Among them, HWPCF-1 exhibited the highest specific surface area and total pore volume of 2278 m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e/g and 1.17 cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/g, respectively. It contributed to the reasons that hydrogen carbon contained more surface groups compared to the pyrolysis carbon occurred more sufficient reaction with KOH and the gas (CH\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, NH\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e) produced from β-alanine modified carbon on the activated process promoted the porosity of carbon through foaming, proving proper introduction of β-alanine could contribute to the improved structural properties. S\\u003csub\\u003emicro\\u003c/sub\\u003e is calculated by the t-plot method. The S\\u003csub\\u003emicro\\u003c/sub\\u003e followed the trend of first increasing and then decreasing corresponding to the BET results. It was explained that when a large amount of β-alanine was used for hydrothermal carbonization, more gases (CH\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, NH\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e) generated through a high-temperature driven drastic reaction further reaction of small-sized pores in carbon, resulting in enlarged pores. Hence, the S\\u003csub\\u003emicro\\u003c/sub\\u003e of HWPCF-1 and HWPCF-1.5 are less than that of HWPCF-0.5. It was also responsible for the increase in the specific surface area and pore volume of the samples.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePore parameters of WPCF and HWPCF.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSample\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS\\u003csub\\u003eBET\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u0026middot;g\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eV\\u003csub\\u003eTotal\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u0026middot;g\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS\\u003csub\\u003eMicro\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u0026middot;g\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAverage pore diameter\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(nm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWPCF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1348\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.65\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1039\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHWPCF-0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1821\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.80\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1566\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHWPCF-0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1945\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.87\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1682\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHWPCF-1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2278\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.17\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1334\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHWPCF-1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1836\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.96\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1035\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eComparison of Specific Surface Area Using Wheat Powder as a Precursor Material\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCarbon precursor\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eActivation method/Additive\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eImpregnation ratio\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eActivation temperature (℃)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS\\u003csub\\u003eBET\\u003c/sub\\u003e (m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e/g)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eV\\u003csub\\u003etot\\u003c/sub\\u003e (cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/g)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRef.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWPCF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eKOH\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1: 3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e800\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1348\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.65\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis work\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHWPCF-1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eKOH\\u0026thinsp;+\\u0026thinsp;β-丙氨酸\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1: 3\\u0026thinsp;+\\u0026thinsp;1g\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e800\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2278\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.17\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis work\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHPC\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eKOH\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1: 1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e700\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1313\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.716\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR37\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e37\\u003c/span\\u003e]\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSi/SENBIOM-5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e750\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e198.110\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR48\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e48\\u003c/span\\u003e]\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWFC\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e800\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.325\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR49\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e49\\u003c/span\\u003e]\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eN-MC-W\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;+\\u0026thinsp;H2O\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e850\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e672\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.86\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR50\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e50\\u003c/span\\u003e]\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe FTIR spectra of WPCF and HWPCF are depicted in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e, showcasing four discernible bonds observed in the spectrum. The bonds at 3441 cm\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e were attributed to the O-H stretching vibrations, while peaks observed at 2316 cm\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e and 1578 cm\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e were attributed to the C\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;C and C\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;N stretching vibrations, respectively. The peak was observed at 1100 cm\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e, which was the characteristic of stretched vibrations of C-N. It was noticeable that HWPCF exhibited stronger characteristics of groups than WPCF, because hydrochar by hydrothermal carbonization possess more oxygenated functional group(OFG). However, the addition of β-alanine made some changes in this situation. With the incorporation of β-alanine, the O-H peak intensity of HWPCF weakens, while the C-N peak intensifies. This can be attributed to the fact that the addition of β-alanine enhances the dehydration and polymerization reactions between wheat powder and alanine during the hydrothermal process, indicating an increase in the aromatization degree of HWPCF.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHighly thermally stable porous materials confer an advantage in adsorption applications. The weight loss behavior of WPCF and HWPCF under a nitrogen atmosphere was investigated over the temperature range of 30℃ to 800℃. As shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e which illustrating the TG/DTG curves of WPCF and HWPCF. It was observed from the TG curves that all samples exhibited a similar trend of weight loss. At temperatures equal to or below 100\\u0026deg;C, all five samples displayed significant weight reduction primarily attributed to the presence of water vapor or steam. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the addition of β-alanine enriched the O surface functional group content of PCF, thereby enhancing its affinity for water vapor and facilitating water binding. However, a slight decrease in weight was merely observed between 100℃ to 800℃. The DTG curve results corroborated this observation, showing a single exothermic peak at 70\\u0026deg;C, consistent with the TG results. This indicates the excellent thermal stability of the samples at high temperatures. The overall high-thermal stability observed in the TG/DTG curves enhances the suitability of these materials for adsorption applications.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec10\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.2 Adsorption-desorption properties\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTo study the effect of β-alanine modification on the adsorption performance of samples, the CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption performance was studied. The CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption isotherms are shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e. With the increase of β-alanine addition, the CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption amount increased first and then decreases. Among the samples, HWPCF-1 possessed the largest specific surface area, while HWPCF-0.5 exhibited the highest CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption amount, reaching up to 4.99 mmol\\u0026middot;g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This was explained by the fact that HWPCF-0.5 possessed higher microporous areas, which was consistent with the results that micropores determined the amount of CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption in other papers. In addition, it was noted that HWPCF-0.5, HWPCF-1 and HWPCF-1.5 showed higher adsorption rate at low pressure than HWPCF-0 and WPCF, because the surface chemical properties of the sample improved by chemical reaction between β-alanine and wheat powder, and the doping of nitrogen atoms promoted HWPCF to have higher affinity for CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e through quadrupole moment effect.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe static adsorption curves of WPCF and HWPCF for acetone and n-hexane vapor at 30℃ is shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e. It was observed that hydrothermal carbonization-derived samples exhibited higher VOCs adsorption compared to pyrolytic carbon-based ones, due to their larger specific surface area resulting from hydrothermal carbon treatment process employed during sample preparation. Among them, HWPCF-1 exhibited the highest adsorption capacities for acetone and n-hexane, reaching 608.7 mg/g and 517.6 mg/g, respectively. This is 102% higher for acetone and 87.1% higher for n-hexane compared to WPCF (301.9 mg/g and 276.6 mg/g). With the increase of the β-alanine addition amount, the decrease of the adsorption amount was observed in HWPCF-1.5, which was related to the excessive etching of the carbon structure caused by the foaming action of the excess gas and KOH activation, and the destruction of the PCF pore structure. The hydrothermal carbonization treatment and the addition of β-alanine have yielded a sample with exceptional specific surface area and abundant surface functional groups, thereby enhancing the potential of HWPCF as an outstanding adsorbent. Compared to HWPCF-0 and HWPCF-0.5, both HWPCF-1 and HWPCF-1.5 exhibited higher acetone vapor adsorption capacity under identical adsorption time due to their possession of more mesopores that provide mass transfer channels for acetone molecules while reducing steric hindrance.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eReusability\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDesorption performance, regeneration efficiency, and multiple recycling times also play an important role in determining the efficiency and economy of the entire adsorption process in terms of adsorption techniques. HWPCF-1 not only possessed a large specific surface area and pore volume, but also showed a high amount of adsorption. As shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e, the cyclic adsorption graphs of WPCF and the modified HWPCF-1 are presented. The adsorption amount of acetone and n-hexane vapor on HWPCF-1 decreased slightly during the 5 adsorption-desorption cycles. Acetone retained 93% of its initial adsorption capacity, while n-hexane retained 97%. This may be caused by the reason that wheat powder based AC had abundance of functional groups on the surface by chemical reaction with β-alanine, which improve the adhesion force with hydrophilic acetone. At the same time, it was observed that the complete desorption of n-hexane took longer time and required a higher temperature than acetone. This was attributed to the high boiling point of VOCs with a strong affinity for the sorbent. n-Hexane (69℃) exhibits a higher boiling point than acetone (56.5℃). As a result, it was more difficult to desorb compared to the low boiling point VOCs. Reusability results show that HWPCF-1 has great adsorption performance beyond common and excellent desorption capability after multiple cycles and improved recycling utilization, which is promising for wide applications in the PCF industry.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.3 Adsorption capacity analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Virial model was utilized to analyze the isosteric adsorption heat curves of CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption isotherms of WPCF and HWPCF-0.5 at temperatures of 273 K and 298 K, as shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e. The trend of the equal adsorption heat curves of the two carbon materials is generally similar, with Q\\u003csub\\u003est\\u003c/sub\\u003e gradually decreasing with the increase of CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption amount. This is because, in the initial stage of adsorption, the adsorption molecules are more likely to come into contact with positions having suitable energy, and a large number of empty adsorption sites make it easier for CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e to adsorb. With the continuous filling of adsorption pores, the surface coverage of the two carbon materials increases. The adsorbate becomes difficult to be adsorbed on the surface of the carbon material, resulting in a reduction in adsorption heat, indicating that the surfaces of HWPCF-0.5 and WPCF are uneven[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR51\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e51\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e presents the equation parameters of the Virial model. Upon observing the data in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e, it is evident that the fitting degree of the Virial model to the CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption data of the two carbon materials exceeds 0.99, effectively capturing the variation in their adsorption heat. The initial adsorption heat of HWPCF-0.5 reached 44.1 kJ mol, indicating that CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e adsorption on HWPCF-0.5 was constrained by both physical and chemical adsorption. This is attributed to the improvement in surface chemical properties of HWPCF-0.5 following β-alanine modification, which increased the affinity between activated carbon and CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e due to the increased surface N functional group. The adsorption heat of WPCF is less than 40 kJ/mol, suggesting that CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e is primarily physically adsorbed on its surface.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEquation parameters for the Virial model\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" colnum=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMaterials\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ea\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ea\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e1\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ea\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ea\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eb\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eb\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e1\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eR\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eQ\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003est\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(kJ/mol)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWPCF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-3688\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e228\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e18\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e13\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e14.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.99\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e30.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHWPCF-1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-5298\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e839\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-84\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e34\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e22.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.99\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e44.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTo examine the adsorption kinetics characteristics of acetone and n-hexane molecules on WPCF and HWPCF-1, the fitting curves and parameters of the kinetic model were obtained. These are respectively presented in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig10\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e and Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e. Based on the fitted regression coefficient (R\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e), it can be inferred that both kinetic models effectively describe the adsorption of acetone vapor and n-hexane vapor by WPCF and HWPCF-1. In the case of acetone vapor adsorption on WPCF and HWPCF-1, the first-order kinetic model exhibits a higher R\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e than the latter, suggesting that the adsorption of acetone molecules on WPCF and HWPCF-1 is predominantly surface adsorption[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR52\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e52\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR53\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e53\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The modified HWPCF-1 exhibits a better fit for the adsorption of n-hexane vapor with the second-order kinetic model, indicating that the adsorption of n-hexane on HWPCF-1 includes both surface adsorption and adsorption within the pores[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR54\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e54\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The difference in the adsorption state between acetone and n-hexane is attributed to the weak interaction between acetone molecules and pores with smaller kinetic diameter. The differences in the adsorption state between WPCF and HWPCF-1 are mainly due to two reasons: firstly, the doping of N and O atoms of alanine enhances the adsorption; secondly, the smaller pore size of WPCF weakens the adsorption of n-hexane molecules in WPCF pores due to larger steric hindrance. The modified HWPCF-1 exhibits a more abundant and ordered pore structure, and the reasonable pore size distribution optimizes the diffusion of n-hexane molecules within the pores.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab4\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 4\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFitting parameters of pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order model for the adsorption of acetone and n-hexane vapor on WPCF and HWPCF-1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eadsorbent\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAdsorbed gas\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003epseudo-first-order model\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c8\\\" namest=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003epseudo-second-order model\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eq\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ee\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ek\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e1\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eR\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eq\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ee\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ek\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eR\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWPCF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAcetone vapor\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e443.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.299\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.991\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e522.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6.86\\u0026times;10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;4\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.968\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHWPCF-1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e586.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.284\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.996\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e616\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4.79\\u0026times;10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;4\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.981\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWPCF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eN-hexane vapor\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e274.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.098\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.978\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e297.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.01\\u0026times;10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;4\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.967\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHWPCF-1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e497.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.157\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.988\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e518.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.85\\u0026times;10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;4\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.994\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFigure \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig11\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e11\\u003c/span\\u003e displays the Weber-Morris model fitting curve for the adsorption of acetone and n-hexane vapor by WPCF and HWPCF-1. The curve is divided into three parts, indicating that the adsorption is controlled by multiple reaction mechanisms[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR55\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e55\\u003c/span\\u003e]. In the initial stage, the surface of porous carbon contains numerous vacant active sites, and the adsorption process primarily involves surface adsorption. As adsorption progresses, the number of active sites decreases, and the adsorbate must be transported through the pores to the interior for complete adsorption, with intragranular diffusion playing a significant role. During these stages, both WPCF and HWPCF-1 exhibit the highest rate constant \\u003cem\\u003eK\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ed2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e, indicating that the adsorption rates of these samples are primarily controlled by internal diffusion, consistent with the findings of the adsorption kinetics. The third stage represents the adsorption equilibrium, where the initial diffusion of n-hexane and acetone molecules occupies the majority of active sites, causing subsequent gas molecules to encounter increased diffusion resistance and a noticeable decrease in adsorption rate[\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR56\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e56\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The adsorption rate of acetone for the same sample was observed to be higher than that of n-hexane (161.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;129.7, 221.3\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;177.7). This is attributed to the smaller kinetic diameter of acetone molecules compared to n-hexane molecules, resulting in reduced steric hindrance during adsorption and a higher adsorption rate. The results demonstrate a good fit between the calculated values of the Weber-Morris model and the experimental data, indicating that the adsorption rates of acetone and n-hexane vapor are limited by a combination of intraparticle diffusion, membrane diffusion, and pore filling.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4. Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eAccording to the above results, we successfully synthesized wheat powder based Porous Carbon Foam (PCF) by hydrothermal carbonization and KOH activation using sustainable wheat powder as raw material and β-alanine as modifier. The addition of β-alanine can promote the cleavage of the inner ring structure of polysaccharide. With the increase of β-alanine dosage, KOH is expected to penetrate and occupy more potential sites, which is conducive to opening and expanding pore structures. The obtained samples have reasonable micromesoporous structure distribution, large specific surface area and functional groups. The activated carbon of wheat powder prepared by hydrothermal method has good adsorption properties for acetone and n-hexane vapor, and the adsorption capacity of HWPCF-1 reaches 554.9 mg/g and 608.7 mg/g, respectively. HWPCF has a unique layered porous carbon structure that ensures rapid diffusion and desorption of volatile organic compound (VOCs) by shortening the diffusion path. After 5 cycles of testing, the sample maintained excellent adsorption capacity, confirming its reusability. This study provides a new approach to improve the pore structure and surface chemical properties of biomass porous carbon through the effective utilization of sustainable waste (wheat powder) and the strategy of amino acid modification using β-alanine.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe authors declare that they have no know competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAcknowledgments\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52174058), the Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Technology (No. CDYQCY202301) and the Postgraduate Research and Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province (No. KYCX23_3029).\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eWang, X., W. 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Niu, Z. Liu, Z. Wen, W. Li, X. Wang \\u0026amp; W. Wu (2015) Equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies of adsorption of Th(IV) from aqueous solution onto kaolin. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 303:87\\u0026ndash;97.\\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-014-3324-6\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1007/s10967-014-3324-6\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eWang, H., H. Xie, Q. Cao, X. Li, B. Liu, Z. Gan, H. Zhang, X. Gao \\u0026amp; G. Zhou (2022) Hierarchical porous activated carbon from waste Zanthoxylum bungeanum branches by modified H\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003ePO\\u003csub\\u003e4\\u003c/sub\\u003e activation for toluene removal in air. Environmental Science and Pollution Research:29.\\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18706-0\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1007/s11356-022-18706-0\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":true,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"korean-journal-of-chemical-engineering\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"kjce\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering](http://link.springer.com/journal/11814)\",\"snPcode\":\"11814\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://www.editorialmanager.com/kjce/default2.aspx\",\"title\":\"Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"em\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Springer Subscription\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false},\"keywords\":\"Porous carbon foam, Wheat powder, Hydrothermal, β-Alanine modification, VOCS Adsorption\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3889232/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3889232/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003ePorous Carbon Foam (PCF), known for its high surface area and abundant functional groups, is considered to exhibit superior adsorption capacity and wide applicability for gases. Wheat, being a widely cultivated and easily accessible crop globally, contains abundant carbon elements. In this study, wheat powder served as the carbon precursor, and β-alanine, rich in amino and carboxyl groups, was introduced into the hierarchical pore structure of wheat powder. Subsequently, the material underwent secondary hydrothermal treatment with the activation agent potassium hydroxide (KOH), resulting in Hydrothermal Wheat Powder PCF (HWPCF) rich in a three-dimensional interconnected structure with layered pores as the representative feature. This structural treatment increased the specific surface area (2278 m\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u0026middot;g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e) and total pore volume (1.17 cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u0026middot;g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e) of PCF, accelerating the rapid mass transfer of gas molecules and significantly enhancing the utilization of adsorption sites in the modified PCF. HWPCF exhibited outstanding adsorption performance for acetone (608.7 mg/g) and n-hexane (517.6 mg/g). Additionally, the modified PCF showed good adsorption capacity for CO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e (4.99 mmol\\u0026middot;g\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1\\u003c/sup\\u003e). This study highlights the effective modification of expired wheat powder with β-alanine, reducing the overall carbon footprint of the production process and achieving the reuse of waste in an environmentally friendly manner.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Amino acid-modified porous carbon foams derived from wheat powder with enhanced adsorption performance for VOCs\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2024-01-30 12:10:22\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3889232/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-01-26T07:59:02+00:00\",\"index\":0,\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-01-26T02:45:30+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-01-24T11:36:38+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering\",\"date\":\"2024-01-22T06:55:40+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"korean-journal-of-chemical-engineering\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"kjce\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering](http://link.springer.com/journal/11814)\",\"snPcode\":\"11814\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://www.editorialmanager.com/kjce/default2.aspx\",\"title\":\"Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"em\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Springer Subscription\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"2f173ea0-f2be-4af1-9fd2-f9db5b4e3ef1\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"January 30th, 2024\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"under-review\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2024-05-21T05:46:37+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2024-01-30 12:10:22\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-3889232\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-3889232\",\"identity\":\"rs-3889232\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}