{"paper_id":"4dc9c885-0dda-4e1d-9bc5-16e4b9e3465b","body_text":"Identifying gaps and opportunities in marine spatial planning: A case study in Timor-Leste | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Identifying gaps and opportunities in marine spatial planning: A case study in Timor-Leste Wen Wen, Marthen Welly, Agostino Andy, Constancio Dos Santos Silva, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9044688/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Timor-Leste's marine ecosystems within the Coral Triangle host exceptional biodiversity, supporting subsistence and commercial fisheries that provide food security and livelihoods for coastal communities. The government’s Blue Economy prioritisation is driving National Ocean Policy revisions, including a new Blue Economy Policy and Action Plan. As Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) emerges as a crucial mechanism to reconcile conservation, sustainable use, and economic development, we systematically evaluated Timor-Leste's MSP readiness through a participatory stakeholder survey engaging policymakers, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), practitioners, and private sector. Our analysis assessed governance frameworks, data and information availability, stakeholder participation, resource constraints, conflict management, and technical capacity. Key findings reveal significant knowledge gaps, fragmented governance frameworks, and critical data deficiencies. Implementation barriers include resource limitations, technical skill shortages and inter-agency coordination challenges. Promising solutions involve targeted training, participatory approaches, and collaborative data platforms through a strategic implementation approach. These gap identifications and opportunities provide critical insights for Timor-Leste’s MSP advancement, establishing a framework to enhance marine governance and achieve sustainable ocean management in alignment with the National Ocean Policy. Environmental Policy marine spatial planning blue economy data management marine conservation gap analysis stakeholder engagement Timor-Leste ocean policy Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Marine Spatial Planning (hereafter ‘MSP’) has emerged as a critical tool for balancing competing ocean uses whilst protecting marine ecosystems and supporting coastal communities (Douvere 2008 , 762). However, effective MSP represents both an opportunity and a challenge, offering pathways to sustainable ocean governance whilst requiring substantial technical, institutional, and financial resources that may be needed (Charles and Chang 2025 , 8306). Timor-Leste's marine and coastal environment encompasses extraordinary biodiversity within the Coral Triangle, hosting coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangrove forests, and megafauna including dugongs and pygmy blue whales (Edyvane et al 2024 , 74; Kim et al, 2022 , 153). These ecosystems support subsistence and commercial fisheries that provide food security and livelihoods for coastal communities whilst holding cultural significance (Boulanger et al. 2022 , 308). Nevertheless, these marine resources face high pressures from overfishing, coastal development, climate change, and potential extractive industries (Alonso Población 2013 , 807–816). Recognising these challenges and opportunities, the Government of Timor-Leste has prioritised the Blue Economy as a development pathway, initiating revisions to the National Ocean Policy and developing a Blue Economy Policy and Action Plan (Voyer et al 2020 , 192). MSP has been identified as a key instrument to operationalise these policy frameworks, yet questions remain about the readiness to implement MSP effectively. Here, we address a critical knowledge gap by systematically evaluating Timor-Leste's readiness through a structured participatory stakeholder engagement approach. By identifying specific gaps in governance, data and information availability, stakeholder participation, conflict management, and technical capacity, this study provides an evidence base to inform MSP development and implementation for Blue Economy Policy. The findings offer practical insights not only for Timor-Leste but also for other Small Island Developing States (SIDS) navigating similar challenges in ocean governance. Timor-Leste is also the newest member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) which includes commitments to the three pillars of the ASEAN community: political-security, economic, and socio-cultural pillars (ASEAN 2025; GoTL 2025). Marine spatial planning context Marine Spatial Planning has gained international prominence as a comprehensive approach to managing marine spaces, promoted by organizations including UNESCO's Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission and adopted by numerous nations worldwide (Ehler and Douvere 2009, 40). MSP aims to analyse and allocate the spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine areas to achieve ecological, economic, and social objectives (Frazão Santos et al 2019 , 1). For nations like Timor-Leste, MSP offers a structured framework to balance conservation imperatives with development aspirations. Table 1 Context for Marine Spatial Planning Development in Timor-Leste International Frameworks UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 14 (Life Below Water) UNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea) (ratified 2013) UNESCO Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (30% protection by 2030) Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions Agreement (ratified 2024) Regional Framework ASEAN Blue Economy Framework National Frameworks Timor-Leste Program of the IX Constitutional Government Policy and Action Plan for The Promotion of a Resilient and Sustainable Economy of the Sea in Timor-Leste (2025–2035) Strategic Development Plan 2011–2030 National Ocean Policy Blue Economy Policy The concept of readiness assessment has become increasingly important in MSP study, recognising that successful implementation requires more than political commitment as it demands institutional capacity, adequate data, stakeholder buy-in, and conflict resolution mechanisms. Previous studies in diverse contexts have demonstrated that premature MSP implementation without addressing foundational gaps can lead to failed initiatives, wasted resources, and stakeholder disillusionment (Flannery et al 2020 , 223–228). As one of the world's youngest nations, having gained independence in 2002, Timor-Leste continues building governance institutions and technical capacity across all sectors (Hosgelen and Saikia 2016 , 244–262). The marine domain faces challenges given limited baseline data, nascent regulatory frameworks, and competing priorities for scarce government resources. Yet the nation also demonstrates political will through Blue Economy commitments and growing recognition of oceans' importance for sustainable development. The economics of Timor-Leste's demonstrate heavy dependence on petroleum resources (Scheiner 2021 , 254). Oil and gas revenues have historically comprised over 90 per cent of government income, primarily from offshore fields in the Timor Sea (Scheiner 2021 , 264). However, these finite resources face depletion, with major fields experiencing declining production and limited new discoveries (Scheiner 2021 , 254). This reality has catalysed urgent national discussions about economic diversification, with the Blue Economy that encompasses sustainable fisheries, marine tourism, and other ocean-based industries which are identified as a critical alternative revenue source. MSP, therefore, represents not merely an environmental management tool but an economic necessity, offering frameworks to develop marine sectors strategically whilst safeguarding the ecosystem services upon which long-term ocean-based prosperity depends (Frazão Santos et al 2014 , 63). Understanding MSP readiness in this context requires examining multiple dimensions simultaneously, the institutions, regulations, and data infrastructure alongside the stakeholder relationships, conflict dynamics, and capacity development needs. Here, this study adopts such a holistic approach to provide actionable insights for MSP development and implementation. Methods Our project aimed to conduct a gap analysis of MSP in Timor-Leste. A survey of participatory research approach (Pomeroy and Douvere 2008 , 817) was developed for dissemination at the first National Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning in Timor-Leste on Feb 11, 2025, with 12 questions on the themes of stakeholder background, MSP knowledge and experience, governance and policy, data and research needs, challenges and opportunities, community involvement, conflict resolution, and capacity (Table 2 ). The survey was available in Tetum (a national language), Bahasa Indonesia, and English. The workshop was attended by government officials, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), practitioners, and researchers (n = 25 respondents). Following the workshop, the survey was distributed to targeted stakeholders such as tourism operators as these stakeholders were not present at the workshop (n = 3 respondents). We thematically analysed responses from 25 surveys around the eight themes listed above after translation where required (Neuendorf 2018 , 213). Table 2 The survey questionnaire for gap analysis and opportunities Theme Question(s) Stakeholder Background How long have you been involved in activities related to marine spatial planning? Marine Spatial Planning Knowledge and Experience How familiar are you with the concept of marine spatial planning? Governance and Policy What policies or regulations currently govern the use of marine spaces in this region? Data and Research Needs What data or information is currently lacking that would improve marine spatial planning efforts? Challenges and Opportunities What do you see as the biggest challenges in developing marine spatial planning in this region? What opportunities do you see for improving marine management through spatial planning? Community Involvement How are local communities involved in marine conservation and planning processes? Conflict Resolution Are there any conflicts between different marine users (e.g., fishers, tour operators, conservationists)? How are conflicts over marine resources currently being addressed? Capacity Building What capacity-building measures (e.g., training, funding) are needed to support the development of marine spatial planning? Do you have any additional thoughts or concerns about marine spatial planning that we haven’t covered? What would be your recommendation for moving forward with marine spatial planning in this region? Results Knowledge and capacity gaps Survey results revealed significant variations in MSP familiarity among stakeholders (Fig. 2 ). Approximately 48% of respondents reported being very familiar with MSP concepts, whilst 20% indicated they were unfamiliar. However, 16% possessed only basic or learning-level understanding, and another 16% reported no familiarity with MSP. This distribution suggests an emerging but uneven knowledge base, with substantial capacity development needed to ensure broad understanding across all stakeholder groups involved in MSP development and implementation. The concentration of MSP expertise among certain groups, likely government team and NGO staff who have engaged with international MSP initiatives, whilst other stakeholders remain unfamiliar, poses implementation risks. Effective MSP requires shared understanding and collective action across diverse sectors. The identified knowledge gaps therefore represent a priority capacity building area before advancing to detailed planning stages. Governance and regulatory framework status When asked about existing legal and regulatory frameworks related to coastal and marine management, responses revealed fragmented governance arrangements (Fig. 3 ). The largest group of respondents (11 individuals) indicated that no regulations currently exist for MSP specifically. Six respondents noted that relevant laws were in development, suggesting policy activity but not yet operational frameworks. Another six respondents identified some existing laws relevant to marine management, whilst two respondents cited multiple laws. This pattern indicates that whilst Timor-Leste possesses some marine related legislation, likely covering fisheries, environmental protection, or maritime boundaries, a comprehensive legal framework specifically enabling MSP remains underdeveloped. The governance architecture necessary to coordinate across sectors, establish planning processes, and enforce zoning decisions requires strengthening. The fact that nearly half of informed stakeholders perceive an absence of relevant regulations signals a critical gap requiring policy attention. Data and information deficiencies Stakeholders identified substantial data gaps across multiple categories, with biophysical data emerging as the most critical need (Fig. 4 ). Nineteen respondents highlighted deficiencies in biophysical oceanographic and ecological data such as information about ocean currents, water quality, habitat distribution, and ecosystem processes essential for science-based zoning decisions. Thirteen respondents identified socio-economic data gaps, including information about fishing activities, coastal livelihoods, and economic values of marine resources. Maritime boundary data was flagged by ten respondents as inadequate, reflecting ongoing boundary delimitation challenges in the region. Biodiversity and species data deficiencies were noted by seven respondents, whilst eight highlighted gaps in resource mapping and local fish stock assessments. This comprehensive data deficit severely constrains evidence-based MSP, as effective spatial planning requires understanding both ecological patterns and human use patterns to design appropriate zones and regulations. The predominance of biophysical data needs likely reflects recognition that baseline ecological information is fundamental to MSP yet also may indicate that socio-economic data collection has received even less attention historically. Addressing these data gaps will require sustained investment in marine research, monitoring programs, and data management systems, investments that must be balanced against other development priorities in a resource constrained environment. biophysical data, local fish stocks, resource mapping, biodiversity/species data, maritime boundaries, socio-economic data. Resource constraints and implementation challenges When asked to identify primary challenges for MSP development and implementation, budgetary and funding issues emerged as overwhelming concern, cited by 19 respondents (Fig. 5 ). This finding underscores the fundamental reality of MSP, requiring stakeholders' consultations, scientific assessments, planning processes, and ongoing management demands financial resources that Timor-Leste must compete to allocate against numerous development needs. Human resource limitations were identified by 13 respondents, reflecting shortages in technical expertise for activities including spatial analysis, ecological assessment, stakeholder facilitation, and policy development. Eight respondents indicated inadequate infrastructure including data management systems. Ten respondents noted inter-agency coordination challenges, revealing institutional fragmentation where multiple ministries and agencies hold marine-related mandates without clear coordination mechanisms. Technical capacity deficits were specifically mentioned by eight respondents pointing to needs for training and skills development. These interconnected resource constraints create a challenging implementation environment. Limited budgets constraint hiring of skilled personnel and infrastructure development. Human resource shortages impede data collection and stakeholder engagement. Poor coordination leads to duplicated efforts and lacks synergies. Technical capacity gaps slow progress across all activities. Addressing these challenges requires strategic stages of development, building foundational capacities before attempting comprehensive implementation. Stakeholder engagement and coordination Responses regarding community involvement in marine decision-making revealed concerning patterns (Fig. 6 ). Ten respondents characterised community involvement as low or minimal, whilst six reported no engagement of coastal communities in marine planning processes. Only seven respondents described moderate engagement, and merely two indicated high engagement levels. This distribution suggests that despite policy rhetoric often emphasising participatory approaches, meaningful community inclusion in marine governance remains limited in practice. For MSP to succeed, particularly in contexts where coastal communities depend directly on marine resources and hold traditional ecological knowledge and customary management systems, authentic stakeholder participation is essential. The identified engagement deficits raise concerns about whether MSP processes will adequately incorporate local knowledge, respect community rights, and generate necessary social legitimacy. Improving stakeholder engagement requires not only consultation mechanisms but genuine power-sharing in decision-making processes. Conflict management Conflict management Nearly half of respondents (48%) reported active conflicts among different marine users or between marine use and conservation objectives (Fig. 7 ). These conflicts likely involve tensions between industrial and artisanal fisheries, competition for coastal access between fisheries and tourism development, or disagreements over marine protected area establishment. A fifth of respondents indicated no current conflicts, whilst 20% anticipated potential future conflicts, and 12% described conflicts as resolved or manageable. The prevalence of active conflicts underscores MSP's importance as a conflict resolution mechanism whilst simultaneously highlighting implementation challenges. MSP must navigate existing disputes rather than operating on a blank slate, requiring robust conflict management approaches including mediation, transparent decision processes, and equitable benefit-sharing arrangements. Unresolved conflicts can derail MSP implementation, whilst poorly designed planning processes may exacerbate tensions. Discussion Our findings reveal that whilst Timor-Leste demonstrates political commitment to MSP through Blue Economy policy initiatives, substantial gaps exist across multiple implementation prerequisites. These gaps form an interconnected system where deficiencies in one area compound challenges in others (Zuercher et al 2022 , 600). Limited data constrains evidence-based planning (Wen et al 2022 , 477). Weak governance frameworks undermine coordination (Frazão Santos et al 2021 , 1). Inadequate resources slow capacity development (Agardy et al 2011, 230). Poor stakeholder engagement breeds conflicts that consume scarce resources (Pomeroy and Douvere 2008 , 817). Our result suggests MSP development in Timor-Leste and likely other SIDS facing similar circumstances. It requires a phased, strategic approach rather than immediate comprehensive implementation (Smith et al 2011 , 292). Initial phases should focus on building foundations: developing enabling legislation, securing resources, investing in priority data collection, training key personnel, and establishing stakeholder engagement platforms (Fig. 8 ) (Ehler and Douvere 2009, 14). Subsequent phases can then advance spatial analysis, zoning design, and regulatory implementation, building on these foundations (Agardy, 2010 , 41). Our analysis also highlights that MSP cannot succeed as a purely technical exercise. Whilst spatial analysis tools and ecological models play important roles (Stelzenmüller et al 2013 , 223), the fundamentally political nature of allocating marine space and regulating activities requires attention to governance, power dynamics, equity, and conflict resolution (Yang et al 2024 , 11). Technical capacity-building must therefore encompass not only GIS training but also skills in facilitation, mediation, and participatory planning (Ansong et al 2021 , 2). We also found that external support (i.e., NGOs) can play valuable roles in addressing identified gaps, including funding for data collection, technical assistance for capacity development, and platforms for knowledge exchange with other nations pursuing MSP (Calado et al 2012 , 383–384). However, external support must be carefully designed to build local capacity rather than creating dependence, to respect national sovereignty in decision-making, and to align with Timor-Leste's priorities rather than imposing external agendas. The participatory stakeholder approach employed in this study demonstrates a replicable approach for other SIDS assessing MSP readiness (Pomeroy and Douvere 2008 , 817). Rather than assuming readiness or imposing international MSP guidelines (Ehler and Douvere 2009, 14), this approach systematically identifies context-specific gaps and opportunities through engagement with those who will implement and be influenced by MSP. Such bottom-up assessments can inform more realistic planning timelines, resource mobilisation strategies, and capacity development programmes. Conclusion Our study provides the first systematic assessment of MSP readiness in Timor-Leste, revealing a complex landscape of emerging capabilities alongside substantial gaps. Key findings demonstrate that whilst MSP knowledge exists within certain stakeholder groups, uneven understanding limits collective action (Zuercher et al 2022 , 600). Governance frameworks remain fragmented without comprehensive MSP-enabling legislation. Critical data deficits span both biophysical and socio-economic dimensions. Resource constraints in funding, human capacity, and infrastructure pose fundamental implementation barriers. Stakeholder engagement remains inadequate despite its recognised importance. Active conflicts among marine users complicate planning processes. Beyond Timor-Leste, this study contributes to broader understanding of MSP implementation challenges in small island developing states. The participatory stakeholder gap analysis methodology offers a transferable approach for assessing readiness in diverse contexts. The findings reinforce that successful MSP requires more than technical tools as it demands political will, institutional capacity, adequate resources, stakeholder legitimacy, and time to build foundations before expecting comprehensive implementation. As Timor-Leste advances its Blue Economy vision, MSP offers a promising pathway to reconcile conservation and development (Kyvelou and Ierapetritis 2019, 11), provided that identified gaps are systematically addressed through strategic, sustained effort. The journey from political commitment to effective implementation remains long (Ehler 2021 , 1–14), but this study provides a roadmap for navigation, grounded in stakeholder realities and practical insights about barriers and opportunities ahead. Declarations Participant consent statement: All participants were informed of the research objectives, data usage, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence before completing the survey. Consent was implied through voluntary completion of the survey. The study was approved by The Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Human Research Ethics Committee (Ethics Application No. 9575). Acknowledgements This research was funded through Queensland University of Technology Centre Data Science First Byte Project and the Estate of Winifred Violet Scott, in collaboration with Coral Triangle Centre. We also thank the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Forestry team in Timor-Leste and all participants during the national workshop of marine spatial planning development in Dili, 11 February 2025. The research was conducted under QUT Human Ethics application 9575. References Agardy T (2010) Ocean Zoning: Making Marine Management More Effective. Routledge, London Agardy T, Sciara GND and P Christie (2011) Mind the gap: Addressing the shortcomings of marine protected areas through large scale marine spatial planning. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-9044688\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":601535298,\"identity\":\"208a0d23-f9c1-424e-ae02-43adf3c43f78\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Wen 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16:32:30\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":367770,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMap of Timor-Leste\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Picture1.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/a4320e7333c3a31963c97146.jpg\"},{\"id\":104405540,\"identity\":\"0da15846-b0b2-4fa4-806e-70d35a385b84\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-11 12:23:13\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":20496,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eKnowledge and capacity gaps of MSP concept (\\u003cem\\u003en\\u003c/em\\u003e = 25).\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Picture2.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/8c48172a5085f9e26d844725.jpg\"},{\"id\":104340091,\"identity\":\"27854c9a-2eed-4cb0-95b6-0b4075275ace\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-10 16:32:30\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":22190,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eGovernance and regulatory status related to coastal and marine management (\\u003cem\\u003en\\u003c/em\\u003e = 25).\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Picture3.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/ba38c06333a99c33436b5cbb.jpg\"},{\"id\":104405860,\"identity\":\"a0469eed-5eb1-4aa9-bf8e-0a7f74f5b003\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-11 12:23:59\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"Figure 4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":27209,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eNumber of respondents (\\u003cem\\u003en\\u003c/em\\u003e= 25) indicating data gaps on six themes:\\u003cbr\\u003e\\nbiophysical data, local fish stocks, resource mapping, biodiversity/species data, maritime boundaries, socio-economic data.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Picture4.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/248c2c0cc002fa551830bbf9.jpg\"},{\"id\":104340092,\"identity\":\"87026ce3-4d69-47a0-b042-de1308d5a45f\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-10 16:32:30\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":22298,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eResources constraint identified by stakeholders (\\u003cem\\u003en\\u003c/em\\u003e = 25) around five themes: budget/funding, human resources, infrastructure, inter-agency coordination, and technical capacity.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Picture5.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/96c49d091afac03fd57d0e4e.jpg\"},{\"id\":104405603,\"identity\":\"a65f54e6-bbc9-40b2-ab4c-d9f79fa89b74\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-11 12:23:25\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":21013,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eStakeholder engagement and coordination (\\u003cem\\u003en\\u003c/em\\u003e = 25).\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Picture6.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/a587e35ad8e5e9124f66f80f.jpg\"},{\"id\":104340090,\"identity\":\"69935311-56bf-4343-aff9-ab920598953d\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-10 16:32:30\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":19685,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eConflict management and status of marine uses conflicts (\\u003cem\\u003en\\u003c/em\\u003e = 25) spanning no conflicts, potential/future conflicts, active conflicts, and resolved/manageable conflicts.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Picture7.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/3baef018b6028f7fba6a02fc.jpg\"},{\"id\":104340095,\"identity\":\"8999d1be-2698-42e1-8810-70b7c5bfbcaa\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-10 16:32:30\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":8,\"title\":\"Figure 8\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":53301,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eModel of Marine Spatial Planning Development for Timor-Leste\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Picture8.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/1b56a9d3406604276c1d51c3.jpg\"},{\"id\":104409574,\"identity\":\"0981b138-f719-4135-9ce0-56686f361ebf\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-11 12:46:02\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":1298773,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9044688/v1/465e423a-9802-460a-9e17-8cc94497ba3b.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"The authors declare no competing interests.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eIdentifying gaps and opportunities in marine spatial planning: A case study in Timor-Leste\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMarine Spatial Planning (hereafter \\u0026lsquo;MSP\\u0026rsquo;) has emerged as a critical tool for balancing competing ocean uses whilst protecting marine ecosystems and supporting coastal communities (Douvere \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR9\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2008\\u003c/span\\u003e, 762). However, effective MSP represents both an opportunity and a challenge, offering pathways to sustainable ocean governance whilst requiring substantial technical, institutional, and financial resources that may be needed (Charles and Chang \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e, 8306).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTimor-Leste's marine and coastal environment encompasses extraordinary biodiversity within the Coral Triangle, hosting coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangrove forests, and megafauna including dugongs and pygmy blue whales (Edyvane et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e, 74; Kim et al, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e, 153). These ecosystems support subsistence and commercial fisheries that provide food security and livelihoods for coastal communities whilst holding cultural significance (Boulanger et al. \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR6\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e, 308). Nevertheless, these marine resources face high pressures from overfishing, coastal development, climate change, and potential extractive industries (Alonso Poblaci\\u0026oacute;n \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2013\\u003c/span\\u003e, 807\\u0026ndash;816).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRecognising these challenges and opportunities, the Government of Timor-Leste has prioritised the Blue Economy as a development pathway, initiating revisions to the National Ocean Policy and developing a Blue Economy Policy and Action Plan (Voyer et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e, 192). MSP has been identified as a key instrument to operationalise these policy frameworks, yet questions remain about the readiness to implement MSP effectively.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHere, we address a critical knowledge gap by systematically evaluating Timor-Leste's readiness through a structured participatory stakeholder engagement approach. By identifying specific gaps in governance, data and information availability, stakeholder participation, conflict management, and technical capacity, this study provides an evidence base to inform MSP development and implementation for Blue Economy Policy. The findings offer practical insights not only for Timor-Leste but also for other Small Island Developing States (SIDS) navigating similar challenges in ocean governance. Timor-Leste is also the newest member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) which includes commitments to the three pillars of the ASEAN community: political-security, economic, and socio-cultural pillars (ASEAN 2025; GoTL 2025).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eMarine spatial planning context\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eMarine Spatial Planning has gained international prominence as a comprehensive approach to managing marine spaces, promoted by organizations including UNESCO's Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission and adopted by numerous nations worldwide (Ehler and Douvere 2009, 40). MSP aims to analyse and allocate the spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine areas to achieve ecological, economic, and social objectives (Fraz\\u0026atilde;o Santos et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2019\\u003c/span\\u003e, 1). For nations like Timor-Leste, MSP offers a structured framework to balance conservation imperatives with development aspirations.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eContext for Marine Spatial Planning Development in Timor-Leste\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eInternational Frameworks\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 14 (Life Below Water)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea) (ratified 2013)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUNESCO Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021\\u0026ndash;2030)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eKunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (30% protection by 2030)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBiodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions Agreement (ratified 2024)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eRegional Framework\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eASEAN Blue Economy Framework\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNational Frameworks\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTimor-Leste Program of the IX Constitutional Government\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePolicy and Action Plan for The Promotion of a Resilient and Sustainable Economy of the Sea in Timor-Leste (2025\\u0026ndash;2035)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eStrategic Development Plan 2011\\u0026ndash;2030\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNational Ocean Policy\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBlue Economy Policy\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe concept of readiness assessment has become increasingly important in MSP study, recognising that successful implementation requires more than political commitment as it demands institutional capacity, adequate data, stakeholder buy-in, and conflict resolution mechanisms. Previous studies in diverse contexts have demonstrated that premature MSP implementation without addressing foundational gaps can lead to failed initiatives, wasted resources, and stakeholder disillusionment (Flannery et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e, 223\\u0026ndash;228).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAs one of the world's youngest nations, having gained independence in 2002, Timor-Leste continues building governance institutions and technical capacity across all sectors (Hosgelen and Saikia \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2016\\u003c/span\\u003e, 244\\u0026ndash;262). The marine domain faces challenges given limited baseline data, nascent regulatory frameworks, and competing priorities for scarce government resources. Yet the nation also demonstrates political will through Blue Economy commitments and growing recognition of oceans' importance for sustainable development.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe economics of Timor-Leste's demonstrate heavy dependence on petroleum resources (Scheiner \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR23\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e, 254). Oil and gas revenues have historically comprised over 90 per cent of government income, primarily from offshore fields in the Timor Sea (Scheiner \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR23\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e, 264). However, these finite resources face depletion, with major fields experiencing declining production and limited new discoveries (Scheiner \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR23\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e, 254). This reality has catalysed urgent national discussions about economic diversification, with the Blue Economy that encompasses sustainable fisheries, marine tourism, and other ocean-based industries which are identified as a critical alternative revenue source. MSP, therefore, represents not merely an environmental management tool but an economic necessity, offering frameworks to develop marine sectors strategically whilst safeguarding the ecosystem services upon which long-term ocean-based prosperity depends (Fraz\\u0026atilde;o Santos et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2014\\u003c/span\\u003e, 63).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUnderstanding MSP readiness in this context requires examining multiple dimensions simultaneously, the institutions, regulations, and data infrastructure alongside the stakeholder relationships, conflict dynamics, and capacity development needs. Here, this study adopts such a holistic approach to provide actionable insights for MSP development and implementation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \"},{\"header\":\"Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOur project aimed to conduct a gap analysis of MSP in Timor-Leste. A survey of participatory research approach (Pomeroy and Douvere \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2008\\u003c/span\\u003e, 817) was developed for dissemination at the first National Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning in Timor-Leste on Feb 11, 2025, with 12 questions on the themes of stakeholder background, MSP knowledge and experience, governance and policy, data and research needs, challenges and opportunities, community involvement, conflict resolution, and capacity (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). The survey was available in Tetum (a national language), Bahasa Indonesia, and English. The workshop was attended by government officials, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), practitioners, and researchers (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;25 respondents). Following the workshop, the survey was distributed to targeted stakeholders such as tourism operators as these stakeholders were not present at the workshop (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;3 respondents). We thematically analysed responses from 25 surveys around the eight themes listed above after translation where required (Neuendorf \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR21\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e, 213).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe survey questionnaire for gap analysis and opportunities\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTheme\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQuestion(s)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eStakeholder Background\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHow long have you been involved in activities related to marine spatial planning?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eMarine Spatial Planning Knowledge and Experience\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHow familiar are you with the concept of marine spatial planning?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eGovernance and Policy\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat policies or regulations currently govern the use of marine spaces in this region?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eData and Research Needs\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat data or information is currently lacking that would improve marine spatial planning efforts?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eChallenges and Opportunities\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat do you see as the biggest challenges in developing marine spatial planning in this region?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat opportunities do you see for improving marine management through spatial planning?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eCommunity Involvement\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHow are local communities involved in marine conservation and planning processes?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eConflict Resolution\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAre there any conflicts between different marine users (e.g., fishers, tour operators, conservationists)?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHow are conflicts over marine resources currently being addressed?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eCapacity Building\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat capacity-building measures (e.g., training, funding) are needed to support the development of marine spatial planning?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDo you have any additional thoughts or concerns about marine spatial planning that we haven\\u0026rsquo;t covered?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat would be your recommendation for moving forward with marine spatial planning in this region?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eKnowledge and capacity gaps\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSurvey results revealed significant variations in MSP familiarity among stakeholders (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). Approximately 48% of respondents reported being very familiar with MSP concepts, whilst 20% indicated they were unfamiliar. However, 16% possessed only basic or learning-level understanding, and another 16% reported no familiarity with MSP. This distribution suggests an emerging but uneven knowledge base, with substantial capacity development needed to ensure broad understanding across all stakeholder groups involved in MSP development and implementation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe concentration of MSP expertise among certain groups, likely government team and NGO staff who have engaged with international MSP initiatives, whilst other stakeholders remain unfamiliar, poses implementation risks. Effective MSP requires shared understanding and collective action across diverse sectors. The identified knowledge gaps therefore represent a priority capacity building area before advancing to detailed planning stages.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eGovernance and regulatory framework status\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWhen asked about existing legal and regulatory frameworks related to coastal and marine management, responses revealed fragmented governance arrangements (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e). The largest group of respondents (11 individuals) indicated that no regulations currently exist for MSP specifically. Six respondents noted that relevant laws were in development, suggesting policy activity but not yet operational frameworks. Another six respondents identified some existing laws relevant to marine management, whilst two respondents cited multiple laws.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis pattern indicates that whilst Timor-Leste possesses some marine related legislation, likely covering fisheries, environmental protection, or maritime boundaries, a comprehensive legal framework specifically enabling MSP remains underdeveloped. The governance architecture necessary to coordinate across sectors, establish planning processes, and enforce zoning decisions requires strengthening. The fact that nearly half of informed stakeholders perceive an absence of relevant regulations signals a critical gap requiring policy attention.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eData and information deficiencies\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eStakeholders identified substantial data gaps across multiple categories, with biophysical data emerging as the most critical need (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e). Nineteen respondents highlighted deficiencies in biophysical oceanographic and ecological data such as information about ocean currents, water quality, habitat distribution, and ecosystem processes essential for science-based zoning decisions. Thirteen respondents identified socio-economic data gaps, including information about fishing activities, coastal livelihoods, and economic values of marine resources.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMaritime boundary data was flagged by ten respondents as inadequate, reflecting ongoing boundary delimitation challenges in the region. Biodiversity and species data deficiencies were noted by seven respondents, whilst eight highlighted gaps in resource mapping and local fish stock assessments. This comprehensive data deficit severely constrains evidence-based MSP, as effective spatial planning requires understanding both ecological patterns and human use patterns to design appropriate zones and regulations.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe predominance of biophysical data needs likely reflects recognition that baseline ecological information is fundamental to MSP yet also may indicate that socio-economic data collection has received even less attention historically. Addressing these data gaps will require sustained investment in marine research, monitoring programs, and data management systems, investments that must be balanced against other development priorities in a resource constrained environment.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"BlockQuote\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ebiophysical data, local fish stocks, resource mapping, biodiversity/species data, maritime boundaries, socio-economic data.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eResource constraints and implementation challenges\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhen asked to identify primary challenges for MSP development and implementation, budgetary and funding issues emerged as overwhelming concern, cited by 19 respondents (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e). This finding underscores the fundamental reality of MSP, requiring stakeholders' consultations, scientific assessments, planning processes, and ongoing management demands financial resources that Timor-Leste must compete to allocate against numerous development needs.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHuman resource limitations were identified by 13 respondents, reflecting shortages in technical expertise for activities including spatial analysis, ecological assessment, stakeholder facilitation, and policy development. Eight respondents indicated inadequate infrastructure including data management systems. Ten respondents noted inter-agency coordination challenges, revealing institutional fragmentation where multiple ministries and agencies hold marine-related mandates without clear coordination mechanisms. Technical capacity deficits were specifically mentioned by eight respondents pointing to needs for training and skills development.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThese interconnected resource constraints create a challenging implementation environment. Limited budgets constraint hiring of skilled personnel and infrastructure development. Human resource shortages impede data collection and stakeholder engagement. Poor coordination leads to duplicated efforts and lacks synergies. Technical capacity gaps slow progress across all activities. Addressing these challenges requires strategic stages of development, building foundational capacities before attempting comprehensive implementation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eStakeholder engagement and coordination\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eResponses regarding community involvement in marine decision-making revealed concerning patterns (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e). Ten respondents characterised community involvement as low or minimal, whilst six reported no engagement of coastal communities in marine planning processes. Only seven respondents described moderate engagement, and merely two indicated high engagement levels. This distribution suggests that despite policy rhetoric often emphasising participatory approaches, meaningful community inclusion in marine governance remains limited in practice.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFor MSP to succeed, particularly in contexts where coastal communities depend directly on marine resources and hold traditional ecological knowledge and customary management systems, authentic stakeholder participation is essential. The identified engagement deficits raise concerns about whether MSP processes will adequately incorporate local knowledge, respect community rights, and generate necessary social legitimacy. Improving stakeholder engagement requires not only consultation mechanisms but genuine power-sharing in decision-making processes.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eConflict management\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv class=\\\"Heading\\\"\\u003eConflict management\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNearly half of respondents (48%) reported active conflicts among different marine users or between marine use and conservation objectives (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e). These conflicts likely involve tensions between industrial and artisanal fisheries, competition for coastal access between fisheries and tourism development, or disagreements over marine protected area establishment. A fifth of respondents indicated no current conflicts, whilst 20% anticipated potential future conflicts, and 12% described conflicts as resolved or manageable.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe prevalence of active conflicts underscores MSP's importance as a conflict resolution mechanism whilst simultaneously highlighting implementation challenges. MSP must navigate existing disputes rather than operating on a blank slate, requiring robust conflict management approaches including mediation, transparent decision processes, and equitable benefit-sharing arrangements. Unresolved conflicts can derail MSP implementation, whilst poorly designed planning processes may exacerbate tensions.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eOur findings reveal that whilst Timor-Leste demonstrates political commitment to MSP through Blue Economy policy initiatives, substantial gaps exist across multiple implementation prerequisites. These gaps form an interconnected system where deficiencies in one area compound challenges in others (Zuercher et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e, 600). Limited data constrains evidence-based planning (Wen et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR27\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e, 477). Weak governance frameworks undermine coordination (Fraz\\u0026atilde;o Santos et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e, 1). Inadequate resources slow capacity development (Agardy et al 2011, 230). Poor stakeholder engagement breeds conflicts that consume scarce resources (Pomeroy and Douvere \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2008\\u003c/span\\u003e, 817).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOur result suggests MSP development in Timor-Leste and likely other SIDS facing similar circumstances. It requires a phased, strategic approach rather than immediate comprehensive implementation (Smith et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR24\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2011\\u003c/span\\u003e, 292). Initial phases should focus on building foundations: developing enabling legislation, securing resources, investing in priority data collection, training key personnel, and establishing stakeholder engagement platforms (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e) (Ehler and Douvere 2009, 14). Subsequent phases can then advance spatial analysis, zoning design, and regulatory implementation, building on these foundations (Agardy, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2010\\u003c/span\\u003e, 41).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOur analysis also highlights that MSP cannot succeed as a purely technical exercise. Whilst spatial analysis tools and ecological models play important roles (Stelzenm\\u0026uuml;ller et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2013\\u003c/span\\u003e, 223), the fundamentally political nature of allocating marine space and regulating activities requires attention to governance, power dynamics, equity, and conflict resolution (Yang et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e, 11). Technical capacity-building must therefore encompass not only GIS training but also skills in facilitation, mediation, and participatory planning (Ansong et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e, 2).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWe also found that external support (i.e., NGOs) can play valuable roles in addressing identified gaps, including funding for data collection, technical assistance for capacity development, and platforms for knowledge exchange with other nations pursuing MSP (Calado et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003e, 383\\u0026ndash;384). However, external support must be carefully designed to build local capacity rather than creating dependence, to respect national sovereignty in decision-making, and to align with Timor-Leste's priorities rather than imposing external agendas.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe participatory stakeholder approach employed in this study demonstrates a replicable approach for other SIDS assessing MSP readiness (Pomeroy and Douvere \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2008\\u003c/span\\u003e, 817). Rather than assuming readiness or imposing international MSP guidelines (Ehler and Douvere 2009, 14), this approach systematically identifies context-specific gaps and opportunities through engagement with those who will implement and be influenced by MSP. Such bottom-up assessments can inform more realistic planning timelines, resource mobilisation strategies, and capacity development programmes.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eOur study provides the first systematic assessment of MSP readiness in Timor-Leste, revealing a complex landscape of emerging capabilities alongside substantial gaps. Key findings demonstrate that whilst MSP knowledge exists within certain stakeholder groups, uneven understanding limits collective action (Zuercher et al \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e, 600). Governance frameworks remain fragmented without comprehensive MSP-enabling legislation. Critical data deficits span both biophysical and socio-economic dimensions. Resource constraints in funding, human capacity, and infrastructure pose fundamental implementation barriers. Stakeholder engagement remains inadequate despite its recognised importance. Active conflicts among marine users complicate planning processes.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBeyond Timor-Leste, this study contributes to broader understanding of MSP implementation challenges in small island developing states. The participatory stakeholder gap analysis methodology offers a transferable approach for assessing readiness in diverse contexts. The findings reinforce that successful MSP requires more than technical tools as it demands political will, institutional capacity, adequate resources, stakeholder legitimacy, and time to build foundations before expecting comprehensive implementation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAs Timor-Leste advances its Blue Economy vision, MSP offers a promising pathway to reconcile conservation and development (Kyvelou and Ierapetritis 2019, 11), provided that identified gaps are systematically addressed through strategic, sustained effort. The journey from political commitment to effective implementation remains long (Ehler \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e, 1\\u0026ndash;14), but this study provides a roadmap for navigation, grounded in stakeholder realities and practical insights about barriers and opportunities ahead.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eParticipant consent statement: All participants were informed of the research objectives, data usage, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence before completing the survey. Consent was implied through voluntary completion of the survey. The study was approved by The Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Human Research Ethics Committee (Ethics Application No. 9575).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAcknowledgements\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis research was funded through Queensland University of Technology Centre Data Science First Byte Project and the Estate of Winifred Violet Scott, in collaboration with Coral Triangle Centre. We also thank the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Forestry team in Timor-Leste and all participants during the national workshop of marine spatial planning development in Dili, 11 February 2025. The research was conducted under QUT Human Ethics application 9575.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eAgardy T (2010) Ocean Zoning: Making Marine Management More Effective. 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Mar Policy 38:214\\u0026ndash;227\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eVoyer M, Farmery AK, Kajlich L, Vachette A and G Quirk (2020) Assessing policy coherence and coordination in the sustainable development of a Blue Economy. A case study from Timor Leste. Ocean Coastal Manage 192:105187\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eWen W, Samudera K, Adrianto L, Johnson GL, Brancato MS and A White (2022) Towards Marine Spatial Planning Implementation in Indonesia: Progress and Hindering Factors. Coastal Manage 50:469\\u0026ndash;489\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eYang J-H, Chang Y, Hsiao S-C (2024) Finding harmony in the sea: Resolving conflicts by regional marine spatial planning. Ocean Coastal Manage 254:107200\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eZuercher R, Motzer N, Magris RA and W Flannery (2022) Narrowing the gap between marine spatial planning aspirations and realities. ICES J Mar Sci 79:600\\u0026ndash;608\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":true,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Queensland University of Technology\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"marine spatial planning, blue economy, data management, marine conservation, gap analysis, stakeholder engagement, Timor-Leste, ocean policy\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9044688/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9044688/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTimor-Leste's marine ecosystems within the Coral Triangle host exceptional biodiversity, supporting subsistence and commercial fisheries that provide food security and livelihoods for coastal communities. The government\\u0026rsquo;s Blue Economy prioritisation is driving National Ocean Policy revisions, including a new Blue Economy Policy and Action Plan. As Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) emerges as a crucial mechanism to reconcile conservation, sustainable use, and economic development, we systematically evaluated Timor-Leste's MSP readiness through a participatory stakeholder survey engaging policymakers, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), practitioners, and private sector. Our analysis assessed governance frameworks, data and information availability, stakeholder participation, resource constraints, conflict management, and technical capacity. Key findings reveal significant knowledge gaps, fragmented governance frameworks, and critical data deficiencies. Implementation barriers include resource limitations, technical skill shortages and inter-agency coordination challenges. Promising solutions involve targeted training, participatory approaches, and collaborative data platforms through a strategic implementation approach. These gap identifications and opportunities provide critical insights for Timor-Leste\\u0026rsquo;s MSP advancement, establishing a framework to enhance marine governance and achieve sustainable ocean management in alignment with the National Ocean Policy.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Identifying gaps and opportunities in marine spatial planning: A case study in Timor-Leste\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2026-03-10 16:32:22\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9044688/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"233efdf2-303b-4872-9fd3-25668df6c989\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"March 10th, 2026\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":64015393,\"name\":\"Environmental Policy\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-03-10T16:32:23+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2026-03-10 16:32:22\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-9044688\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-9044688\",\"identity\":\"rs-9044688\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}