{"paper_id":"46349ecf-d69d-4687-a120-4c8a294e2aa4","body_text":"The relationship between physical exercise and school bullying in junior high school students: the chain mediating role of self-esteem and self-control | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The relationship between physical exercise and school bullying in junior high school students: the chain mediating role of self-esteem and self-control Zehui Zhou, Yiqiong Huang, Juan Song, Kelei Guo, Li Wu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7232736/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 18 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective From the perspective of physical exercise, this study explored methods to improve the issue of school bullying among middle school students and comprehensively examined the interactions and influence pathways among various variables to gain a more holistic understanding of the mechanisms through which physical exercise affected school bullying among middle school students. Methods This research employed the Physical Exercise Scale, Self-Esteem Scale, Self-Control Scale, and School Bullying Scale. Using a stratified cluster random sampling method, a questionnaire survey was conducted among 587 middle school students in Zhaoqing City, Guangdong Province, from July 8 to August 15, 2024. Results (1) Physical exercise was negatively correlated with school bullying (r = -0.20), but the direct path between physical exercise and school bullying was not significant.(2) Physical exercise was positively correlated with self-esteem and self-control; self-esteem was positively correlated with self-control and negatively correlated with school bullying; self-control was negatively correlated with school bullying. (3) Self-esteem and self-control played a significant mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying. The mediating effect consisted of three pathways: physical exercise → self-esteem → school bullying (mediating effect value − 0.02), physical exercise → self-control → school bullying (mediating effect value − 0.10), physical exercise → self-esteem → self-control → school bullying (mediating effect value − 0.04). Conclusion Physical exercise was negatively correlated with school bullying, and self-esteem was positively correlated with self-control. Self-esteem had no independent mediating effect between physical exercise and school bullying. Self-control played an independent mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying. Self-esteem and self-control played a chain mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying in junior high school students. Social science/Education Health sciences/Health care Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology physical exercise school bullying self-esteem self-control chain mediation Figures Figure 1 Introduction School bullying is a global social issue that severely impacts the physical and mental health as well as the holistic development of adolescents. It is a widespread and urgent social problem that needs to be addressed worldwide. Middle school students are in a stage of physical and mental development, facing pressures related to growth and development. They are prone to negative emotions in their daily lives and studies, lack maturity in handling situations, and have insufficient ability to discern right from wrong, making it difficult for them to control their own behavior. As a result, they may become involved in school bullying incidents.In April 2016, the State Council of China issued the Notice on Carrying Out Special Campaigns to Address School Bullying, which required that primary and secondary schools across the country conduct targeted efforts to address school bullying—defined as intentional or malicious acts of physical, verbal, or cyber aggression and humiliation among students that cause harm.Teenage bullying refers to the bullying in the school and reasonable radiation areas, students as victims of the relationship between classmates and teachers and students, with repeated, hidden and fixed objects, bullying behavior in various forms, and the harm to the victim has a profound impact[1].Physical exercise not only helps teenagers grow up healthily, but also can effectively intervene in school bullying. From the perspective of physical exercise, this study attempts to explore the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent bullying, as well as the mediating role of self-esteem and self-control, in order to provide theoretical guidance for improving adolescent bullying. Physical exercise and school bullying Physical exercise is a process involving physical activities that employ various bodily methods to work out the body, enhance physical fitness, entertain the mind and body, and improve health conditions[2].In recent years, physical exercise has gained increasing attention as a proactive intervention for mitigating school bullying behaviors. Particularly among adolescent populations, the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying has sparked extensive academic discussion.Research indicates that sustained physical exercise significantly and negatively predicts school bullying behavior, meaning the more an individual engages in physical activities, the less likely they are to perpetrate or experience bullying[3].These findings align with research by international scholars Nikolaou and Crispin, who demonstrated that participation in physical exercise can reduce the probability of being bullied, with this effect being particularly pronounced among male students[4].Furthermore, research by Méndez et al. revealed a significant negative correlation between physical exercise and bullying behaviors [5]. Their findings suggest that physical activity can enhance individuals' cognitive functioning, thereby reducing the likelihood of engaging in bullying [6].The study revealed that after an 8-week physical activity intervention, participants exhibited significantly lower levels of bullying victimization compared to the control group [7], providing further evidence for the effectiveness of physical exercise in preventing and reducing school bullying. In conclusion, physical exercise exerts a positive influence on school bullying among adolescents through specific underlying mechanisms. Based on this evidence, we propose Hypothesis 1: physical exercise significantly and negatively predicts school bullying involvement in adolescent populations. The mediating role of self-esteem Self-esteem is an individual's positive perception and evaluation of their own worth, an emotional experience formed through the process of pursuing self-realization[8].Research shows that physical exercise can significantly enhance students' self-esteem [9].Moreover, a study by Wu et al. involving 3,426 middle school students demonstrated a significant positive correlation between physical exercise and self-esteem, indicating that physical activity can notably enhance self-esteem levels among adolescents [10]. On the other hand, studies have shown a significant negative correlation between self-esteem and school bullying [11]. Whether in traditional bullying or cyberbullying, victims exhibit significantly lower self-esteem levels compared to non-victims [12].Meanwhile, research indicates a bidirectional relationship between low self-esteem and victimization: low self-esteem makes adolescents more vulnerable to bullying, while the experience of being bullied further diminishes their self-esteem, creating a vicious cycle [13].Additionally, studies have revealed contrasting results, indicating that higher self-esteem may actually contribute to bullying perpetration[14].Notably, research demonstrates that physical exercise indirectly reduces school bullying incidents by enhancing self-esteem levels, while also mitigating its negative psychological impacts[15][16].In summary, we propose Hypothesis 2: Self-esteem plays a mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying. The mediating role of self-control Self-control refers to an individual's ability to consciously regulate their behavioral tendencies by overcoming impulses, habits, or automatic responses [17].Research indicates that physical exercise can enhance an individual's self-control capacity, and this improvement facilitates better self-regulation performance in other life domains [18].Self-control not only influences an individual's exercise performance and adherence, but both long-term physical activity participation and single bouts of exercise can enhance self-control capacity [19]. Self-control also plays a significant role in reducing school bullying. Studies have found that improved self-control serves as a significant mediator between aggression and cyberbullying behaviors, thereby decreasing the occurrence of cyberbullying [20].Furthermore, research indicates that adolescents with higher self-control capabilities demonstrate a greater capacity to inhibit impulsive behaviors, consequently reducing their likelihood of engaging in school bullying [21].Additionally, self-control functions as a mediating variable that explains the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying. Empirical studies on adolescents have demonstrated that self-control serves as a significant mediator between physical activity participation and bullying behaviors [22].Based on the above evidence, we propose Hypothesis 3: Self-control mediates the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying. The chain mediating role of self-esteem and self-control. Self-esteem reflects an individual's ability to evaluate and perceive self-worth, while self-control represents the capacity to regulate impulses and manage behaviors to achieve goals. These two psychological variables jointly constitute critical protective factors influencing adolescents' healthy development.Research indicates a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and self-control [23], suggesting that low self-esteem leads to diminished self-control capacity, while inadequate self-control may further exacerbate declines in self-esteem levels.Further studies demonstrate a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and self-control, indicating that adolescents with higher self-esteem typically exhibit stronger self-control capacity [24]. Elevated self-esteem contributes to enhanced self-regulation, while greater self-control subsequently reinforces self-esteem levels [25]. In conclusion, physical exercise has been demonstrated to significantly enhance individuals' self-esteem levels [26]. Students with higher self-esteem are more likely to adopt positive coping strategies, thereby strengthening their self-control capacity [27]. Individuals with stronger self-control capabilities demonstrate greater capacity to regulate their emotions and behaviors when confronted with conflicts and challenges, consequently reducing aggressive tendencies and bullying behaviors[28].In summary, based on the aforementioned mechanisms through which self-esteem and self-control operate between physical exercise and adolescent school bullying, we propose Hypothesis 4: Self-esteem and self-control play a serial mediating role in the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent school bullying. Materials and methods Procedure and participants A stratified cluster random sampling method was adopted to conduct a questionnaire survey in four junior high schools in Guangdong Province from July 8, 2024 to August 15, 2024. We distributed 603 questionnaires. After eliminating invalid questionnaires containing regular answers and missing data, 587 valid questionnaires were retrieved, with an effective recovery rate of 97.34.27%. The age ranged from 11 to 15 years old, with an average of 14.13 ± 0.74 years old. The samples included 269 men and 318 women. There are 158 students in Grade 7, 327 in Grade 8 and 102 in Grade 9. Procedure It has been approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Zhaoqing University (No. 2024020), with the approval date being July 18, 2024. All participants were informed of the purpose of this study, their participation was voluntary, and the students were given a commitment to confidentiality. And the informed consent of the parents or legal guardians of any participant under the age of 16 was obtained. During the test, both the teacher and the students gave their consent. Measures and instruments Physical exercise scale It was adopted from the \"College Students' Physical Exercise Scale\" compiled by Chen Shanping et al. [29] and revised by Wu Zhouyang [30].The scale consists of two dimensions: commitment to physical exercise and persistence in physical exercise, with 4 items each, totaling 8 items (e.g., \"I regularly engage in physical exercise.\"). Responses were measured using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from \"strongly disagree\" (1) to \"strongly agree\" (5). The total score reflects the participant's level of physical exercise, with higher scores indicating a greater engagement in physical activity. The scale has been demonstrated to have high applicability among Chinese university students[31].In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale was 0.92. Self-esteem scale The self-esteem scale developed by Rosenberg et al. was used for measurement [32], and the scale was revised by Wang Xiangdong et al. to assess self-esteem in college students [33]. The scale consists of 10 items (e.g., \"I feel that I am a person of worth.\"), rated on a 4-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). The total score represents the participant's level of self-esteem, with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. This scale has been demonstrated to be highly applicable among Chinese middle school student populations [34]. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for the scale was 0.96. Self-control scale The study employed the Self-Control Scale originally developed by Tangney [35], which was subsequently adapted into Chinese by Tan Shuhua [36]. This scale consists of 19 items across five dimensions: impulse control, healthy habits, resistance to temptation, focused work, and restrained recreation (e.g., \"I can resist temptation effectively\"). Responses were recorded using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with higher total scores indicating stronger self-control capacity. In the current study, the scale demonstrated excellent reliability with a Cronbach's α coefficient of 0.90. School bullying scale The Delaware Bullying Victimization Scale - Student Version (Chinese version revised by Xie Jiashu et al.) was adopted to assess school bullying [37]. The scale consists of 12 items across three dimensions: verbal bullying (e.g., \"I was teased by others who said very hurtful things to me\"), physical bullying (e.g., \"Some classmates deliberately broke or stole my things\"), and social/relational bullying (e.g., \"Classmates excluded me from certain activities, which made me feel very upset\").The scale uses a 6-point scoring system, ranging from \"Never\" (0 points) to \"Daily\" (5 points). The total score is calculated by summing all item scores, with higher scores indicating more severe bullying experiences. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for the scale was 0.96. Statistical Analyses The data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 to conduct common method bias tests, descriptive statistics, and correlation analysis. Additionally, the Process component was employed to test the chain mediation effect, while controlling for age and gender variables in the analysis. Results Common method deviation test Harman's single-factor test was used to examine whether common method bias existed in this study. The results showed that there were seven factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, and the first factor accounted for 28.92% of the variance, which was below the critical threshold of 40%. Therefore, it was concluded that there was no significant common method bias issue. Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis The correlation analysis results (see Table 1 ) showed that physical exercise, self-esteem, self-control, and school bullying were all significantly correlated with each other. Notably, the correlations between self-esteem, self-control, and school bullying suggest that improving adolescents' self-esteem and self-control may help mitigate school bullying. These findings provide preliminary support for the hypothesis. Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations among variables . Variable M SD physical exercise self-esteem self-control school bullying physical exercise 27.39 6.27 1 self-esteem 35.91 8.20 0.50 ** 1 self-control 66.47 12.72 0.40 ** 0.38 ** 1 school bullying 15.85 6.80 -0.20 ** -0.19** -0.38** 1 N = 587;** p < 0.01 Mediating effect test The mediation effect was tested using Hayes'[ 38 ] nonparametric percentile bootstrap method with the PROCESS macro (Version 3.3) Model 6, employing 5,000 bootstrap samples at a 95% confidence interval (CI), while controlling for age and gender. First, we examined the direct path between physical exercise and school bullying. The results showed that the path between physical exercise and school bullying was not statistically significant ,β = -0.06, p > 0.05, CI [-0.15, 0.04], and thus Hypothesis 1 was not supported. Next, we tested the mediating roles of self-esteem and self-control in the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying (see Fig. 1 ). The results showed that physical exercise was positively correlated with self-esteem, β = 0.48, p < 0.01, CI [0.37, 0.58], however, self-esteem was not significantly correlated with school bullying, β = -0.04, p > 0.05, CI [-0.12, 0.05], and thus Hypothesis 2 was not supported. Physical exercise was positively correlated with self-control, β = 0.27, p < 0.01, CI [0.17, 0.37], self-control was negatively correlated with school bullying, β = -0.36, p < 0.01, CI [-0.47, -0.24], supporting Hypothesis 3. Self-esteem was positively correlated with self-control, β = 0.24, p < 0.01, CI[0.15, 0.35], and Hypothesis 4 was verified. The mediating effect test shows (see Table 2 ) that the chain mediating effect of self-esteem and self-control is significant, the simple mediating effect of self-esteem is not significant, and the simple mediating effect of self-control is significant. Table 2 Mediation effect and effect size Path Effect proportion of total 95% confidence interval Boot LLCI Boot ULCI physical exercise→self-esteem →school bullying -0.02 -0.02/-0.16 = 12.5% -0.06 0.02 physical exercise→self-control →school bullying -0.10 -0.10/-0.16 = 62.5% -0.15 -0.06 physical exercise→self-esteem →self-control→school bullying -0.04 -0.04/-0.16 = 25% -0.07 -0.02 Total effect -0.16 -0.23 -0.10 Discussion Physical exercise and school bullying The results of this study indicate a negative correlation between physical exercise and school bullying (r = -0.20). However, after incorporating the mediating variable, the direct path between physical exercise and school bullying was not significant (P > 0.05).This finding is consistent with some previous studies [39], suggesting that physical exercise may indirectly influence school bullying behavior through other psychological variables rather than directly affecting bullying behavior itself.However, unlike some previous studies, the direct effect of physical exercise on school bullying was not statistically significant in the present study. This discrepancy may be related to differences in sample characteristics, measurement instruments [40], or inconsistencies in exercise duration, frequency, and intensity [41].Currently, there remains no unified research consensus regarding the optimal duration, frequency, and intensity of physical exercise. Coupled with the potentially insufficient sample size in this study, these factors may explain why the mediating effect between physical activity and school bullying failed to reach statistical significance in the mediation model. Future research should further investigate the moderating effects of these variables and employ larger sample sizes to enhance the robustness of findings. The non-independent mediating effect of self-esteem The results of this study indicate that self-esteem does not play a mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying, which is inconsistent with previous research evidence.The study also confirmed this finding, indicating that self-esteem does not mediate the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying [42].The study further suggests that the association between physical exercise and bullying victimization is relatively weak, with self-esteem showing no significant mediating effect [43]. The impact of self-esteem on bullying may be limited, particularly in complex social environments.According to the social-ecological systems theory [44], an individual's behavior and psychological state result from the interaction of multiple factors, including individual characteristics (e.g., self-esteem), family influences, school environment, and broader societal factors.In this study, although self-esteem was examined as one of the individual factors, it failed to mediate the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying. This may be due to interference or influence from other factors, such as social support and mental health, which might play more significant roles in the link between physical exercise and bullying [42]. These factors may indirectly reduce the occurrence of school bullying by providing emotional support and enhancing psychological resilience. Therefore, self-esteem does not mediate the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying, and Hypothesis 2 was not supported. The independent mediating effect of self-control. The results of this study indicate that self-control plays a mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying, which is consistent with previous research evidence.That is, physical exercise is positively correlated with self-control [18], and self-control is negatively correlated with school bullying [45].According to the theory of self-control [46], self-control is a limited resource [47], while physical exercise can effectively enhance the reserve of self-control by strengthening an individual's physical and mental endurance [48].Individuals who participate in regular physical exercise perform better in self-regulation, emotion management and impulse control, thereby reducing the situation of school bullying [49].Meanwhile, physical exercise effectively regulates people's self-control ability through physical practice. High self-control ability can actively adjust one's own cognition, emotions and behaviors, and thereby actively avoid school bullying [50].Therefore, self-control plays an independent mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying, and Hypothesis 3 is confirmed. The chained mediating effect of self-esteem and self-control The study also found that self-esteem and self-control played a chain-mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying. This study also revealed that physical exercise could indirectly influence school bullying through the chain-mediating effects of self-esteem and self-control.The findings indicate that college students' self-esteem can positively influence self-control [51], providing empirical support for self-determination theory at the practical level.In other words, healthy self-esteem helps enhance self-control capacity, whereas individuals with low self-esteem typically hold negative self-evaluations, lack self-confidence, and tend to adopt avoidant and dependent coping strategies when dealing with life events, consequently demonstrating weaker self-control abilities [52]. Research indicates that physical exercise can effectively enhance adolescents' self-esteem [53]. Adolescents with higher self-esteem are more inclined to adopt proactive coping strategies rather than aggressive behaviors, while demonstrating better emotional regulation, thereby indirectly reducing school bullying incidents. Another study highlights the significant value of multiple mediation effects in psychological research, providing methodological support for the analysis of chain mediation effects [54].This suggests that the impact of physical exercise on school bullying constitutes a complex process involving the interplay of multiple mediating variables. In summary, self-esteem and self-control serve as sequential mediators between physical exercise and school bullying, thereby confirming Hypothesis 4. Limitations There are still some limitations in this study. Firstly, this study adopted a cross-sectional design, thus making it difficult to infer causal relationships. In the future, longitudinal or experimental designs can be considered to explore the long-term impact of physical exercise on school bullying and its causal mechanism. Secondly, the sample only covers a single junior high school grade, so it needs to be verified in a broader geographical scope and among different age groups. Finally, the study only focused on the influence of self-esteem and self-control between physical exercise and school bullying. In the future, other influencing factors such as family environment, peer relationships, and school policies, as well as potential mediating and moderating variables, should be further explored. Practical implications This study explores the relationships between physical exercise, self-esteem, self-control, and school bullying, providing practical references for mitigating bullying among middle school students. Physical exercise is negatively correlated with school bullying and can indirectly reduce bullying behaviors through the chain-mediating effects of self-esteem and self-control. In practice, schools can incorporate physical exercise into daily teaching plans, organize diverse sports activities, and encourage active student participation to enhance their self-esteem and self-control. Meanwhile, families and society should also provide students with more opportunities and resources for physical exercise, working together to foster a healthy growth environment. Conclusion (1) Physical exercise is negatively correlated with school bullying. (2) Self-esteem does not have an independent mediating effect between physical exercise and school bullying. (3) Self-control has an independent mediating effect between physical exercise and school bullying. (4) Self-esteem and self-control have a chain-like mediating effect between physical exercise and school bullying. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Informed consent was obtained from all human participants involved in the study. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and received approval from the Ethics Committee of Zhaoqing University (No. 2024020). And the informed consent of the parents or legal guardians of any participant under the age of 16 was obtained. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. (1) Zhaoqing City Education Development Research Institute Project results in 2025, approved number :(ZQJYY2024115). (2) Zhaoqing University University-level scientific research project results in 2025, approved number :(fw202508). (3)Guangdong Province Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project (GD23YDXZTY02). (4) Research and Practice Project on the Construction of New Normal Universities in 2023 to Boost the High-Quality Development of Basic Education: \"Research on the Professional Development of County-Level Physical Education Teachers under the New Curriculum Standards,\" Guangdong Provincial Department of Education, approved in October 2023. Author Contribution Juan Song and Kelei Guo contributed to the design of the study. 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Chin J Clin Psychol 20(1):58–60. https://doi.org/10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2012.01.011 Rodriguez-Ayllon M, Cadenas-Sánchez C, Estévez-López F, Muñoz NE, Mora-Gonzalez J, Migueles JH, Esteban-Cornejo I (2019) Role of physical activity and sedentary behavior in the mental health of preschoolers, children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med 49(9):1383–1410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01099-5 Hayes AF (2017) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications. ISBN: 978-1-4625-3465-4 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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bullying\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7232736/v1/efb10ffd70005ff872b20205.png\"},{\"id\":95805333,\"identity\":\"e04e6621-b2ba-48bd-9925-64b6ffd3722d\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-13 08:40:42\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":865059,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7232736/v1/5edef1a8-6437-4f21-b14c-fad59bc0418d.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"The relationship between physical exercise and school bullying in junior high school students: the chain mediating role of self-esteem and self-control\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSchool bullying is a global social issue that severely impacts the physical and mental health as well as the holistic development of adolescents. It is a widespread and urgent social problem that needs to be addressed worldwide. Middle school students are in a stage of physical and mental development, facing pressures related to growth and development. They are prone to negative emotions in their daily lives and studies, lack maturity in handling situations, and have insufficient ability to discern right from wrong, making it difficult for them to control their own behavior. As a result, they may become involved in school bullying incidents.In April 2016, the State Council of China issued the Notice on Carrying Out Special Campaigns to Address School Bullying, which required that primary and secondary schools across the country conduct targeted efforts to address school bullying\\u0026mdash;defined as intentional or malicious acts of physical, verbal, or cyber aggression and humiliation among students that cause harm.Teenage bullying refers to the bullying in the school and reasonable radiation areas, students as victims of the relationship between classmates and teachers and students, with repeated, hidden and fixed objects, bullying behavior in various forms, and the harm to the victim has a profound impact[1].Physical exercise not only helps teenagers grow up healthily, but also can effectively intervene in school bullying. From the perspective of physical exercise, this study attempts to explore the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent bullying, as well as the mediating role of self-esteem and self-control, in order to provide theoretical guidance for improving adolescent bullying.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003ePhysical exercise and school bullying\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003ePhysical exercise is a process involving physical activities that employ various bodily methods to work out the body, enhance physical fitness, entertain the mind and body, and improve health conditions[2].In recent years, physical exercise has gained increasing attention as a proactive intervention for mitigating school bullying behaviors. Particularly among adolescent populations, the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying has sparked extensive academic discussion.Research indicates that sustained physical exercise significantly and negatively predicts school bullying behavior, meaning the more an individual engages in physical activities, the less likely they are to perpetrate or experience bullying[3].These findings align with research by international scholars Nikolaou and Crispin, who demonstrated that participation in physical exercise can reduce the probability of being bullied, with this effect being particularly pronounced among male students[4].Furthermore, research by M\\u0026eacute;ndez et al. revealed a significant negative correlation between physical exercise and bullying behaviors [5]. Their findings suggest that physical activity can enhance individuals' cognitive functioning, thereby reducing the likelihood of engaging in bullying [6].The study revealed that after an 8-week physical activity intervention, participants exhibited significantly lower levels of bullying victimization compared to the control group [7], providing further evidence for the effectiveness of physical exercise in preventing and reducing school bullying. In conclusion, physical exercise exerts a positive influence on school bullying among adolescents through specific underlying mechanisms. Based on this evidence, we propose Hypothesis 1: physical exercise significantly and negatively predicts school bullying involvement in adolescent populations.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eThe mediating role of self-esteem\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSelf-esteem is an individual's positive perception and evaluation of their own worth, an emotional experience formed through the process of pursuing self-realization[8].Research shows that physical exercise can significantly enhance students' self-esteem [9].Moreover, a study by Wu et al. involving 3,426 middle school students demonstrated a significant positive correlation between physical exercise and self-esteem, indicating that physical activity can notably enhance self-esteem levels among adolescents [10].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eOn the other hand, studies have shown a significant negative correlation between self-esteem and school bullying [11]. Whether in traditional bullying or cyberbullying, victims exhibit significantly lower self-esteem levels compared to non-victims [12].Meanwhile, research indicates a bidirectional relationship between low self-esteem and victimization: low self-esteem makes adolescents more vulnerable to bullying, while the experience of being bullied further diminishes their self-esteem, creating a vicious cycle [13].Additionally, studies have revealed contrasting results, indicating that higher self-esteem may actually contribute to bullying perpetration[14].Notably, research demonstrates that physical exercise indirectly reduces school bullying incidents by enhancing self-esteem levels, while also mitigating its negative psychological impacts[15][16].In summary, we propose Hypothesis 2: Self-esteem plays a mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eThe mediating role of self-control\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSelf-control refers to an individual's ability to consciously regulate their behavioral tendencies by overcoming impulses, habits, or automatic responses [17].Research indicates that physical exercise can enhance an individual's self-control capacity, and this improvement facilitates better self-regulation performance in other life domains [18].Self-control not only influences an individual's exercise performance and adherence, but both long-term physical activity participation and single bouts of exercise can enhance self-control capacity [19].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSelf-control also plays a significant role in reducing school bullying. Studies have found that improved self-control serves as a significant mediator between aggression and cyberbullying behaviors, thereby decreasing the occurrence of cyberbullying [20].Furthermore, research indicates that adolescents with higher self-control capabilities demonstrate a greater capacity to inhibit impulsive behaviors, consequently reducing their likelihood of engaging in school bullying [21].Additionally, self-control functions as a mediating variable that explains the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying. Empirical studies on adolescents have demonstrated that self-control serves as a significant mediator between physical activity participation and bullying behaviors [22].Based on the above evidence, we propose Hypothesis 3: Self-control mediates the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eThe chain mediating role of self-esteem and self-control.\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSelf-esteem reflects an individual's ability to evaluate and perceive self-worth, while self-control represents the capacity to regulate impulses and manage behaviors to achieve goals. These two psychological variables jointly constitute critical protective factors influencing adolescents' healthy development.Research indicates a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and self-control [23], suggesting that low self-esteem leads to diminished self-control capacity, while inadequate self-control may further exacerbate declines in self-esteem levels.Further studies demonstrate a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and self-control, indicating that adolescents with higher self-esteem typically exhibit stronger self-control capacity [24]. Elevated self-esteem contributes to enhanced self-regulation, while greater self-control subsequently reinforces self-esteem levels [25].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn conclusion, physical exercise has been demonstrated to significantly enhance individuals' self-esteem levels [26]. Students with higher self-esteem are more likely to adopt positive coping strategies, thereby strengthening their self-control capacity [27]. Individuals with stronger self-control capabilities demonstrate greater capacity to regulate their emotions and behaviors when confronted with conflicts and challenges, consequently reducing aggressive tendencies and bullying behaviors[28].In summary, based on the aforementioned mechanisms through which self-esteem and self-control operate between physical exercise and adolescent school bullying, we propose Hypothesis 4: Self-esteem and self-control play a serial mediating role in the relationship between physical exercise and adolescent school bullying.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Materials and methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eProcedure and participants\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eA stratified cluster random sampling method was adopted to conduct a questionnaire survey in four junior high schools in Guangdong Province from July 8, 2024 to August 15, 2024. We distributed 603 questionnaires. After eliminating invalid questionnaires containing regular answers and missing data, 587 valid questionnaires were retrieved, with an effective recovery rate of 97.34.27%. The age ranged from 11 to 15 years old, with an average of 14.13\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;0.74 years old. The samples included 269 men and 318 women. There are 158 students in Grade 7, 327 in Grade 8 and 102 in Grade 9.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eProcedure\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIt has been approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Zhaoqing University (No. 2024020), with the approval date being July 18, 2024. All participants were informed of the purpose of this study, their participation was voluntary, and the students were given a commitment to confidentiality. And the informed consent of the parents or legal guardians of any participant under the age of 16 was obtained. During the test, both the teacher and the students gave their consent.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eMeasures and instruments\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003ePhysical exercise scale\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIt was adopted from the \\\"College Students' Physical Exercise Scale\\\" compiled by Chen Shanping et al. [29] and revised by Wu Zhouyang [30].The scale consists of two dimensions: commitment to physical exercise and persistence in physical exercise, with 4 items each, totaling 8 items (e.g., \\\"I regularly engage in physical exercise.\\\"). Responses were measured using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from \\\"strongly disagree\\\" (1) to \\\"strongly agree\\\" (5). The total score reflects the participant's level of physical exercise, with higher scores indicating a greater engagement in physical activity. The scale has been demonstrated to have high applicability among Chinese university students[31].In this study, the Cronbach\\u0026rsquo;s \\u0026alpha; coefficient for this scale was 0.92.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eSelf-esteem scale\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe self-esteem scale developed by Rosenberg et al. was used for measurement [32], and the scale was revised by Wang Xiangdong et al. to assess self-esteem in college students [33]. The scale consists of 10 items (e.g., \\\"I feel that I am a person of worth.\\\"), rated on a 4-point scale (1\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree, 4\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;strongly agree). The total score represents the participant's level of self-esteem, with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. This scale has been demonstrated to be highly applicable among Chinese middle school student populations [34]. In this study, the Cronbach\\u0026rsquo;s \\u0026alpha; coefficient for the scale was 0.96.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eSelf-control scale\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe study employed the Self-Control Scale originally developed by Tangney [35], which was subsequently adapted into Chinese by Tan Shuhua [36]. This scale consists of 19 items across five dimensions: impulse control, healthy habits, resistance to temptation, focused work, and restrained recreation (e.g., \\\"I can resist temptation effectively\\\"). Responses were recorded using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with higher total scores indicating stronger self-control capacity. In the current study, the scale demonstrated excellent reliability with a Cronbach's \\u0026alpha; coefficient of 0.90.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eSchool bullying scale\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe Delaware Bullying Victimization Scale - Student Version (Chinese version revised by Xie Jiashu et al.) was adopted to assess school bullying [37]. The scale consists of 12 items across three dimensions: verbal bullying (e.g., \\\"I was teased by others who said very hurtful things to me\\\"), physical bullying (e.g., \\\"Some classmates deliberately broke or stole my things\\\"), and social/relational bullying (e.g., \\\"Classmates excluded me from certain activities, which made me feel very upset\\\").The scale uses a 6-point scoring system, ranging from \\\"Never\\\" (0 points) to \\\"Daily\\\" (5 points). The total score is calculated by summing all item scores, with higher scores indicating more severe bullying experiences. In this study, the Cronbach\\u0026rsquo;s \\u0026alpha; coefficient for the scale was 0.96.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eStatistical Analyses\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 to conduct common method bias tests, descriptive statistics, and correlation analysis. Additionally, the Process component was employed to test the chain mediation effect, while controlling for age and gender variables in the analysis.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec15\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ch2\\u003eCommon method deviation test\\u003c/h2\\u003eHarman\\u0026apos;s single-factor test was used to examine whether common method bias existed in this study. The results showed that there were seven factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, and the first factor accounted for 28.92% of the variance, which was below the critical threshold of 40%. Therefore, it was concluded that there was no significant common method bias issue.\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ch2\\u003eDescriptive statistics and correlation analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003eThe correlation analysis results (see Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e) showed that physical exercise, self-esteem, self-control, and school bullying were all significantly correlated with each other. Notably, the correlations between self-esteem, self-control, and school bullying suggest that improving adolescents\\u0026apos; self-esteem and self-control may help mitigate school bullying. These findings provide preliminary support for the hypothesis.\\u003cbr\\u003e\\n \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cdiv class=\\\"colspec\\\" align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n \\u003ctable id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\" class=\\\"fr-table-selection-hover\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ccaption\\u003e\\n \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eMeans, standard deviations, and correlations among variables\\u003c/strong\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n \\u003c/caption\\u003e\\n \\u003cthead\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eVariable\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eM\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eSD\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ephysical exercise\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eself-esteem\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eself-control\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eschool bullying\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/thead\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ephysical exercise\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e27.39\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e6.27\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eself-esteem\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e35.91\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e8.20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.50\\u003cem\\u003e**\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eself-control\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e66.47\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e12.72\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.40\\u003cem\\u003e**\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.38\\u003cem\\u003e**\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eschool bullying\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e15.85\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e6.80\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.20\\u003cem\\u003e**\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.19**\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.38**\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctfoot\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd colspan=\\\"7\\\"\\u003eN\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;587;** p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.01\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tfoot\\u003e\\n \\u003c/table\\u003e\\n \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec17\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ch2\\u003eMediating effect test\\u003c/h2\\u003eThe mediation effect was tested using Hayes\\u0026apos;[\\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e38\\u003c/span\\u003e] nonparametric percentile bootstrap method with the PROCESS macro (Version 3.3) Model 6, employing 5,000 bootstrap samples at a 95% confidence interval (CI), while controlling for age and gender.\\u003cbr\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFirst, we examined the direct path between physical exercise and school bullying. The results showed that the path between physical exercise and school bullying was not statistically significant ,\\u0026beta; = -0.06, p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05, CI [-0.15, 0.04], and thus Hypothesis 1 was not supported. Next, we tested the mediating roles of self-esteem and self-control in the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying (see Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e). The results showed that physical exercise was positively correlated with self-esteem, \\u0026beta;\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.48, p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.01, CI [0.37, 0.58], however, self-esteem was not significantly correlated with school bullying, \\u0026beta; = -0.04, p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05, CI [-0.12, 0.05], and thus Hypothesis 2 was not supported.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ePhysical exercise was positively correlated with self-control, \\u0026beta;\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.27, p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.01, CI [0.17, 0.37], self-control was negatively correlated with school bullying, \\u0026beta; = -0.36, p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.01, CI [-0.47, -0.24], supporting Hypothesis 3. Self-esteem was positively correlated with self-control, \\u0026beta;\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.24, p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.01, CI[0.15, 0.35], and Hypothesis 4 was verified. The mediating effect test shows (see Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e) that the chain mediating effect of self-esteem and self-control is significant, the simple mediating effect of self-esteem is not significant, and the simple mediating effect of self-control is significant.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cdiv class=\\\"colspec\\\" align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n \\u003ctable id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ccaption\\u003e\\n \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMediation effect and effect size\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n \\u003c/caption\\u003e\\n \\u003cthead\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003cth rowspan=\\\"2\\\" align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ePath\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth rowspan=\\\"2\\\" align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEffect\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth rowspan=\\\"2\\\" align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eproportion of total\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth colspan=\\\"2\\\" align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e95% confidence interval\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eBoot LLCI\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eBoot ULCI\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/th\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/thead\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ephysical exercise\\u0026rarr;self-esteem\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026rarr;school bullying\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.02\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.02/-0.16\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;12.5%\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.06\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.02\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ephysical exercise\\u0026rarr;self-control\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026rarr;school bullying\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.10\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.10/-0.16\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;62.5%\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.15\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.06\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ephysical exercise\\u0026rarr;self-esteem\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026rarr;self-control\\u0026rarr;school bullying\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.04\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.04/-0.16\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;25%\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.07\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.02\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eTotal effect\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.23\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-0.10\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n \\u003c/table\\u003e\\n \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003ePhysical exercise and school bullying\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe results of this study indicate a negative correlation between physical exercise and school bullying (r = -0.20). However, after incorporating the mediating variable, the direct path between physical exercise and school bullying was not significant (P\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05).This finding is consistent with some previous studies [39], suggesting that physical exercise may indirectly influence school bullying behavior through other psychological variables rather than directly affecting bullying behavior itself.However, unlike some previous studies, the direct effect of physical exercise on school bullying was not statistically significant in the present study. This discrepancy may be related to differences in sample characteristics, measurement instruments [40], or inconsistencies in exercise duration, frequency, and intensity [41].Currently, there remains no unified research consensus regarding the optimal duration, frequency, and intensity of physical exercise. Coupled with the potentially insufficient sample size in this study, these factors may explain why the mediating effect between physical activity and school bullying failed to reach statistical significance in the mediation model. Future research should further investigate the moderating effects of these variables and employ larger sample sizes to enhance the robustness of findings.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eThe non-independent mediating effect of self-esteem\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe results of this study indicate that self-esteem does not play a mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying, which is inconsistent with previous research evidence.The study also confirmed this finding, indicating that self-esteem does not mediate the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying [42].The study further suggests that the association between physical exercise and bullying victimization is relatively weak, with self-esteem showing no significant mediating effect [43]. The impact of self-esteem on bullying may be limited, particularly in complex social environments.According to the social-ecological systems theory [44], an individual's behavior and psychological state result from the interaction of multiple factors, including individual characteristics (e.g., self-esteem), family influences, school environment, and broader societal factors.In this study, although self-esteem was examined as one of the individual factors, it failed to mediate the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying. This may be due to interference or influence from other factors, such as social support and mental health, which might play more significant roles in the link between physical exercise and bullying [42]. These factors may indirectly reduce the occurrence of school bullying by providing emotional support and enhancing psychological resilience.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTherefore, self-esteem does not mediate the relationship between physical exercise and school bullying, and Hypothesis 2 was not supported.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eThe independent mediating effect of self-control.\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe results of this study indicate that self-control plays a mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying, which is consistent with previous research evidence.That is, physical exercise is positively correlated with self-control [18], and self-control is negatively correlated with school bullying [45].According to the theory of self-control [46], self-control is a limited resource [47], while physical exercise can effectively enhance the reserve of self-control by strengthening an individual's physical and mental endurance [48].Individuals who participate in regular physical exercise perform better in self-regulation, emotion management and impulse control, thereby reducing the situation of school bullying [49].Meanwhile, physical exercise effectively regulates people's self-control ability through physical practice. High self-control ability can actively adjust one's own cognition, emotions and behaviors, and thereby actively avoid school bullying [50].Therefore, self-control plays an independent mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying, and Hypothesis 3 is confirmed.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eThe chained mediating effect of self-esteem and self-control\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe study also found that self-esteem and self-control played a chain-mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying. This study also revealed that physical exercise could indirectly influence school bullying through the chain-mediating effects of self-esteem and self-control.The findings indicate that college students' self-esteem can positively influence self-control [51], providing empirical support for self-determination theory at the practical level.In other words, healthy self-esteem helps enhance self-control capacity, whereas individuals with low self-esteem typically hold negative self-evaluations, lack self-confidence, and tend to adopt avoidant and dependent coping strategies when dealing with life events, consequently demonstrating weaker self-control abilities [52]. Research indicates that physical exercise can effectively enhance adolescents' self-esteem [53]. Adolescents with higher self-esteem are more inclined to adopt proactive coping strategies rather than aggressive behaviors, while demonstrating better emotional regulation, thereby indirectly reducing school bullying incidents. Another study highlights the significant value of multiple mediation effects in psychological research, providing methodological support for the analysis of chain mediation effects [54].This suggests that the impact of physical exercise on school bullying constitutes a complex process involving the interplay of multiple mediating variables. In summary, self-esteem and self-control serve as sequential mediators between physical exercise and school bullying, thereby confirming Hypothesis 4.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eLimitations\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThere are still some limitations in this study. Firstly, this study adopted a cross-sectional design, thus making it difficult to infer causal relationships. In the future, longitudinal or experimental designs can be considered to explore the long-term impact of physical exercise on school bullying and its causal mechanism. Secondly, the sample only covers a single junior high school grade, so it needs to be verified in a broader geographical scope and among different age groups. Finally, the study only focused on the influence of self-esteem and self-control between physical exercise and school bullying. In the future, other influencing factors such as family environment, peer relationships, and school policies, as well as potential mediating and moderating variables, should be further explored.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003ePractical implications\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThis study explores the relationships between physical exercise, self-esteem, self-control, and school bullying, providing practical references for mitigating bullying among middle school students. Physical exercise is negatively correlated with school bullying and can indirectly reduce bullying behaviors through the chain-mediating effects of self-esteem and self-control. In practice, schools can incorporate physical exercise into daily teaching plans, organize diverse sports activities, and encourage active student participation to enhance their self-esteem and self-control. Meanwhile, families and society should also provide students with more opportunities and resources for physical exercise, working together to foster a healthy growth environment.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e(1) Physical exercise is negatively correlated with school bullying. (2) Self-esteem does not have an independent mediating effect between physical exercise and school bullying. (3) Self-control has an independent mediating effect between physical exercise and school bullying. (4) Self-esteem and self-control have a chain-like mediating effect between physical exercise and school bullying.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003ch2\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all human participants involved in the study. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and received approval from the Ethics Committee of Zhaoqing University (No. 2024020). And the informed consent of the parents or legal guardians of any participant under the age of 16 was obtained.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eConsent for publication\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNot applicable.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCompeting interests\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eFunding\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. (1) Zhaoqing City Education Development Research Institute Project results in 2025, approved number :(ZQJYY2024115). (2) Zhaoqing University University-level scientific research project results in 2025, approved number :(fw202508). (3)Guangdong Province Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project (GD23YDXZTY02). (4) Research and Practice Project on the Construction of New Normal Universities in 2023 to Boost the High-Quality Development of Basic Education: \\u0026quot;Research on the Professional Development of County-Level Physical Education Teachers under the New Curriculum Standards,\\u0026quot; Guangdong Provincial Department of Education, approved in October 2023.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eJuan Song and Kelei Guo contributed to the design of the study. The topic selection, data collection and processing, thesis writing and revision of this study were done by Zehui Zhou , Yiqiongn Huang , Li Wu; All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript, All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eAcknowledgements\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWe extend our heartfelt gratitude to all participants for their generous investment of time and effort, as well as to the researchers whose contributions have made this project possible.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eData Availability\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe datasets utilized and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the author upon reasonable request.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eRen HT (2017) The definition of school bullying and its legal responsibility. 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ISBN: 978-1-4625-3465-4\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"palcomms\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Humanities \\u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)\",\"snPcode\":\"41599\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3\",\"title\":\"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Nature AJ\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false},\"keywords\":\"physical exercise, school bullying, self-esteem, self-control, chain mediation\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7232736/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7232736/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eObjective\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFrom the perspective of physical exercise, this study explored methods to improve the issue of school bullying among middle school students and comprehensively examined the interactions and influence pathways among various variables to gain a more holistic understanding of the mechanisms through which physical exercise affected school bullying among middle school students.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eMethods\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThis research employed the Physical Exercise Scale, Self-Esteem Scale, Self-Control Scale, and School Bullying Scale. Using a stratified cluster random sampling method, a questionnaire survey was conducted among 587 middle school students in Zhaoqing City, Guangdong Province, from July 8 to August 15, 2024.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eResults\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e(1) Physical exercise was negatively correlated with school bullying (r = -0.20), but the direct path between physical exercise and school bullying was not significant.(2) Physical exercise was positively correlated with self-esteem and self-control; self-esteem was positively correlated with self-control and negatively correlated with school bullying; self-control was negatively correlated with school bullying. (3) Self-esteem and self-control played a significant mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying. The mediating effect consisted of three pathways: physical exercise → self-esteem → school bullying (mediating effect value − 0.02), physical exercise → self-control → school bullying (mediating effect value − 0.10), physical exercise → self-esteem → self-control → school bullying (mediating effect value − 0.04).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eConclusion\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003ePhysical exercise was negatively correlated with school bullying, and self-esteem was positively correlated with self-control. Self-esteem had no independent mediating effect between physical exercise and school bullying. Self-control played an independent mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying. Self-esteem and self-control played a chain mediating role between physical exercise and school bullying in junior high school students.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"The relationship between physical exercise and school bullying in junior high school students: the chain mediating role of self-esteem and self-control\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-11-12 13:19:02\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7232736/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2026-01-05T13:03:01+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-12-01T19:56:53+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-11-30T20:14:02+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-11-30T19:47:45+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-11-28T20:03:13+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-11-27T08:28:18+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-11-09T04:23:20+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"115055861014072545705164505527866205110\",\"date\":\"2025-11-06T00:28:04+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"1376389159190172636166262339408622538\",\"date\":\"2025-11-03T19:55:54+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"297110773885759818826177022216393651267\",\"date\":\"2025-11-01T02:49:43+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"41847822350546734791954101738311259959\",\"date\":\"2025-10-31T23:41:59+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"277381659536955073013828155121150928939\",\"date\":\"2025-10-31T17:28:56+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"197465046950948129576239907563794272141\",\"date\":\"2025-10-31T16:47:57+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-10-31T16:29:44+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-10-31T16:11:46+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-08-13T17:24:04+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-08-07T10:07:05+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications\",\"date\":\"2025-08-07T09:27:08+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"palcomms\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Humanities \\u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)\",\"snPcode\":\"41599\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3\",\"title\":\"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Nature AJ\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"734c82d3-1daf-48bb-83f7-86fd3fad3e7c\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"November 12th, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"in-revision\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":57746751,\"name\":\"Social science/Education\"},{\"id\":57746752,\"name\":\"Health sciences/Health care\"},{\"id\":57746753,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Psychology\"},{\"id\":57746754,\"name\":\"Social science/Psychology\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-04-22T10:39:57+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-11-12 13:19:02\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-7232736\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-7232736\",\"identity\":\"rs-7232736\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}