{"paper_id":"3bab5ba2-437a-497e-98f5-e4ce68b7bceb","body_text":"Influence of Halloysite Nanotube Fillers on Fracture, Mechanical, and Tribological Characteristics of Sisal Fibre Reinforced Composites | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Influence of Halloysite Nanotube Fillers on Fracture, Mechanical, and Tribological Characteristics of Sisal Fibre Reinforced Composites Santhosh Nagaraja, Praveena Bindiganavile Anand, Ramesha Kodandappa, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8500644/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The need for structural materials that are sustainable has driven attention of the researchers towards natural fibre reinforced polymer laminates. This study examines the synergistic influence of halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) on the mechanical strength, tribological response, and fracture characteristics of sisal fibre reinforced epoxy composites. Composites containing 15 wt.% to 35 wt.% sisal fibre (SF) and 0.5 wt.% to 2.5 wt.% HNTs were fabricated using an optimized processing route to ensure uniform dispersion and low void content. Tensile, flexural, and impact tests revealed significant improvements in strength and stiffness, with a strength of 46.34 MPa in tensile mode and a strength of 76.4 GPa in flexural mode. The addition of HNTs up to a certain limit (1wt.%) to the composite with optimum wt.% of sisal fibre viz., 20 wt.% enhanced stiffness, achieving a Young’s (E) modulus of 1.43 GPa and a flexural modulus of 3.32 GPa, indicating improved load transfer efficiency. Tribological evaluation using pin-on-disc testing showed a 30% drop-in wear rate and a 25% reduction in coefficient of friction under lubricated conditions. Fractographic observations confirmed reduced fibre pull-out and delayed crack propagation. The results demonstrate the potential of SF–HNT composites for structures demanding integrity and improved resistance to fracture. Physical sciences/Engineering Physical sciences/Materials science sisal fibre halloysite nanotubes epoxy composites mechanical tribological fracture characteristics Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. Introduction Natural NFRCs have become an enticing substitute among synthetic fiber-based materials mainly because, they are environmentally sustainable, cost-effective, and biodegradable [ 1 ]. The increasing global issues on environmental impact have enhanced research on the use of sustainable reinforcements like hemp, coir, flax, jute, and especially sisal in the structural and semi-structural composite application [ 2 – 3 ]. The benefit of the fibers is that they possess features such as strength, toughness and efficient energy dissipation which make them be used in the aerospace, industries. Of the other natural reinforcing options, sisal fiber is one which has good properties when it comes to load sustainable nature [ 4 ]. Sisal is usually obtained as the agave sisalana plant, a common agricultural by product in tropical areas. The fact that it is used in composite materials has two advantages; a sustainable method of waste use and the production of lightweight high-performance materials. Nonetheless natural fibres, such as sisal are normally problematic with regard to absorption of moisture, as well as a lack of thermal stability, among others, which need to be resolved in order to achieve desirable performance. However, nano-scale fillers can help to further enhance the performance of NFRCs. Graphene, silica, and especially Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) are examples of nanoparticles that could be utilized in improving the mechanical and tribological properties [ 5 – 7 ]. Tribological behavior, which includes wear, friction, and lubrication performance, is essential in understanding material life in high-contact or dynamic use. Recurrent sliding and abrasive forces are frequent to NFRCs [ 8 ]. The tribological performance of a given fiber is determined by the nature of the fiber, the quality of the fiber-matrix interface, the dispersion of fillers and the lubricating conditions [ 9 ]. Proper fiber orientation, better bonding due to surface treatments (e.g., alkali treatment, silane coating), and sufficient mechanisms of load transfer are needed to augment frictional resistance and wear life [ 10 – 11 ]. The addition of nanofillers such as HNTs has been identified to increase abrasion resistance and thermal stability significantly due to low levels of fiber-matrix interaction with respect to sliding, especially when using high loads and in dry sliding (12). In addition, lubrication, in particular, oil-based, can reduce the frictional forces and minimize the loss of materials, increasing the working life of the composite. The tribological performance can be optimized by the parameters of fiber content, filler loading and lubrication strategies, and they will be appropriate in high-demand parts, such as bearings, brake pads, and biomedical devices [ 13 – 15 ]. Mechanically, an important property characterizes the structural performance of the composite [ 16 ]. The fiber-matrix bonding, filler dispersion and processing methods control such characteristics. Wetting and even distribution of fibers which can be realized with the help of such techniques as vacuum bag molding are the key to minimizing the voids and providing the mechanical strength. Improved effect resistance and performance have been reported in systems that are well blended with natural fibers and nanofillers [ 17 – 19 ]. As industrial needs, such as light-weight, wear-resistance, and high-strength materials increase, the studies on green composites, where the performance and the sustainability are balanced, have become increasingly popular. Although this has been made, there are few results on the aerospace application of Sisal Fiber (SF)-reinforced epoxy composite containing HNT fillers. The present research paper explains how fiber loading, dispersion of nanofillers and lubrication state influence the overall performance of these composites. The research will employ vacuum bag molding method to produce the next generation NFRCs that have high wear and mechanical strength to support structural and friction-prone applications in automotive, aerospace, and biomedical fields. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials Strategic incorporation of fiber reinforcement, polymer matrix, and nanofillers as well as the fabrication process is needed to develop high-performance natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFRCs). Sisal Fiber (SF), epoxy resin, and Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) were used in the investigation to create composite laminates, using the vacuum bag molding method that is convenient to use in the production of composite productions with enhanced homogeneity and low void contents [ 20 ]. The steps adopted in this method included the treatment of the fiber surfaces, dispersion of the nanoparticles, incorporation of the blending process of the resins, and the vacuum assisted curing to give the best mechanical and tribological properties. The three essential constituents in this composite system are: Natural fiber (Sisal), Epoxy resin (Araldite LY556) with hardener (HY951) HNTs (Fillers). Sisal fiber was chosen due to the biodegradability and resistance to wear known. They generally, however, show low adhesion with thermoset polymers and normally need alkali treatment to increase interfacial bonding [31]. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was employed in this paper to chemically treat the fibre surface and remove the non-cellulosic substances and acetone was employed as a dispersing medium to facilitate the uniform mixing of the HNTs in the resin. The most important characteristics of the constituents are represented in Table 1 . Table 1 Key properties of Sisal Fibre, HNT and Epoxy Resin. Property Sisal Fibre HNT Epoxy Resin Density 1.3 g/cm³ – 1.6 g/cm³ 2.53 g/cm³– 2.55 g/cm³ 1.1 g/cm³ − 1.4 g/cm³ Tensile Strength 400 MPa – 700 MPa - 35 MPa − 90 MPa Young’s Modulus 9 GPa – 38 GPa 150 GPa – 650 GPa 2.5 GPa − 4.0 GPa Elongation at Break 2% – 14% - 1% − 5% Flexural Strength - - 90 MPa − 150 MPa Impact Strength - - 10 kJ/m² − 25 kJ/m² Water Absorption 60% – 70% Low Low (less than 0.5%) Thermal Conductivity - - 0.2 W/m.K Degradation Temperature - Up to 500°C 150°C − 200°C Biodegradability Biodegradable Non-biodegradable Non-biodegradable Moisture Content Approximately 13% Low Negligible Poisson's Ratio - - 0.35 The first step was the augmentation of the properties of the sisal fibers. The fibers were processed to eliminate the hemicellulose, lignin and waxes. This is an effective way of enhancing bond between the fiber and the epoxy matrix. The fibers were then treated and subsequently washed off to remove traces of alkali and dried in the oven at 80 o C over a period of 6 hours to remove moisture. This is a very important step because better interfacial bonding will increase the load transference and the overall strength of the composite. A two-step procedure was used in order to guarantee the dispersal of nanoparticles. First, the HNTs were agitated ultrasonically in acetone one hour permitting the de-agglomeration and formation of a stable suspension. This suspension was added into the epoxy resin in gradual amounts so that there was uniform distribution. Then the hardener (HY951) was introduced in an appropriate 10:1 proportion (resin to hardener) to begin its curing process. The inclusion of HNTs enhances tensile and flexural performance, hardness, and wear resistance which are micro-reinforcements and enhance distribution of loading at the micro-level. Epoxy resin and fibre with different fiber weight fractions (15, 20, 25, 30, and 35) and HNT concentrations (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5) were mixed after preparation of HNT. The mixture was cast in molds whereby, attention was given to ensure that fibers lie well and that the resin is saturated. The molds were then vacuum sealed and placed under a vacuum pressure of 0.8 bar to remove all trapped air, enhance the resin infiltration and increase the compaction of the matrix. The composite specimens were allowed to dry at ambient temperatures within 12 hours followed by post-curing the specimen at temperatures of 80°C in 3 hours which would allow maximum crosslinking and structural integrity. The vacuum bag molding process has excellent laminate quality, low porosity and high consolidation, dimensional stability. Introduction of HNTs in the fiber-reinforced epoxy matrix significantly improves tribological performance in the reduction of friction and wear. The subsequent composites show properties that can be used in high-performance in areas like automotive friction parts, biomedical devices, and load carrying structural parts. The fabrication strategy in this work offers the strong direction of development of sustainable composite materials with high functionality. The Table 2 shows the fabricated SF/Epoxy/HNT composite specimen composition for different specimen designations. Table 2 Composition of Epoxy Resin and Hardener, Sisal Fibre and HNT Specimen Designation Epoxy Resin and Hardener (%) Sisal Fiber SF (%) HNT’s (%) S1 84.5 15 0.5 S2 79 20 1.0 S3 73.5 25 1.5 S4 69 30 1.0 S5 64.5 35 0.5 2.2 Experimental Characterization In order to assess the structural integrity and the working performance of the fabricated composites, a set of mechanical and tribological tests were performed. The major mechanical tests consisted of tensile and flexural strength tests and wear and friction behaviour was also measured through tribological analysis. All the procedures were conducted conferring to the ASTM standards to give the results a high level of consistency and reproducibility. Tests on tensile were conducted using Universal Testing Machine (UTM) as per ASTM D3039 guidelines [34]. Test specimens were made in the form of a rectangle and were 250 mm long, 25 mm wide and the thickness was set at a range of 2mm to 6mm. The standard gauge length was set to 150 mm so that the same amount of strain was measured throughout the test area. In testing, the unidirectional tensile load was exerted at an identical rate of crosshead until the specimen broke down. The measurements of this test were the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), Youngs Modulus and the percent elongation. It is anticipated that the stress transfer will increase due to better bond of the fibers to the matrix by the use of alkali-treated SF which helps to increase tensile strength and ductility. Moreover, the even distribution of the Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) in the epoxy medium is likely to enhance the distribution of loads and crack propagation, which is another way of enhancing tensile behavior. The flexural strength was determined in the three-point bending configuration in line with the ASTM D790 standards [35]. The test specimen measured 127mm by 12.7mm, with the thickness of the composite laminates being the same as those created. Gauge length was 16 times the thickness of the specimen, as suggested, to provide the right bending stress, and not to cause premature failure. The specimen during the test was put on two points of support and loaded at the center until it fractured or severely deflected. The main outputs were flexural strength, flexural modulus and deflection that failed. The addition of chemically treated SF fibers facilitated a higher fiber-matrix interaction, which essentially reduced fiber pull-out and augmented flexural rigidity. Moreover, the presence of HNTs was critical towards countering the formation and propagation of microcracks thus improving the bending performance of the material under mechanical loads. The Pin-on-Disc technique was used to test wear and frictional performance of the composites and the test was conducted in agreement with ASTM G99 standard. This arrangement resembles sliding contact conditions that are used in practice. The 10 mm x 10 mm x 4 mm blocks were attached to the tip of a steel pin (6 mm diameter 25 mm length) so as to maintain the contact with the rotating disc uniformly and stably. The rotating disc was made in counter face materials like steel, aluminum, and ceramic and this made it possible to evaluate in a comprehensive manner the wear behavior of the rotating disc under different conditions of sliding. The experiment with the various normal loads (10 N, 20 N, and 30 N), sliding velocities (1 m/s, 2 m/s and 3 m/s), and a sliding distance of 500 m, 1000 m and 1500 m was completed. Further experiments were also done in dry, lubricated with oil and water conditions to replicate various working conditions and environmental impacts. The findings showed improved improvement in the properties due to well-constrained relationship between the filler and the resin. This improvement can be ascribed to self-lubricating nature of HNTs which create a tribo-film of protection in the sliding interface. Touching asperity has been minimized in this movie, which is why less material is lost, and frictional stability is enhanced. Alkali-treated natural fibers combined with nano-scale reinforcements have proved to have visible advantages in terms of mechanical and tribological performance. The strengths in tensile and flexural was increased due to the increased interfacial bonding and efficiency of stress transfer. In the meantime, the incorporation of the Halloysites Nanotubes significantly increased the resistance to wear and decreased friction, which means that the composite can be used in high-demand products, including automotive parts, industrial gears, and biomedical machines. The paper is successful in highlighting the significance of systematic material modification in coming up with sustainable and high-performance composite materials. 3. Results The findings, give a detailed insight into Sisal Fiber (SF)/Epoxy/HNT composite performance. The results indicate that the data on fiber content, HNT reinforcement and lubrication conditions affect the strength, wear resistance and failure mechanism of the composite. 3.1 Tensile test results The outcomes of tensile test show a significant enhancement with the surge in fiber content up to 20 wt.% (specimen S2) maximum strength of 46.34 MPa. This has been enhanced by the fact that there is increased interfacial bonding between the sisal fibers and the epoxy matrix. The alkali treatment eliminates non-cellulosic and increases the roughness of surfaces that facilitates effective transfer of stress and reduces fiber pull-out under loading. Nonetheless, above 20 wt.% fiber content (S3 to S5) a decreasing tendency of tensile strength is noticed and the lowest tensile strength is 32.75 MPa corresponding to the 35 wt.% fiber content (S5). This is mainly because of fiber agglomeration, poor dispersion and creation of voids that create stress concentration area and prevents homogeneous distribution of loads in the composite. Addition of Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) in ideal loads also improves the tensile characteristics. These nanotubes enhance the matrix when dispersed uniformly (in the case of S2 with 1.0% HNTs) by inhibiting crack propagation and bridging stress traps. Their tubular nature is part of load bearing and augments the strength and ductile nature of the composite. Nevertheless, in cases where there is a high HNT concentration or poor dispersion, matrix viscosity may have adverse effects in fiber distribution, which eventually lowers performance. The trend observed in Young modulus is similar to Tensile strength; that is, it increases with fiber content to the maximum of 20 percent and then maximum of 1.43 GPa in the case of S2. Both the rigid sisal fibers and well dispersed HNTs increase the stiffness of the material by restricting the movement of polymer chains and supporting the microstructure of the composite. After 20% of fiber (S3-S5), the values of stiffness begin to decrease, and S5 has the lowest modulus of 1.10 GPa. This reduction in the stiffness at higher fiber loadings is credited to non-uniformity in the orientation of the fibers, poor interfacial bonding and lesser resin matrix volume that reduces the capacity of the composite to counter the deformation. The elongation at failure, which is measuring the ductility or flexibility of the material also demonstrates the best occurrence at 20% fiber loading. Specimen S2 exhibits the maximum elongation of 3.56 percent indicating that the balance between the strength and the flexibility is good because the bond between the fibers and the matrix is high and the HNTs play the arresting crack role. At low fiber contents (S1, 15%), the elongation is marginally less (3.44) as the epoxy content is higher and gives the chain more mobility. Nevertheless, the percentage of elongation decreases drastically as the fiber loading exceeds 30, and in S5, the extent of elongation is 2.67%. Such decrease in ductility is explained by higher stiffness, loss of matrix flexibility and insufficient bonding between the fiber-matrix interface to cause premature failure. Fiber content and nanoparticle reinforcement have a strong impact on the tensile performance of SF/Epoxy/HNT composites. The combination of 20 percent fiber and 1.0 percent HNTs is the most optimal combination that brings out the best results in strength, stiffness, and ductility hence the importance of nanoparticle dispersion. In addition to this composition, when the fiber is overloaded, it results in agglomeration and voids, which decrease mechanical performance. The result of the tensile test is summarized in Table 3 , Table 4 , and Table 5 whereas Fig. 1 , Fig. 2 , and Fig. 3 depict the trends in tensile properties of various composite formulations. The outcomes of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) presented in Table 6 proved that the considered factor impacted all the measured mechanical properties significantly. The tensile modulus (F = 116.94, p = 1.42 × 10 − 1 ) and elongation at break (F = 72.59, p = 1.28 × 10 − 1 ) had the lowest sensitivity, whereas ultimate tensile strength (F = 202.17, p = 7.21 × 10 − 1 ) was the most sensitive. The p-values, in any case, were significantly smaller than the 0.05 significance threshold, which proves the fact that the differences in the results of the different groups are statistically significant and cannot be explained by mere randomness. Table 3 Tensile Strength for different Composite Specimens and for 5 trials Specimen T1 (MPa) T2 (MPa) T3 (MPa) T4 (MPa) T5 (MPa) Mean (MPa) S1 42.61 42.99 41.96 41.53 41.81 41.98 S2 46.07 46.05 46.32 47.62 45.65 46.34 S3 42.72 41.02 43.58 42.36 41.23 42.18 S4 37.05 36.11 37.71 37.38 37.64 37.18 S5 32.66 31.82 31.90 33.24 34.11 32.75 Table 4 Young’s Modulus for different Composite Specimens and for 5 trials Specimen T1 (GPa) T2 (GPa) T3 (GPa) T4 (GPa) T5 (GPa) Mean (GPa) S1 1.37 1.42 1.36 1.36 1.36 1.37 S2 1.46 1.39 1.45 1.38 1.47 1.43 S3 1.28 1.26 1.31 1.24 1.33 1.28 S4 1.10 1.13 1.12 1.15 1.12 1.12 S5 1.09 1.11 1.11 1.12 1.06 1.10 Table 5 Elongation for different Composite Specimens and for 5 trials Specimen T1 (%) T2 (%) T3 (%) T4 (%) T5 (%) Mean (%) S1 3.50 3.30 3.39 3.55 3.44 3.44 S2 3.58 3.34 3.53 3.60 3.75 3.56 S3 3.11 3.22 3.16 3.06 3.15 3.14 S4 3.08 2.91 2.88 3.01 2.96 2.97 S5 2.62 2.66 2.61 2.71 2.74 2.67 Table 6 One-Way ANOVA Results for Tensile Properties Property F-value p-value Ultimate Tensile Strength 202.17 7.21 × 10 − 16 Tensile Modulus 116.94 1.42 × 10 − 13 Elongation at Break 72.59 1.28 × 10 − 11 3.2 Flexural test results Flexural testing is an important test that helps to assess the performance of a composite under bending loads, and to provide valuable information on flexural properties. Such parameters are necessary to establish the suitability of the material to structural and load-bearing usage. All trials were carried out in agreement with ASTM D790 with the help of a three-point bending apparatus. The flexural characteristics had initially been increasing to a threshold point, beyond which, it started to decrease. The flexural strength 76.4 MPa observed in the specimen with 20 wt.% sisal fiber (SF) and 1.0 wt.% Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) was the highest which means that an optimum reinforcement configuration is achieved. This is mainly credited to more interfacial bonding between the fibre and the resin realized by alkali treatment of the natural fibers which facilitates easy transfer of stress in the bending loads. The flexural performance is additionally increased by the addition of HNTs as nano-scale reinforcements, which inhibit crack propagation and increase the rigidity of epoxy matrix. But as the content of the fiber becomes greater than 20 wt. percentage, then the strength starts to decrease. This is because of fiber agglomeration, void formation and insufficiency of the resin, which negatively affects the structural uniformity and causes premature failure when subjected to bending stress. The least flexural strength was achieved in the composite with 35 wt.% fiber i.e., 67.5 MPa which was mostly because of high rates of clustering and because of weak interfaces that serve as stress risers. The flexural strength had a similar trend with the flexural modulus, which is a measure of the material stiffness when bending. The stiffest specimen (weight fraction of 20 wt.% SF and 1.0 wt.% HNTs) was observed to have a stiffness of 3.32 GPa, which indicates that a good synergy exists between the fiber reinforcement and the dispersion of nanoparticles. The stiff natural fibers prevent deformation and HNTs prevent chain movement of polymer chains, and all these enhance resistance to bending. Above higher contents of fiber, though, the modulus reduced. In composites that contained over 20 wt.% fibers the drop in stiffness was due to lack of dispersion of the fibers and low content of resin. This causes the absence of uniform load transfer and micro-crack formation which eventually undermines the structure. The fiber-based composite containing 35 wt.% fiber had the lowest modulus 2.58 GPa indicating that it could not withstand heavy loading as it lacks continuity and structural homogeneity of the matrix. The highest deflection indicating the ductility of the composite during bending had an inversive relationship with the modulus. The specimen containing 15 wt.% of fiber showed the highest deflection with the low content of fibers permitting the resin to control the deformation behavior hence resulting in increased flexibility and energy absorption. The higher the fiber content the lesser the deflection since the rigidity increases. The relatively balanced response of the 20 wt.% fiber with 1.0 wt.% HNTs configuration, which possessed sufficient stiffness and moderately good flexibility as a desirable characteristic of components heavily loaded and deformed, was obtained. Contrary to this, the composite with 35 wt.% fiber content experienced the lowest deflection which means that it is brittle. Overloading of fiber has a drastic effect in reducing the elasticity of the matrix, and as such the material becomes more susceptible to abrupt fracture rather than gradual deformation. All in all, the findings indicate that the composite containing 20 wt.% sisal fiber and 1.0 wt.% of HNTs has the highest flexural performance as it has high strength, high stiffness, and moderate ductility. In addition to this optimum set-up, fiber agglomeration, low dispersion and low matrix integrity reduces the mechanical advantages. The results of the flexural test of all composite variants are given in Table 7 , Table 8 , and Table 9 , whereas the figures of flexural characteristics of the varying compositions are demonstrated in Fig. 4 , Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 . The Table 10 presents the findings of the methods of One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) that indicate the statistically significant effect of the studied factor on all flexural properties. The most sensitive was flexural modulus (F = 312.48, p = 3.16 × 10⁻ 18 ) and then maximum deflection (F = 97.23, p = 5.91 × 10⁻¹³) and flexural strength (F = 84.61, p = 2.04 × 10⁻¹²). The p-values were significantly lower than the 0.05 level of significance in all the cases, which proves that the observed differences between the groups are statistically significant. Table 7 Flexural Strength for different Composite Specimens Specimen T1 (MPa) T2 (MPa) T3 (MPa) T4 (MPa) T5 (MPa) Mean (MPa) S1 70.5 71.8 72.1 70.9 71.7 71.4 S2 75.6 76.9 77.1 76.4 75.8 76.4 S3 72.1 73.4 71.9 73.0 72.5 72.6 S4 67.6 68.9 69.1 68.2 67.8 68.3 S5 66.8 67.2 68.1 67.5 68.0 67.5 Table 8 Flexural Modulus for different Composite Specimens Specimen T1 (GPa) T2 (GPa) T3 (GPa) T4 (GPa) T5 (GPa) Mean (GPa) S1 2.72 2.79 2.75 2.78 2.76 2.76 S2 3.28 3.35 3.31 3.34 3.32 3.32 S3 2.82 2.89 2.85 2.88 2.86 2.86 S4 2.61 2.66 2.63 2.65 2.64 2.64 S5 2.55 2.60 2.58 2.59 2.57 2.58 Table 9 Maximum Flexural deflection for different Composite Specimens Specimen T1 (mm) T2 (mm) T3 (mm) T4 (mm) T5 (mm) Mean (mm) S1 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.9 3.82 S2 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.9 4.0 3.92 S3 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.42 S4 3.0 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.12 S5 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.7 2.62 Table 10 One-Way ANOVA Results for Flexural Properties Property F-value p-value Flexural Strength 84.61 2.04 × 10 − 12 Flexural Modulus 312.48 3.16 × 10 − 18 Maximum Deflection 97.23 5.91 × 10 − 13 3.3 Tribological Characterization 3.3.1 Wear Rate The wear characteristics of the composites formulated were significantly different with the variation in loading of the fibers, the level of HNT content and the lubrication conditions. Among the experimented specimens, Specimen S3 containing 25 wt.% sisal fiber and 1.5 wt.% HNTs registered the least wear rate particularly in oil-lubricated conditions with a value of 0.73 x 10 − 3 mm 3 /Nm. This enhanced wear resistance is attributed to the reinforcement that the HNTs offered to the composite and consequently enhanced the load-carrying capacity of the composite and assisted in limiting surface degradation during sliding. Moreover, increased adhesion between filler and resin in this specimen inhibited the pull-out of the fibers, and consequently resulted in a less coarse wear surface and less wear loss. On the other hand, Specimen S5 (35 wt.% SF, 2.5 wt.% HNTs) had the largest wear rate, which was 2.24 × 10 − 3 mm 3 /Nm during dry sliding, because of the high content of fibers that resulted in fiber clustering and lack of wetting of the matrix. These aspects deteriorated the fiber matrix interface, which exposed the composite to faster wear due to the tendency of fiber detachment and surface erosion during frictional contact. 3.3.2 Friction Coefficient (COF) Analysis The incorporation of the Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) resulted in a significant reduction in the coefficient of friction (COF) and therefore, they are seen to be effective lubricating solids that can be used to reduce the interfacial shear during sliding. Specimen S3 (25 wt.% SF, 1.5 wt.% HNTs) in oil-lubricated conditions registered the lowest value of COF, 0.21. This act can be attributed to the lubricating effect of HNTs as well as the fibre that considerably minimized the direct contact between surface asperities of the composite and the counter face. Specimen S5 (35 wt.% SF, 2.5 wt.% HNTs) on the other hand gave the highest COF of 0.42 in dry conditions. The cause of the high friction in the present study is considered to be due to roughness of the surface, irregularity in the dispersion of the fibers and pull out of the fibers which all led to increased resistance in the form of friction during the process of sliding. High frictional forces were also caused by poor surface integrity and contact points caused by the excess of fiber in S5, and a weak bonding of the matrix. 3.3.3 Effect of Lubrication on Wear Performance The concept of lubrication came out as a significant consideration to augment the wear resistance of the composites. The oil lubricated state best demonstrated the significant drop-in wear rate in the presence of the constant lubricating film that led to the significant decrease in direct interaction between the composite surface and the counter face, and therefore, frictional forces and material degradation were minimized. The best improvement of the wear resistance was observed in specimen S3 when compared with the wear rate under oil-based lubrication conditions rather than in dry sliding conditions. Whereas lubrication based on water also helped in reducing the wear, its performance was somewhat poor. This was primarily because of the property of water to evaporate particularly when subjected to prolonged tests resulting in less stable protective layer and moderate wear resistance. Table 11 Wear results under different conditions Specimens Load (N) Sliding Speed (m/s) Wear Rate (mm 3 /Nm) Dry Wear Rate (mm 3 /Nm) Oil-Based Wear Rate (mm 3 /Nm) Water-Based COF Dry COF Oil Based COF Water Based S1 10 1 0.00204 0.00147 0.00168 0.39 0.30 0.32 S2 20 2 0.00147 0.00107 0.00122 0.32 0.27 0.29 S3 30 3 0.00106 0.00073 0.00079 0.26 0.21 0.26 S4 20 2 0.00167 0.00116 0.00132 0.36 0.32 0.32 S5 30 3 0.00224 0.00152 0.00207 0.42 0.33 0.35 The results of wear test under different conditions are tabulated as shown in Table 5 . Specimen S1, and S4 were tested at lower load and speed conditions, whereas Specimens S3 and S5 were tested at higher load and speed conditions respectively. Nevertheless, S3 had a superior wear resistance with the lowest wear rate in dry sliding (0.00106 mm 3 /Nm) even though S5 had the highest wear rate (0.00224 mm 3 /Nm) mainly because of fiber agglomeration and poor bonding which encouraged surface damage during sliding. Lubrication had a positive influence on all the specimens, and the use of oil-based lubrication considerably decreased the wear. As an example, wear rate of S3 decreased, viz., 0.00106 mm 3 /Nm for dry condition to 0.00073 mm 3 /Nm for oil-lubricated condition, which means that the oil film was effective in inhibiting the wear by eliminating surface contacts. Wear performance was also better under water-based lubrication but not as effectively. The wear rate of specimen S2, decreased from 0.00147 mm 3 /Nm for dry condition to 0.00122 mm 3 /Nm for water-based lubrication condition. The same pattern was evident for the coefficient of friction (COF). The COF during dry sliding was between 0.26 and 0.42 for S3 and S5 specimens respectively, which is associated with enhanced surface asperity contact and fiber pull-out. In the case of oil-based lubrication, the COF values decreased in all the specimens viz., for S3 specimen it dropped to 0.21, and for S1 specimen it dropped to 0.30. Lubrication with water was also found to be less efficient than oil, but reduced the COF in comparison to dry sliding, since the water film was temporary. As demonstrated in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 , the trends in wear rate and COF depict the effect of load applied, speed and the type of lubrication. The results highlight the importance of lubricants especially the oil-based lubricants in improving the wear resistance. In general, Specimen S3 performed better compared to other composites, which showed better tribological behavior in all the testing conditions. Specimen S5 on the contrary performed poorly due to ineffective fiber-matrix interactions and non-uniform dispersion. These findings can also indicate the need of optimized material composition in particular alkali-treated natural fibers and well-dispersed HNT nanoparticles to attain better wear resistance and reduced friction in the stressful operating conditions. 3.4 Fracture Studies The fracture studies of the tensile fracture composite specimens S1,S2,S3,S4 and S5 is given in Fig. 9 (a), Fig. 9 (b), Fig. 9 (c), Fig. 9 (d) and Fig. 9 (e) respectively. The SEM image of Specimen 1 (Fig. 9 (a)) shows there is a fracture surface with comparatively plane surfaces that are interspersed with a less amount of roughness, which signifies a brittle-ductile split under tensile strain. The matrix localizes plastic deformation with fewer deep dimples and micro-voids which points to limited energy absorption in the presence of fracture. Early crack initiation is also evident in areas adjacent to interfacial ones, suggesting moderate interfacial bonding between the reinforcement and the matrix. The relatively smoother fracture characteristics suggest a propensity towards premature crack propagation, which is associated with the reduced performance in tensile behaviour of this specimen. The fractured surface of Specimen S2 (Fig. 9 (b)) exhibits significant scratches and pit fracture surfaces in contrast to Specimen S1, which indicates a higher crack-propagation resistance. The matrix shows clear ductile dimples, fibrillation and tearing ridges, which prove that there was a lot of plastic deformation prior to failure. The reinforcement particles/fibers are considerably incorporated into the matrix, and the residues of the matrix are attached to their surface indicating a positive interfacial bond and good transfer of loads. The paths of the cracks are more tortuous, meaning that energy has been dissipated through crack deflection processes, and it leads to the enhancement of tensile strength. The fractography of specimen S3 (Fig. 9 (c)) shows the most intense ductile characteristics of all specimens in its fracture surface. Micro-void coalescence is extensive, dimples are deep, and the matrix is stretched, which is evidence of considerable plastic deformation and large fracture energy absorption. Strong interfacial bonding is also exhibited by the reinforcement-matrix interface showing little debonding or pull-out. The crack propagation is very irregular and it has been shown to exhibit crack arrest and branching indicating high fractures toughness and tensile behavior. The above fractographic characteristics affirm that the Specimen 3 is the most suitable composite during tensile loading. The fractography of Specimen S4 (Fig. 9 (d)) has a fracture morphology which involves combination of ductile deformation of the matrix and localized interfacial debonding. Although plastic flow regions and dimples are observed, some regions exhibit reinforcement pull-out cavities and interfaces voids, which shows that there is partial interface failure at the increased tensile stress. Possible pull-out features indicate that more energy will be dissipated but excessive interfacial separation will cause a decrease in the overall load-carrying performance. Crack propagation does not seem as tortuous as in Specimen 3, representing a moderate decline in tensile performance. The SEM fractography of specimen 5 (Fig. 9 (e)) indicates that brittle characteristics such as cleavage facets, smooth and straight crack lines dominate the fracture surface. Minimal deformation of the matrix is witnessed and reinforcement pull-out is more cathodic which means that interfacial bonding is not very strong. Interfacial defects are subjected to crack initiation that is fast and then there is unstable crack propagation through the matrix. The decreased surface roughness and no large-scale ductile characteristics validate low-energy absorption before fracture, and that is why the tensile strength and elongation of this specimen are relatively low. The fracture studies clearly show clearly that transitioning in fracture (specimens S1 and S5) to fracture mechanisms of ductile and energy-absorbing fractures (specimen S2 and specimen S3) took place, with specimen S3 having the best interfacial integrity and fracture resistance. The above microstructural observations are very much related to the tensile test results and confirm the role of reinforcement-matrix interaction in the tensile failure behavior. 4. Conclusions This study effectively investigated the mechanical, fracture and tribological characteristics of epoxy-based composites reinforced with Sisal Fibers (SF) and enhanced with Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) as nanofillers. The addition of alkali-treated SF in the range of 20 wt.% to 30 wt.% significantly improved the characteristics of the composites. The optimal formulation, containing 20 wt.% SF and 1.0 wt.% HNTs, achieved the highest tensile strength (45.8 MPa), tensile modulus (1.42 GPa), and elongation at break (3.6%), indicating effective interfacial bonding and efficient stress distribution throughout the matrix. However, further increases in fiber content led to a decline in mechanical performance due to fiber agglomeration, increased porosity, and insufficient resin wetting. The flexural performance mirrored the tensile results. The composite with 20 wt.% SF and 1.0 wt.% HNTs showed the highest flexural strength (76.3 MPa) and modulus (3.32 GPa). Beyond 30 wt.% fiber loading, flexural properties declined, attributed to non-uniform fiber distribution and weakened fiber-matrix interactions, which promoted early failure during bending. Tribological analysis showed improvements in wear resistance and friction reduction with HNTs and optimal fiber ratios. The composite with 30 wt.% SF and 1.5 wt.% HNTs exhibited the lowest wear rate (0.00073 mm³/Nm) and lowest coefficient of friction (0.21) under oil-lubricated conditions. Oil-based lubrication proved more effective than dry and water-based environments by creating a consistent lubricating layer, reducing surface abrasion and frictional contact. Among all tested specimens, the 30 wt.% SF and 1.5 wt.% HNT composite demonstrated the most favorable balance of mechanical integrity and wear performance. The combined reinforcement of natural fibers and dispersed nanotubes led to improved structural reliability and resistance to surface degradation. In conclusion, SF-reinforced epoxy composites enhanced with HNTs present a sustainable and economical material choice for high-performance applications in aerospace field. The strategic combination of treated natural fibers and nanofillers enables notable advances in strength, stiffness, and tribological durability, promoting the use of green materials in advanced engineering applications. Ethics Statement : \"The research aims to contribute to academic knowledge while upholding the highest ethical standards in data collection and analysis.\" Declarations Ethics Statement: \"The research aims to contribute to academic knowledge while upholding the highest ethical standards in data collection and analysis.\" Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Data availability statement \"Data supporting the research work is embedded within the manuscript, and any additional data related to work can be obtained upon requisition to the corresponding author.\" author’s contribution statement Conceptualization, S.N. and P.B.A.; methodology, S.N., P.B.A., and A.F.; formal analysis, S.N. and R.K.; investigation, S.N. and R.K.; data curation, R.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.N.; writing—review and editing, P.B.A., R.K., and A.F.; visualization, A.F.; supervision, P.B.A.; project administration, P.B.A. All authors have read and agreed to the author’s contribution statement and herewith abide by the publication ethics and guidelines. Author Initials: S.N.: Santhosh Nagaraja; P.B.A.: Praveena Bindiganavile Anand; R.K.: Ramesha Kodandappa; A.F.: Adisu Frinjo. References Elfaleh, I. et al. A comprehensive review of natural fibers and their composites: an eco-friendly alternative to conventional materials. 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(2022). doi.org/10.1155/2022/6445022 Balachandra, P., Shetty, J., Sudheer Reddy, A. & Madhusudhan Implementation of Python in the Optimization of Process Parameters of Product Laryngoscope Manufactured in the Injection Mold Machine. Emerging Research in Computing, Information, Communication and Applications: Proceedings of ERCICA 2022, pp. 625–633. (2022). doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5482-5_54 Chandrashekarappa, A. L. M. P. G., Selvan, C. P., Pimenov, D. Y. & Khaled Giasin. Experimental Investigation of Effect of Fiber Length on Mechanical, Wear and Morphological Behavior of Silane Treated Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites Vol. 10 (Fibers, 2022). Issue. 7 doi.org/10.3390/fib10070056 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-8500644\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":576597971,\"identity\":\"dbcd983d-4428-48d6-849b-2be26bbb34e4\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Santhosh 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12:11:47\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":25055,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eUTS for different composite specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/ff7a3615e0df477c108ba400.png\"},{\"id\":100681809,\"identity\":\"6bbe86e4-ff97-4c82-bc68-87a2bd3fe672\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-01-20 12:14:18\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":18888,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTensile Modulus for different composite specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image2.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/b821de13db04960882941fd0.png\"},{\"id\":100681659,\"identity\":\"16fa4ff3-6cb9-46e2-8eb0-b397cd198069\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-01-20 12:13:31\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":17663,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eElongation at Break (%) for different composite specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image3.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/3a9abeaa3dbc98ac823737ad.png\"},{\"id\":100681821,\"identity\":\"69d40a7f-70cd-48c2-836d-6821187bc375\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-01-20 12:14:32\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"Figure 4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":16814,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFlexural Strength of different composite specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image4.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/84502020d66e407f7b98f8fe.png\"},{\"id\":100681723,\"identity\":\"641f637a-0f2e-458d-b281-20eb173a59ad\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-01-20 12:13:49\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":16461,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFlexural Modulus of different composite specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image5.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/8c44d6873625c04b5c8cde5f.png\"},{\"id\":100681637,\"identity\":\"0a03b809-7683-4ab9-a4a1-d9915ff7b50f\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-01-20 12:13:28\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":23990,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMaximum Deflection of different composite specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image6.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/e97d8ea5bc135308e8c4a624.png\"},{\"id\":100681597,\"identity\":\"8a9894b3-9ce6-40cd-b2c1-f12bc49e0e3c\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-01-20 12:12:40\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":91762,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eWear rate of composite specimens at different test conditions\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image7.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/f3168a46a5f7720df1f85b82.png\"},{\"id\":100681671,\"identity\":\"0691f8b6-0733-4762-a1aa-0b3aa067ca31\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-01-20 12:13:44\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":8,\"title\":\"Figure 8\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":92299,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCOF of composite specimens at different test conditions\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image8.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/c24131d01225858c5c523f19.png\"},{\"id\":100796384,\"identity\":\"ceb28094-5ed6-4b91-9b42-9b0166c8fe15\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-01-21 13:42:55\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":9,\"title\":\"Figure 9\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":2375727,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSEM Fractography of composite specimens (a) S1 (15 wt.% SF and 0.5 wt.% HNT), (b) S2 (20 wt.% SF and 1 wt.% HNT), (c) S3 (25 wt.% SF and 1.5 wt.% HNT), (d) S4 (30 wt.% SF and 2 wt.% HNT), (e) S5 (35 wt.% SF and 2.5 wt.% HNT)\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image9.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/53f7e1f463eecdd8820974e0.png\"},{\"id\":103569123,\"identity\":\"a09fee7e-7b9b-4deb-aa97-d47c3b2ce5a3\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-02-27 07:42:25\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":3863324,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8500644/v1/bab80353-6778-405e-b384-bf3eb4321812.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Influence of Halloysite Nanotube Fillers on Fracture, Mechanical, and Tribological Characteristics of Sisal Fibre Reinforced Composites\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"1. Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eNatural NFRCs have become an enticing substitute among synthetic fiber-based materials mainly because, they are environmentally sustainable, cost-effective, and biodegradable [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The increasing global issues on environmental impact have enhanced research on the use of sustainable reinforcements like hemp, coir, flax, jute, and especially sisal in the structural and semi-structural composite application [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The benefit of the fibers is that they possess features such as strength, toughness and efficient energy dissipation which make them be used in the aerospace, industries.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOf the other natural reinforcing options, sisal fiber is one which has good properties when it comes to load sustainable nature [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Sisal is usually obtained as the agave sisalana plant, a common agricultural by product in tropical areas. The fact that it is used in composite materials has two advantages; a sustainable method of waste use and the production of lightweight high-performance materials. Nonetheless natural fibres, such as sisal are normally problematic with regard to absorption of moisture, as well as a lack of thermal stability, among others, which need to be resolved in order to achieve desirable performance. However, nano-scale fillers can help to further enhance the performance of NFRCs. Graphene, silica, and especially Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) are examples of nanoparticles that could be utilized in improving the mechanical and tribological properties [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR6\\\" citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTribological behavior, which includes wear, friction, and lubrication performance, is essential in understanding material life in high-contact or dynamic use. Recurrent sliding and abrasive forces are frequent to NFRCs [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The tribological performance of a given fiber is determined by the nature of the fiber, the quality of the fiber-matrix interface, the dispersion of fillers and the lubricating conditions [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR9\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Proper fiber orientation, better bonding due to surface treatments (e.g., alkali treatment, silane coating), and sufficient mechanisms of load transfer are needed to augment frictional resistance and wear life [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR11\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e11\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe addition of nanofillers such as HNTs has been identified to increase abrasion resistance and thermal stability significantly due to low levels of fiber-matrix interaction with respect to sliding, especially when using high loads and in dry sliding (12). In addition, lubrication, in particular, oil-based, can reduce the frictional forces and minimize the loss of materials, increasing the working life of the composite. The tribological performance can be optimized by the parameters of fiber content, filler loading and lubrication strategies, and they will be appropriate in high-demand parts, such as bearings, brake pads, and biomedical devices [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR14\\\" citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e13\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e15\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMechanically, an important property characterizes the structural performance of the composite [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e16\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The fiber-matrix bonding, filler dispersion and processing methods control such characteristics. Wetting and even distribution of fibers which can be realized with the help of such techniques as vacuum bag molding are the key to minimizing the voids and providing the mechanical strength. Improved effect resistance and performance have been reported in systems that are well blended with natural fibers and nanofillers [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR18\\\" citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e17\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e19\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAs industrial needs, such as light-weight, wear-resistance, and high-strength materials increase, the studies on green composites, where the performance and the sustainability are balanced, have become increasingly popular. Although this has been made, there are few results on the aerospace application of Sisal Fiber (SF)-reinforced epoxy composite containing HNT fillers. The present research paper explains how fiber loading, dispersion of nanofillers and lubrication state influence the overall performance of these composites. The research will employ vacuum bag molding method to produce the next generation NFRCs that have high wear and mechanical strength to support structural and friction-prone applications in automotive, aerospace, and biomedical fields.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2. Materials and Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Materials\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eStrategic incorporation of fiber reinforcement, polymer matrix, and nanofillers as well as the fabrication process is needed to develop high-performance natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFRCs). Sisal Fiber (SF), epoxy resin, and Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) were used in the investigation to create composite laminates, using the vacuum bag molding method that is convenient to use in the production of composite productions with enhanced homogeneity and low void contents [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e20\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The steps adopted in this method included the treatment of the fiber surfaces, dispersion of the nanoparticles, incorporation of the blending process of the resins, and the vacuum assisted curing to give the best mechanical and tribological properties.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe three essential constituents in this composite system are:\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cul\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNatural fiber (Sisal),\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEpoxy resin (Araldite LY556) with hardener (HY951)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHNTs (Fillers).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003c/ul\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSisal fiber was chosen due to the biodegradability and resistance to wear known. They generally, however, show low adhesion with thermoset polymers and normally need alkali treatment to increase interfacial bonding [31]. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was employed in this paper to chemically treat the fibre surface and remove the non-cellulosic substances and acetone was employed as a dispersing medium to facilitate the uniform mixing of the HNTs in the resin. The most important characteristics of the constituents are represented in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eKey properties of Sisal Fibre, HNT and Epoxy Resin.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eProperty\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSisal Fibre\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHNT\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEpoxy Resin\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDensity\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.3 g/cm\\u0026sup3; \\u0026ndash; 1.6 g/cm\\u0026sup3;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.53 g/cm\\u0026sup3;\\u0026ndash; 2.55 g/cm\\u0026sup3;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.1 g/cm\\u0026sup3; \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1.4 g/cm\\u0026sup3;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTensile Strength\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e400 MPa \\u0026ndash; 700 MPa\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e35 MPa \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;90 MPa\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eYoung\\u0026rsquo;s Modulus\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e9 GPa \\u0026ndash; 38 GPa\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e150 GPa \\u0026ndash; 650 GPa\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.5 GPa \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;4.0 GPa\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eElongation at Break\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2% \\u0026ndash; 14%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1% \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;5%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFlexural Strength\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e90 MPa \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;150 MPa\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eImpact Strength\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10 kJ/m\\u0026sup2; \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;25 kJ/m\\u0026sup2;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWater Absorption\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e60% \\u0026ndash; 70%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLow\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLow (less than 0.5%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThermal Conductivity\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2 W/m.K\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDegradation Temperature\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUp to 500\\u0026deg;C\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e150\\u0026deg;C \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;200\\u0026deg;C\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBiodegradability\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBiodegradable\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNon-biodegradable\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNon-biodegradable\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMoisture Content\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eApproximately 13%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLow\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNegligible\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePoisson's Ratio\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.35\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe first step was the augmentation of the properties of the sisal fibers. The fibers were processed to eliminate the hemicellulose, lignin and waxes. This is an effective way of enhancing bond between the fiber and the epoxy matrix. The fibers were then treated and subsequently washed off to remove traces of alkali and dried in the oven at 80 o C over a period of 6 hours to remove moisture. This is a very important step because better interfacial bonding will increase the load transference and the overall strength of the composite.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eA two-step procedure was used in order to guarantee the dispersal of nanoparticles. First, the HNTs were agitated ultrasonically in acetone one hour permitting the de-agglomeration and formation of a stable suspension. This suspension was added into the epoxy resin in gradual amounts so that there was uniform distribution. Then the hardener (HY951) was introduced in an appropriate 10:1 proportion (resin to hardener) to begin its curing process. The inclusion of HNTs enhances tensile and flexural performance, hardness, and wear resistance which are micro-reinforcements and enhance distribution of loading at the micro-level.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEpoxy resin and fibre with different fiber weight fractions (15, 20, 25, 30, and 35) and HNT concentrations (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5) were mixed after preparation of HNT. The mixture was cast in molds whereby, attention was given to ensure that fibers lie well and that the resin is saturated. The molds were then vacuum sealed and placed under a vacuum pressure of 0.8 bar to remove all trapped air, enhance the resin infiltration and increase the compaction of the matrix.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe composite specimens were allowed to dry at ambient temperatures within 12 hours followed by post-curing the specimen at temperatures of 80\\u0026deg;C in 3 hours which would allow maximum crosslinking and structural integrity. The vacuum bag molding process has excellent laminate quality, low porosity and high consolidation, dimensional stability. Introduction of HNTs in the fiber-reinforced epoxy matrix significantly improves tribological performance in the reduction of friction and wear. The subsequent composites show properties that can be used in high-performance in areas like automotive friction parts, biomedical devices, and load carrying structural parts. The fabrication strategy in this work offers the strong direction of development of sustainable composite materials with high functionality. The Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e shows the fabricated SF/Epoxy/HNT composite specimen composition for different specimen designations.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eComposition of Epoxy Resin and Hardener, Sisal Fibre and HNT\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimen\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDesignation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEpoxy Resin\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eand Hardener (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSisal Fiber\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSF (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHNT\\u0026rsquo;s\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e84.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e15\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e79\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e20\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e73.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e25\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e69\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e30\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e64.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e35\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Experimental Characterization\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn order to assess the structural integrity and the working performance of the fabricated composites, a set of mechanical and tribological tests were performed. The major mechanical tests consisted of tensile and flexural strength tests and wear and friction behaviour was also measured through tribological analysis. All the procedures were conducted conferring to the ASTM standards to give the results a high level of consistency and reproducibility.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTests on tensile were conducted using Universal Testing Machine (UTM) as per ASTM D3039 guidelines [34]. Test specimens were made in the form of a rectangle and were 250 mm long, 25 mm wide and the thickness was set at a range of 2mm to 6mm. The standard gauge length was set to 150 mm so that the same amount of strain was measured throughout the test area.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn testing, the unidirectional tensile load was exerted at an identical rate of crosshead until the specimen broke down. The measurements of this test were the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), Youngs Modulus and the percent elongation. It is anticipated that the stress transfer will increase due to better bond of the fibers to the matrix by the use of alkali-treated SF which helps to increase tensile strength and ductility. Moreover, the even distribution of the Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) in the epoxy medium is likely to enhance the distribution of loads and crack propagation, which is another way of enhancing tensile behavior.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe flexural strength was determined in the three-point bending configuration in line with the ASTM D790 standards [35]. The test specimen measured 127mm by 12.7mm, with the thickness of the composite laminates being the same as those created. Gauge length was 16 times the thickness of the specimen, as suggested, to provide the right bending stress, and not to cause premature failure.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe specimen during the test was put on two points of support and loaded at the center until it fractured or severely deflected. The main outputs were flexural strength, flexural modulus and deflection that failed. The addition of chemically treated SF fibers facilitated a higher fiber-matrix interaction, which essentially reduced fiber pull-out and augmented flexural rigidity. Moreover, the presence of HNTs was critical towards countering the formation and propagation of microcracks thus improving the bending performance of the material under mechanical loads.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Pin-on-Disc technique was used to test wear and frictional performance of the composites and the test was conducted in agreement with ASTM G99 standard. This arrangement resembles sliding contact conditions that are used in practice. The 10 mm x 10 mm x 4 mm blocks were attached to the tip of a steel pin (6 mm diameter 25 mm length) so as to maintain the contact with the rotating disc uniformly and stably.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe rotating disc was made in counter face materials like steel, aluminum, and ceramic and this made it possible to evaluate in a comprehensive manner the wear behavior of the rotating disc under different conditions of sliding. The experiment with the various normal loads (10 N, 20 N, and 30 N), sliding velocities (1 m/s, 2 m/s and 3 m/s), and a sliding distance of 500 m, 1000 m and 1500 m was completed. Further experiments were also done in dry, lubricated with oil and water conditions to replicate various working conditions and environmental impacts.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe findings showed improved improvement in the properties due to well-constrained relationship between the filler and the resin. This improvement can be ascribed to self-lubricating nature of HNTs which create a tribo-film of protection in the sliding interface. Touching asperity has been minimized in this movie, which is why less material is lost, and frictional stability is enhanced.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAlkali-treated natural fibers combined with nano-scale reinforcements have proved to have visible advantages in terms of mechanical and tribological performance. The strengths in tensile and flexural was increased due to the increased interfacial bonding and efficiency of stress transfer. In the meantime, the incorporation of the Halloysites Nanotubes significantly increased the resistance to wear and decreased friction, which means that the composite can be used in high-demand products, including automotive parts, industrial gears, and biomedical machines. The paper is successful in highlighting the significance of systematic material modification in coming up with sustainable and high-performance composite materials.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe findings, give a detailed insight into Sisal Fiber (SF)/Epoxy/HNT composite performance. The results indicate that the data on fiber content, HNT reinforcement and lubrication conditions affect the strength, wear resistance and failure mechanism of the composite.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec6\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.1 Tensile test results\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe outcomes of tensile test show a significant enhancement with the surge in fiber content up to 20 wt.% (specimen S2) maximum strength of 46.34 MPa. This has been enhanced by the fact that there is increased interfacial bonding between the sisal fibers and the epoxy matrix. The alkali treatment eliminates non-cellulosic and increases the roughness of surfaces that facilitates effective transfer of stress and reduces fiber pull-out under loading.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNonetheless, above 20 wt.% fiber content (S3 to S5) a decreasing tendency of tensile strength is noticed and the lowest tensile strength is 32.75 MPa corresponding to the 35 wt.% fiber content (S5). This is mainly because of fiber agglomeration, poor dispersion and creation of voids that create stress concentration area and prevents homogeneous distribution of loads in the composite.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAddition of Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) in ideal loads also improves the tensile characteristics. These nanotubes enhance the matrix when dispersed uniformly (in the case of S2 with 1.0% HNTs) by inhibiting crack propagation and bridging stress traps. Their tubular nature is part of load bearing and augments the strength and ductile nature of the composite. Nevertheless, in cases where there is a high HNT concentration or poor dispersion, matrix viscosity may have adverse effects in fiber distribution, which eventually lowers performance.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe trend observed in Young modulus is similar to Tensile strength; that is, it increases with fiber content to the maximum of 20 percent and then maximum of 1.43 GPa in the case of S2. Both the rigid sisal fibers and well dispersed HNTs increase the stiffness of the material by restricting the movement of polymer chains and supporting the microstructure of the composite. After 20% of fiber (S3-S5), the values of stiffness begin to decrease, and S5 has the lowest modulus of 1.10 GPa. This reduction in the stiffness at higher fiber loadings is credited to non-uniformity in the orientation of the fibers, poor interfacial bonding and lesser resin matrix volume that reduces the capacity of the composite to counter the deformation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe elongation at failure, which is measuring the ductility or flexibility of the material also demonstrates the best occurrence at 20% fiber loading. Specimen S2 exhibits the maximum elongation of 3.56 percent indicating that the balance between the strength and the flexibility is good because the bond between the fibers and the matrix is high and the HNTs play the arresting crack role. At low fiber contents (S1, 15%), the elongation is marginally less (3.44) as the epoxy content is higher and gives the chain more mobility. Nevertheless, the percentage of elongation decreases drastically as the fiber loading exceeds 30, and in S5, the extent of elongation is 2.67%. Such decrease in ductility is explained by higher stiffness, loss of matrix flexibility and insufficient bonding between the fiber-matrix interface to cause premature failure.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFiber content and nanoparticle reinforcement have a strong impact on the tensile performance of SF/Epoxy/HNT composites. The combination of 20 percent fiber and 1.0 percent HNTs is the most optimal combination that brings out the best results in strength, stiffness, and ductility hence the importance of nanoparticle dispersion. In addition to this composition, when the fiber is overloaded, it results in agglomeration and voids, which decrease mechanical performance.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe result of the tensile test is summarized in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e, Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e, and Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e whereas Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e, Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e, and Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e depict the trends in tensile properties of various composite formulations.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe outcomes of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) presented in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e proved that the considered factor impacted all the measured mechanical properties significantly. The tensile modulus (F\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;116.94, p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.42 \\u0026times; 10\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1 ) and elongation at break (F\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;72.59, p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.28 \\u0026times; 10\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1 ) had the lowest sensitivity, whereas ultimate tensile strength (F\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;202.17, p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;7.21 \\u0026times; 10\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1 ) was the most sensitive. The p-values, in any case, were significantly smaller than the 0.05 significance threshold, which proves the fact that the differences in the results of the different groups are statistically significant and cannot be explained by mere randomness.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTensile Strength for different Composite Specimens and for 5 trials\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimen\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT1 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT2 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT3 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT4 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT5 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMean (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e42.61\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e42.99\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e 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colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e47.62\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e45.65\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e46.34\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e42.72\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e41.02\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e43.58\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e42.36\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e41.23\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e42.18\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e37.05\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e36.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e37.71\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e37.38\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e37.64\\u003c/p\\u003e 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\\u003cp\\u003e32.75\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab4\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 4\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eYoung\\u0026rsquo;s Modulus for different Composite Specimens and for 5 trials\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimen\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT1 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT2 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT3 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT4 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT5 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMean (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.37\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.42\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.36\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" 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char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.47\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.43\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.28\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.26\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.31\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.24\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.33\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.28\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.10\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.13\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.12\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.15\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.12\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.12\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.09\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.12\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.06\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.10\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab5\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 5\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eElongation for different Composite Specimens and for 5 trials\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimen\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT1 (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT2 (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT3 (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT4 (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT5 (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMean (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.50\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.30\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.39\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.55\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.44\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.44\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.58\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.34\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.53\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.60\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.75\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.56\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.22\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.16\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.06\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.15\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.14\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.08\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.91\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.88\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.01\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.96\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.97\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.62\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.66\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.61\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.71\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.74\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.67\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab6\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 6\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOne-Way ANOVA Results for Tensile Properties\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026times;\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eProperty\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eF-value\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep-value\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUltimate Tensile Strength\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e202.17\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026times;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.21 \\u0026times; 10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;16\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTensile Modulus\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e116.94\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026times;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.42 \\u0026times; 10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;13\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eElongation at Break\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e72.59\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026times;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.28 \\u0026times; 10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;11\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.2 Flexural test results\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFlexural testing is an important test that helps to assess the performance of a composite under bending loads, and to provide valuable information on flexural properties. Such parameters are necessary to establish the suitability of the material to structural and load-bearing usage. All trials were carried out in agreement with ASTM D790 with the help of a three-point bending apparatus.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe flexural characteristics had initially been increasing to a threshold point, beyond which, it started to decrease. The flexural strength 76.4 MPa observed in the specimen with 20 wt.% sisal fiber (SF) and 1.0 wt.% Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) was the highest which means that an optimum reinforcement configuration is achieved. This is mainly credited to more interfacial bonding between the fibre and the resin realized by alkali treatment of the natural fibers which facilitates easy transfer of stress in the bending loads. The flexural performance is additionally increased by the addition of HNTs as nano-scale reinforcements, which inhibit crack propagation and increase the rigidity of epoxy matrix. But as the content of the fiber becomes greater than 20 wt. percentage, then the strength starts to decrease. This is because of fiber agglomeration, void formation and insufficiency of the resin, which negatively affects the structural uniformity and causes premature failure when subjected to bending stress. The least flexural strength was achieved in the composite with 35 wt.% fiber i.e., 67.5 MPa which was mostly because of high rates of clustering and because of weak interfaces that serve as stress risers. The flexural strength had a similar trend with the flexural modulus, which is a measure of the material stiffness when bending. The stiffest specimen (weight fraction of 20 wt.% SF and 1.0 wt.% HNTs) was observed to have a stiffness of 3.32 GPa, which indicates that a good synergy exists between the fiber reinforcement and the dispersion of nanoparticles. The stiff natural fibers prevent deformation and HNTs prevent chain movement of polymer chains, and all these enhance resistance to bending.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAbove higher contents of fiber, though, the modulus reduced. In composites that contained over 20 wt.% fibers the drop in stiffness was due to lack of dispersion of the fibers and low content of resin. This causes the absence of uniform load transfer and micro-crack formation which eventually undermines the structure. The fiber-based composite containing 35 wt.% fiber had the lowest modulus 2.58 GPa indicating that it could not withstand heavy loading as it lacks continuity and structural homogeneity of the matrix.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe highest deflection indicating the ductility of the composite during bending had an inversive relationship with the modulus. The specimen containing 15 wt.% of fiber showed the highest deflection with the low content of fibers permitting the resin to control the deformation behavior hence resulting in increased flexibility and energy absorption.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe higher the fiber content the lesser the deflection since the rigidity increases. The relatively balanced response of the 20 wt.% fiber with 1.0 wt.% HNTs configuration, which possessed sufficient stiffness and moderately good flexibility as a desirable characteristic of components heavily loaded and deformed, was obtained. Contrary to this, the composite with 35 wt.% fiber content experienced the lowest deflection which means that it is brittle. Overloading of fiber has a drastic effect in reducing the elasticity of the matrix, and as such the material becomes more susceptible to abrupt fracture rather than gradual deformation. All in all, the findings indicate that the composite containing 20 wt.% sisal fiber and 1.0 wt.% of HNTs has the highest flexural performance as it has high strength, high stiffness, and moderate ductility. In addition to this optimum set-up, fiber agglomeration, low dispersion and low matrix integrity reduces the mechanical advantages. The results of the flexural test of all composite variants are given in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e, Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e, and Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e, whereas the figures of flexural characteristics of the varying compositions are demonstrated in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e, Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e and Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab10\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e presents the findings of the methods of One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) that indicate the statistically significant effect of the studied factor on all flexural properties. The most sensitive was flexural modulus (F\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;312.48, p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;3.16 \\u0026times; 10⁻\\u003csup\\u003e18\\u003c/sup\\u003e) and then maximum deflection (F\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;97.23, p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;5.91 \\u0026times; 10⁻\\u0026sup1;\\u0026sup3;) and flexural strength (F\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;84.61, p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;2.04 \\u0026times; 10⁻\\u0026sup1;\\u0026sup2;). The p-values were significantly lower than the 0.05 level of significance in all the cases, which proves that the observed differences between the groups are statistically significant.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab7\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 7\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFlexural Strength for different Composite Specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimen\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT1 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT2 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT3 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT4 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT5 (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMean (MPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e70.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e71.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e72.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e70.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e71.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e71.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e75.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e76.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e77.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e76.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e75.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e76.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e72.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e73.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e71.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e73.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e72.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e72.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e67.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e68.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e69.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e68.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e67.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e68.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e66.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e67.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e68.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e67.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e68.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e67.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab8\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 8\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFlexural Modulus for different Composite Specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimen\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT1 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT2 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT3 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT4 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT5 (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMean (GPa)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.72\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.79\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.75\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.78\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.76\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.76\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.28\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.35\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.31\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.34\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.32\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.32\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.82\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.89\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.85\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.88\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.86\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.86\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.61\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.66\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.63\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.65\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.64\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.64\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.55\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.60\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.58\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.59\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.57\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.58\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab9\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 9\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMaximum Flexural deflection for different Composite Specimens\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimen\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT1 (mm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT2 (mm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT3 (mm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT4 (mm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eT5 (mm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMean (mm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.82\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.92\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.42\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.12\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.62\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab10\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 10\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOne-Way ANOVA Results for Flexural Properties\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026times;\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eProperty\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eF-value\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep-value\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFlexural Strength\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e84.61\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026times;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.04 \\u0026times; 10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;12\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFlexural Modulus\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e312.48\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026times;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.16 \\u0026times; 10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;18\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMaximum Deflection\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e97.23\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026times;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5.91 \\u0026times; 10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;13\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.3 Tribological Characterization\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec9\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.3.1 Wear Rate\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe wear characteristics of the composites formulated were significantly different with the variation in loading of the fibers, the level of HNT content and the lubrication conditions. Among the experimented specimens, Specimen S3 containing 25 wt.% sisal fiber and 1.5 wt.% HNTs registered the least wear rate particularly in oil-lubricated conditions with a value of 0.73 x 10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;3\\u003c/sup\\u003e mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/Nm. This enhanced wear resistance is attributed to the reinforcement that the HNTs offered to the composite and consequently enhanced the load-carrying capacity of the composite and assisted in limiting surface degradation during sliding. Moreover, increased adhesion between filler and resin in this specimen inhibited the pull-out of the fibers, and consequently resulted in a less coarse wear surface and less wear loss. On the other hand, Specimen S5 (35 wt.% SF, 2.5 wt.% HNTs) had the largest wear rate, which was 2.24 \\u0026times; 10\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;3\\u003c/sup\\u003e mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/Nm during dry sliding, because of the high content of fibers that resulted in fiber clustering and lack of wetting of the matrix. These aspects deteriorated the fiber matrix interface, which exposed the composite to faster wear due to the tendency of fiber detachment and surface erosion during frictional contact.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec10\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.3.2 Friction Coefficient (COF) Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe incorporation of the Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) resulted in a significant reduction in the coefficient of friction (COF) and therefore, they are seen to be effective lubricating solids that can be used to reduce the interfacial shear during sliding. Specimen S3 (25 wt.% SF, 1.5 wt.% HNTs) in oil-lubricated conditions registered the lowest value of COF, 0.21. This act can be attributed to the lubricating effect of HNTs as well as the fibre that considerably minimized the direct contact between surface asperities of the composite and the counter face.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimen S5 (35 wt.% SF, 2.5 wt.% HNTs) on the other hand gave the highest COF of 0.42 in dry conditions. The cause of the high friction in the present study is considered to be due to roughness of the surface, irregularity in the dispersion of the fibers and pull out of the fibers which all led to increased resistance in the form of friction during the process of sliding. High frictional forces were also caused by poor surface integrity and contact points caused by the excess of fiber in S5, and a weak bonding of the matrix.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.3.3 Effect of Lubrication on Wear Performance\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe concept of lubrication came out as a significant consideration to augment the wear resistance of the composites. The oil lubricated state best demonstrated the significant drop-in wear rate in the presence of the constant lubricating film that led to the significant decrease in direct interaction between the composite surface and the counter face, and therefore, frictional forces and material degradation were minimized. The best improvement of the wear resistance was observed in specimen S3 when compared with the wear rate under oil-based lubrication conditions rather than in dry sliding conditions. Whereas lubrication based on water also helped in reducing the wear, its performance was somewhat poor. This was primarily because of the property of water to evaporate particularly when subjected to prolonged tests resulting in less stable protective layer and moderate wear resistance.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab11\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 11\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWear results under different conditions\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" colnum=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpecimens\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLoad (N)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSliding Speed (m/s)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWear Rate (mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/Nm) Dry\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWear Rate (mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/Nm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOil-Based\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWear Rate (mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/Nm)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWater-Based\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCOF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDry\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCOF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOil Based\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCOF Water\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBased\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00204\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00147\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00168\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.39\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.30\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.32\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e20\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00147\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00107\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00122\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.32\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.27\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.29\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e30\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00106\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00073\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00079\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.26\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.21\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.26\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e20\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00167\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00116\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00132\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.36\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.32\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.32\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e30\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00224\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00152\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00207\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.42\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.33\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.35\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe results of wear test under different conditions are tabulated as shown in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e. Specimen S1, and S4 were tested at lower load and speed conditions, whereas Specimens S3 and S5 were tested at higher load and speed conditions respectively. Nevertheless, S3 had a superior wear resistance with the lowest wear rate in dry sliding (0.00106 mm \\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e /Nm) even though S5 had the highest wear rate (0.00224 mm \\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e /Nm) mainly because of fiber agglomeration and poor bonding which encouraged surface damage during sliding.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLubrication had a positive influence on all the specimens, and the use of oil-based lubrication considerably decreased the wear. As an example, wear rate of S3 decreased, viz., 0.00106 mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/Nm for dry condition to 0.00073 mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/Nm for oil-lubricated condition, which means that the oil film was effective in inhibiting the wear by eliminating surface contacts. Wear performance was also better under water-based lubrication but not as effectively. The wear rate of specimen S2, decreased from 0.00147 mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e /Nm for dry condition to 0.00122 mm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e/Nm for water-based lubrication condition.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe same pattern was evident for the coefficient of friction (COF). The COF during dry sliding was between 0.26 and 0.42 for S3 and S5 specimens respectively, which is associated with enhanced surface asperity contact and fiber pull-out. In the case of oil-based lubrication, the COF values decreased in all the specimens viz., for S3 specimen it dropped to 0.21, and for S1 specimen it dropped to 0.30. Lubrication with water was also found to be less efficient than oil, but reduced the COF in comparison to dry sliding, since the water film was temporary.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAs demonstrated in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e and Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e, the trends in wear rate and COF depict the effect of load applied, speed and the type of lubrication. The results highlight the importance of lubricants especially the oil-based lubricants in improving the wear resistance.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn general, Specimen S3 performed better compared to other composites, which showed better tribological behavior in all the testing conditions. Specimen S5 on the contrary performed poorly due to ineffective fiber-matrix interactions and non-uniform dispersion. These findings can also indicate the need of optimized material composition in particular alkali-treated natural fibers and well-dispersed HNT nanoparticles to attain better wear resistance and reduced friction in the stressful operating conditions.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.4 Fracture Studies\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe fracture studies of the tensile fracture composite specimens S1,S2,S3,S4 and S5 is given in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(a), Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(b), Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(c), Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(d) and Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(e) respectively. The SEM image of Specimen 1 (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(a)) shows there is a fracture surface with comparatively plane surfaces that are interspersed with a less amount of roughness, which signifies a brittle-ductile split under tensile strain. The matrix localizes plastic deformation with fewer deep dimples and micro-voids which points to limited energy absorption in the presence of fracture. Early crack initiation is also evident in areas adjacent to interfacial ones, suggesting moderate interfacial bonding between the reinforcement and the matrix. The relatively smoother fracture characteristics suggest a propensity towards premature crack propagation, which is associated with the reduced performance in tensile behaviour of this specimen. The fractured surface of Specimen S2 (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(b)) exhibits significant scratches and pit fracture surfaces in contrast to Specimen S1, which indicates a higher crack-propagation resistance. The matrix shows clear ductile dimples, fibrillation and tearing ridges, which prove that there was a lot of plastic deformation prior to failure. The reinforcement particles/fibers are considerably incorporated into the matrix, and the residues of the matrix are attached to their surface indicating a positive interfacial bond and good transfer of loads. The paths of the cracks are more tortuous, meaning that energy has been dissipated through crack deflection processes, and it leads to the enhancement of tensile strength. The fractography of specimen S3 (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(c)) shows the most intense ductile characteristics of all specimens in its fracture surface. Micro-void coalescence is extensive, dimples are deep, and the matrix is stretched, which is evidence of considerable plastic deformation and large fracture energy absorption. Strong interfacial bonding is also exhibited by the reinforcement-matrix interface showing little debonding or pull-out. The crack propagation is very irregular and it has been shown to exhibit crack arrest and branching indicating high fractures toughness and tensile behavior. The above fractographic characteristics affirm that the Specimen 3 is the most suitable composite during tensile loading. The fractography of Specimen S4 (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(d)) has a fracture morphology which involves combination of ductile deformation of the matrix and localized interfacial debonding. Although plastic flow regions and dimples are observed, some regions exhibit reinforcement pull-out cavities and interfaces voids, which shows that there is partial interface failure at the increased tensile stress. Possible pull-out features indicate that more energy will be dissipated but excessive interfacial separation will cause a decrease in the overall load-carrying performance. Crack propagation does not seem as tortuous as in Specimen 3, representing a moderate decline in tensile performance. The SEM fractography of specimen 5 (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e(e)) indicates that brittle characteristics such as cleavage facets, smooth and straight crack lines dominate the fracture surface. Minimal deformation of the matrix is witnessed and reinforcement pull-out is more cathodic which means that interfacial bonding is not very strong. Interfacial defects are subjected to crack initiation that is fast and then there is unstable crack propagation through the matrix. The decreased surface roughness and no large-scale ductile characteristics validate low-energy absorption before fracture, and that is why the tensile strength and elongation of this specimen are relatively low.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe fracture studies clearly show clearly that transitioning in fracture (specimens S1 and S5) to fracture mechanisms of ductile and energy-absorbing fractures (specimen S2 and specimen S3) took place, with specimen S3 having the best interfacial integrity and fracture resistance. The above microstructural observations are very much related to the tensile test results and confirm the role of reinforcement-matrix interaction in the tensile failure behavior.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4. Conclusions\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis study effectively investigated the mechanical, fracture and tribological characteristics of epoxy-based composites reinforced with Sisal Fibers (SF) and enhanced with Halloysite Nanotubes (HNTs) as nanofillers.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cul\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe addition of alkali-treated SF in the range of 20 wt.% to 30 wt.% significantly improved the characteristics of the composites. The optimal formulation, containing 20 wt.% SF and 1.0 wt.% HNTs, achieved the highest tensile strength (45.8 MPa), tensile modulus (1.42 GPa), and elongation at break (3.6%), indicating effective interfacial bonding and efficient stress distribution throughout the matrix. However, further increases in fiber content led to a decline in mechanical performance due to fiber agglomeration, increased porosity, and insufficient resin wetting.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe flexural performance mirrored the tensile results. The composite with 20 wt.% SF and 1.0 wt.% HNTs showed the highest flexural strength (76.3 MPa) and modulus (3.32 GPa). Beyond 30 wt.% fiber loading, flexural properties declined, attributed to non-uniform fiber distribution and weakened fiber-matrix interactions, which promoted early failure during bending.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTribological analysis showed improvements in wear resistance and friction reduction with HNTs and optimal fiber ratios. The composite with 30 wt.% SF and 1.5 wt.% HNTs exhibited the lowest wear rate (0.00073 mm\\u0026sup3;/Nm) and lowest coefficient of friction (0.21) under oil-lubricated conditions. Oil-based lubrication proved more effective than dry and water-based environments by creating a consistent lubricating layer, reducing surface abrasion and frictional contact.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAmong all tested specimens, the 30 wt.% SF and 1.5 wt.% HNT composite demonstrated the most favorable balance of mechanical integrity and wear performance. The combined reinforcement of natural fibers and dispersed nanotubes led to improved structural reliability and resistance to surface degradation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003c/ul\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn conclusion, SF-reinforced epoxy composites enhanced with HNTs present a sustainable and economical material choice for high-performance applications in aerospace field. The strategic combination of treated natural fibers and nanofillers enables notable advances in strength, stiffness, and tribological durability, promoting the use of green materials in advanced engineering applications.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003eEthics Statement\\u003c/b\\u003e:\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003e\\\"The research aims to contribute to academic knowledge while upholding the highest ethical standards in data collection and analysis.\\\"\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eEthics Statement:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\\"The research aims to contribute to academic knowledge while upholding the highest ethical standards in data collection and analysis.\\\"\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eFunding\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eData availability statement\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\\"Data supporting the research work is embedded within the manuscript, and any additional data related to work can be obtained upon requisition to the corresponding author.\\\"\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eauthor’s contribution statement\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eConceptualization, S.N. and P.B.A.; methodology, S.N., P.B.A., and A.F.; formal analysis, S.N. and R.K.; investigation, S.N. and R.K.; data curation, R.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.N.; writing—review and editing, P.B.A., R.K., and A.F.; visualization, A.F.; supervision, P.B.A.; project administration, P.B.A.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eAll authors have read and agreed to the author’s contribution statement and herewith abide by the publication ethics and guidelines.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAuthor Initials:\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eS.N.: Santhosh Nagaraja;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eP.B.A.: Praveena Bindiganavile Anand;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eR.K.: Ramesha Kodandappa;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eA.F.: Adisu Frinjo.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eElfaleh, I. et al. A comprehensive review of natural fibers and their composites: an eco-friendly alternative to conventional materials. \\u003cem\\u003eResults Eng.\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003e19\\u003c/b\\u003e, 101271. \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003e.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101271\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\".10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101271\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e (2023).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eRajkumar, K. \\u0026amp; Suresh, G. A review on natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites using areca fiber. Materials Today: Proceedings, 45(8), 7318\\u0026ndash;7322, (2021). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003edoi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.03.407\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1016/j.matpr.2021.03.407\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eSatapathy, A. \\u0026amp; Kumar, S. Experimental investigation on mechanical and thermal properties of natural fiber reinforced epoxy composite. 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(2022). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003edoi.org/10.1155/2022/1916877\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1155/2022/1916877\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eArchana, D. P. et al. Basheer Influence of Nanoclay Filler Material on the Tensile, Flexural, Impact, and Morphological Characteristics of Jute/E-Glass Fiber‐Reinforced Polyester‐Based Hybrid Composites: Experimental, Modeling, and Optimization Study. Journal of Nanomaterials, Vol. 2022, Issue. 1, pp. 1\\u0026ndash;17. (2022). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003edoi.org/10.1155/2022/1653449\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1155/2022/1653449\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eSantosh, M. B., Kumar, M., Pitchaimani, J. \\u0026amp; G. C., \\u0026amp; \\u003cem\\u003eSound absorption performance of natural areca plant husk fibers: experimental and theoretical study\\u003c/em\\u003e (Applied Acoustics. Advance online publication, 2024). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003edoi.org/10.1177/14644207231201247\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1177/14644207231201247\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eBuradi, A. et al. Experimental Investigation on Density and Volume Fraction of Void, and Mechanical Characteristics of Areca Nut Leaf Sheath Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites. International Journal of Polymer Science, Vol. 2022, Issue. 1, pp. 1\\u0026ndash;23. (2022). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003edoi.org/10.1155/2022/6445022\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1155/2022/6445022\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eBalachandra, P., Shetty, J., Sudheer Reddy, A. \\u0026amp; Madhusudhan Implementation of Python in the Optimization of Process Parameters of Product Laryngoscope Manufactured in the Injection Mold Machine. Emerging Research in Computing, Information, Communication and Applications: Proceedings of ERCICA 2022, pp. 625\\u0026ndash;633. (2022). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003edoi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5482-5_54\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1007/978-981-19-5482-5_54\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eChandrashekarappa, A. L. M. P. G., Selvan, C. P., Pimenov, D. Y. \\u0026amp; Khaled Giasin. \\u003cem\\u003eExperimental Investigation of Effect of Fiber Length on Mechanical, Wear and Morphological Behavior of Silane Treated Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites\\u003c/em\\u003e Vol. 10 (Fibers, 2022). Issue. 7\\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003edoi.org/10.3390/fib10070056\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.3390/fib10070056\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"sisal fibre, halloysite nanotubes, epoxy composites, mechanical, tribological, fracture characteristics\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8500644/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8500644/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe need for structural materials that are sustainable has driven attention of the researchers towards natural fibre reinforced polymer laminates. This study examines the synergistic influence of halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) on the mechanical strength, tribological response, and fracture characteristics of sisal fibre reinforced epoxy composites. Composites containing 15 wt.% to 35 wt.% sisal fibre (SF) and 0.5 wt.% to 2.5 wt.% HNTs were fabricated using an optimized processing route to ensure uniform dispersion and low void content. Tensile, flexural, and impact tests revealed significant improvements in strength and stiffness, with a strength of 46.34 MPa in tensile mode and a strength of 76.4 GPa in flexural mode. The addition of HNTs up to a certain limit (1wt.%) to the composite with optimum wt.% of sisal fibre viz., 20 wt.% enhanced stiffness, achieving a Young\\u0026rsquo;s (E) modulus of 1.43 GPa and a flexural modulus of 3.32 GPa, indicating improved load transfer efficiency. Tribological evaluation using pin-on-disc testing showed a 30% drop-in wear rate and a 25% reduction in coefficient of friction under lubricated conditions. Fractographic observations confirmed reduced fibre pull-out and delayed crack propagation. The results demonstrate the potential of SF\\u0026ndash;HNT composites for structures demanding integrity and improved resistance to fracture.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Influence of Halloysite Nanotube Fillers on Fracture, Mechanical, and Tribological Characteristics of Sisal Fibre Reinforced Composites\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2026-01-20 10:23:40\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8500644/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"316306c9-7c6d-427e-b292-42a62a8e51cb\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"January 20th, 2026\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":61343875,\"name\":\"Physical sciences/Engineering\"},{\"id\":61343876,\"name\":\"Physical sciences/Materials science\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-03-24T14:39:57+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2026-01-20 10:23:40\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-8500644\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-8500644\",\"identity\":\"rs-8500644\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}