{"paper_id":"3421e6a8-9d8f-4ebc-9388-ba1aba1777a4","body_text":"The Impact of Moderate to High-Intensity Physical Exercise on the Perception of Negative Emotional Intensity in College Students with High Psychological Stress | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The Impact of Moderate to High-Intensity Physical Exercise on the Perception of Negative Emotional Intensity in College Students with High Psychological Stress Baole Tao, Tianci Lu, Yueyan Jiang, Hanwen Chen, Hao Chen, Jun Yan This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3908570/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Method Employing the \"Chinese College Students' Psychological Stress Scale,\" 47 high-stress students were divided into a 25-member experimental group and a 22-member control group. The experimental group engaged in 40-minute group rope-jumping exercises thrice weekly for 12 weeks, following ACSM guidelines. A dual-choice Oddball task assessed the exercise intervention's impact on negative emotions. Results: ( 1 ) Post-intervention, the experimental group exhibited no significant change in reaction time to negative stimuli (p > 0.05); ( 2 ) The group experienced a notable reduction in negative reaction cost post-intervention (p < 0.05); ( 3 ) Significant variances were observed in P2, N2, and P3 waveform average amplitude and latency in main condition effects (p < 0.05); ( 4 ) Under negative conditions, the control group had shorter N2 latency (p < 0.05), higher P3 amplitude (p < 0.05), and shorter P3 latency (p < 0.05) than the experimental group. Conclusion: Physical exercise intervention enhances conflict inhibition abilities in individuals with high psychological stress. However, the neurophysiological responses to varying emotional stimulus intensities are more pronounced in these students. Biological sciences/Psychology Health sciences/Health care Physical exercise Negative emotions Valence Oddball Intervention Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 1 Introduction Emotions are central to human life, with the right intensity being key for physical and mental health, and creativity. College students, often stressed, are susceptible to negative emotions, leading to an attentional bias and heightened alertness to these emotions, which hampers overcoming their influence. This bias facilitates quick processing of emotional events, resulting in specific emotional experiences post-perception. Emotional sensitivity is crucial for social adaptation, underscoring its importance. People experience emotions, whether positive or negative, with varying intensity or valence strength 1 . Valence strength, the intensity of feelings towards emotional stimuli, is different from physiological arousal 2 . For instance, the joy of winning first place in a competition varies from the joy of second place, as does the disappointment of coming second compared to third. Differing valence strengths, especially negative ones, impact cognitive functions 3 . Intense negative emotions can impair memory and decision-making, potentially leading to emotional disorders 4, 5 , while positive emotions may slow decision-making 6 . Low-intensity negative emotions minimally impact cognitive processes, enhancing cognitive sensitivity for detection or decision-making tasks 7 . Ancient texts like 《Ling Shu》 discuss the heart's response to emotional stimuli and how emotional intensity affects bodily functions, suggesting excessive intensity can disrupt qi and blood flow, causing diseases 8 . Despite its importance, the study of emotional valence strength has been often overlooked. Psychological stress significantly influences physical, mental, and cognitive health, increasing emotional vulnerability. Understanding emotional processing under psychological stress is crucial for comprehending human emotional cognition. Investigating how high-stress individuals respond to negative emotion intensity (valence strength) can reveal biases in emotional processing. Evolutionarily, sustained intense negative emotions may lead to physical and mental health issues. Neurophysiological research shows that humans are particularly sensitive to changes in negative emotion intensity 1 . For instance, intense fear enhances early (P2 component) and late-stage (LPC) cognitive processing in cross-modal emotional experiments, unlike neutral or milder fear emotions which have a lesser effect on the P2 component[9]. Prolonged negative states show larger N2, N3, and LPC components, with reduced P3 amplitude 10 , indicating that high-intensity emotional faces may distort temporal perception. Negative stimuli increase posterior brain electrical components like EPN and LPP, reflecting emotional processing stages 11 . However, in positive stimuli, no significant differences are observed in early P2, N2, or late LPC components between high and low intensities 12 , suggesting the brain's greater susceptibility to negative over positive stimuli, known as the emotional valence strength effect 13 . Psychological stress makes individuals more prone to negative emotions, which can lead to cognitive impairments 14 . College students, in a vital developmental stage, may be particularly susceptible to skewed emotional intensity perceptions due to stress. Physical exercise can regulate the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, enhancing adrenal sensitivity and reducing anxiety-related behaviors and emotions, affecting perception of negative emotion intensity 15 . Cross-sectional surveys show regular physical exercisers have better self-control and handle negative emotions more effectively 16 . Thus, physical exercise could positively influence the emotional perception of stressed college students. In conclusion, physical exercise potentially influences how college students under psychological stress perceive the intensity of negative emotions. This research will employ Event-Related Potentials (ERP) technology, alongside a dual-choice oddball paradigm of high ecological validity, to examine how psychological stress affects individuals' sensitivity to the valence strength of negative emotional stimuli. Additionally, it will explore the role of physical exercise in this context. 2 Subjects and Methods 2.1 Experimental Subjects In the study, 715 university students were initially surveyed using a demographic questionnaire and the Psychological Stress Scale for Chinese College Students, achieving a 69% response rate with 494 valid responses 17 . The sample included 208 males (42.1%) and 286 females (57.9%). Students with stress scores ≥ 61 on the scale were considered high-stress, totaling 89. Criteria for participation were no mental or genetic disorders, good mental health, normal or corrected vision (≥ 0.8), no color vision deficiencies, no substance dependence, right-handedness, and no prior similar study involvement. Fifty students volunteered, giving informed consent, and underwent jump rope training before the experiment. Participants were compensated afterwards. This study has obtained informed consent from all participants. This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Review Committee of Yangzhou University (NO: YXYLL-2022-109). This study was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. A G*Power analysis determined a required sample size of 26 (Power = 0.85, Effect size = 0.25). Due to one withdrawal for health reasons and two exclusions for data quality, the final sample included 47 participants: 22 in the control group (11 male, 11 female) and 25 in the experimental group (12 male, 13 female), with an average age of 19.12 ± 1.02 years. 2.2 Experimental Methods 2.2.1 Experimental Materials The study used Yuan Jiajin et al.'s 18 modified dual-choice Oddball paradigm to evaluate the response of physically exercised college students with high stress to negative emotional intensity. The experiment consisted of 6 blocks, each with 100 trials, featuring 70% standard and 30% deviant stimuli. Natural scenery images served as standard stimuli. For emotional conditions, 30 images each of high, low, and neutral negativity (totaling 90) were chosen from the Chinese Affective Picture System (CAPS) 19 . These images maintained consistent arousal levels but varied in valence (high negativity = 6.18, low negativity = 5.78, neutral = 5.89; high negativity = 1.77, low negativity = 3.45, neutral = 5.57), providing distinct emotional stimuli. 2.2.2 Experimental Tasks and Procedures The experiment had 6 blocks, with rests after every 3 blocks. Standard and deviant emotional stimuli were randomized in each block. Participants first fixated on a black cross for 300ms, followed by a 500-1500ms blank screen. Then, various emotional stimuli were displayed. They pressed F (left index finger) for standard stimuli and J (right index finger) for deviant stimuli. Stimuli lasted up to 1000ms or until a key press, with an immediate transition to the next stimulus. Responses were required within 1000ms. A black cross appeared post-response for 1000ms before the next trial. Each participant completed two experiments in random order. Accuracy in perceiving emotional stimulus intensity was crucial; thus, 10 practice trials with 100% accuracy were mandatory before the main experiment (Fig. 1 ). 2.2.3 Physical exercise intervention program The physical exercise intervention program was designed based on the guidelines of the American College of Sports Medicine 20 . The guidelines suggest that physical activity 3 to 5 days per week can offer psychological benefits. Aerobic exercise lasting 10 to 15 minutes can improve mood, while more than 20 minutes can significantly reduce anxiety and enhance mood. Additionally, exercise ranging from low to high intensity has a positive impact on mood, with moderate to high-intensity exercise potentially being more effective. The experimental group participated in group jump rope exercises three times weekly, in addition to regular school activities. These sessions, aiming for mid-to-high intensity (64%-95% maximum heart rate), consisted of a 5-minute warm-up, 30 minutes of aerobic exercise, and 5 minutes of stretching, over 12 weeks. Heart rates were monitored using Polar watches. The control group engaged only in standard school physical activities, without additional exercise (Fig. 2 ). During the 12-week program, the experimental group consistently met the 30-minute moderate to high-intensity exercise target (Fig. 3 ). 2.3 statistic analysis of data The EEG segment spanned from − 200 to 1000ms, with the first 200ms as baseline. Data from various emotional conditions were overlaid and averaged. Components (P2, N2, P3) and channels (FP1, FPZ, FP2, F1, FZ, F2, FC1, FCZ, FC2, C1, CZ, C2) were selected based on literature and waveform analysis. Indicators included average amplitude and latency. A 2×2×3 repeated measures ANOVA assessed reaction time, accuracy, and EEG component differences pre- and post-exercise in stressed students. Simple effects analysis with Bonferroni corrections was used for interactions. Significance was set at p < 0.05, and effect size denoted by η2p. 3 Results 3.1 Physical Exercise and Its Effect on Emotional Intensity in Stressed College Students 3.1.1 Result analysis of negative deviant stimulus response time This study utilized Repeated Measures ANOVA to assess the effects of group, condition, and time on reaction time to emotional intensity perception, including their combined impacts. Sphericity was confirmed statistically( p > 0.05). As per Table 1 , the main effects of group( F (1, 45) = 0.087, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.002)and time( F (1, 45) = 0.461, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.011), along with the interactions of condition-group( F (1, 45) = 1.693, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.038), time-group( F (1, 45) = 0.137, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.003), and condition-time ( F (1, 45) = 0.011, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.001), were not significant. However, the main effect of condition( F (1, 45) = 31.681, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.424) was significant, indicating distinct reaction times between standard and deviant stimuli. The interaction of condition-time-group( F (1, 45) = 7.235, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.144) also showed significance, highlighting differences in emotional reaction times to negative deviant conditions over time between groups, detailed in Table 1 . Table 1 Analyzing the Impact of Exercise on Emotional Perception in Highly Stressed College Students Interaction Sum of squares of type III Degree Mean square F p η 2 p Condition 58523.67 1 58523.67 31.681 0.001 0.424 Group 327.007 1 327.007 0.087 0.769 0.002 Condition-Group Interaction 3126.674 1 3126.674 1.693 0.2 0.038 Time 1759.802 1 1759.802 0.461 0.501 0.011 Time-Group Interaction 523.647 1 523.647 0.137 0.713 0.003 Condition-Time Interaction 15.867 1 15.867 0.011 0.916 0.001 Condition-Time-Group Interaction 10298.87 1 10298.87 7.235 0.01 0.144 The results showed that a 12-week physical exercise program influenced reaction times to emotional stimuli in highly stressed students, with varying effects. Simple effects analysis of the condition-time-group interaction revealed significant pre-intervention differences in reaction times for both standard and negative emotional deviant stimuli in the experimental group( F (1, 45) = 19.468, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.312) and the control group( F (1, 45) = 7.357, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.146). Initially, both groups had longer reaction times for negative deviations. Post-intervention, however, the experimental group showed no significant reaction time differences( F (1, 45) = 0.893, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.020), unlike the control group( F (1, 45) = 17.210, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.286). After the intervention, the experimental group's reaction times to standard and negative stimuli aligned, while the control group maintained significant differences. These findings highlight marked changes in emotional perception reaction times between the groups over time and for different stimuli (Fig. 4 ). 3.1.2 Analysis of time cost of negative deviant stimulus response A repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to assess the individual and interactive effects of group and time on the reaction time cost to negative emotion intensity. The data met the sphericity assumption ( p > 0.05). According to Tables 2 , the main effect of group( F (1, 45) = 1.680, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.038) and the main effect of time ( F (1, 45) = 0.014, p >0.05, η 2 p <0.001) were not significant. However, the interaction between time and group( F (1, 45) = 7.248, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.144) was significant. This suggests notable differences in reaction time cost for perceiving emotional intensity between pre-test and post-test in both experimental and control groups, as detailed in Table 2 . Table 2 Time-Cost Analysis of Exercise Impact on Emotional Perception in Stressed College Students stress Interaction Interaction Sum of squares of type III Degree F p η 2 p Time 40.201 1 40.201 0.014 0.906 < 0.001 Group 6201.267 1 6201.267 1.68 0.202 0.038 Time-Group Interaction 20665.45 1 20665.45 7.248 0.01 0.144 The 12-week physical exercise program significantly impacted reaction time cost in highly stressed students when responding to different emotional stimuli. Pre-intervention, the reaction time cost difference between the experimental and control groups was not significant( F (1, 45) = 0.861, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.020). Post-intervention, however, a notable difference emerged( F (1, 45) = 6.053, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.123). The experimental group showed a reduced reaction time cost compared to the control group. The change in reaction time cost was significant for the experimental group( F (1, 45) = 4.444, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.094) but not for the control group ( F (1, 45) = 2.980, p >0.05, η 2 p = 0.065). A means comparison indicated a significant reduction in reaction time cost for the experimental group over the intervention period (Fig. 5 ). 3.2 Physical Exercise and Electrophysiological Response to Stress in College Students EEG data from both groups were recorded using the Neuroscan wireless EEG system, both pre- and post-experiment. The superimposed average amplitude method was applied for statistical analysis of EEG components. P2, N2, and P3 components were identified from waveform charts, with their time windows determined by peak occurrences. Component topographic maps (Fig. 6 ) were created based on these time windows. For analysis, FZ, CZ, and PZ points were selected from these topographic maps. P2 Average amplitude The repeated measures ANOVA for P2 average amplitude met the sphericity assumption ( p > 0.05): The main effect of condition was significant( F (2, 90) = 25.698, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.369), with the average amplitude for neutral deviant stimuli being greater than that for moderate and extreme negative deviant stimuli. Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig. 7 ). P2 latentperiod The repeated measures ANOVA for the latency of P2 met the sphericity assumption ( p > 0.05): The main effect of condition was significant( F (2, 90) = 5.196, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.106), with the latency for moderate negative deviant stimuli being greater than that for negative deviant stimuli. The main effect of group was significant( F (1, 45) = 2.526, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.054). Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig. 8 ). N2 Average amplitude The repeated measures ANOVA for N2 average amplitude met the sphericity assumption( p > 0.05): The main effect of condition was significant( F (2, 90) = 18.712, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.298), with the average amplitude of neutral deviant stimuli being greater than moderate negativity, and the amplitude of extreme negative deviant stimuli being significantly greater than moderate negative stimuli. Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig. 9 ). N2 latentperiod The repeated measures ANOVA for N2 latency confirmed sphericity ( p > 0.05). There was a significant main effect of condition( F (2, 90) = 7.797, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.079), with longer latency for moderate negative deviant stimuli compared to extreme negative ones. The main group effect was also significant( F (1, 45) = 4.073, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.085), where the control group showed a shorter N2 wave latency period than the experimental group. Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig. 10 ). P3 Average amplitude The repeated measures ANOVA for P3 latency confirmed sphericity ( p > 0.05). There was a significant main effect of condition( F (2, 90) = 22.858, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.342), with P3's average amplitude for neutral stimuli higher than for extreme and moderate negative ones. The main group effect was also significant( F (1, 45) = 6.411, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.127), with the control group's P3 amplitude greater than the experimental group's. Additionally, the condition-group interaction was significant( F (2, 90) = 8.148, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.156). For the control group, the average amplitude for moderate deviance was higher than the other conditions. Conversely, in the experimental group, it was lower for moderate negativity than the other conditions. Regarding conditions, the control group's average amplitude was higher than the experimental group's for moderate deviance and negativity, but not for extreme negativity. No other main effects or interactions were significant (Fig. 11 ). P3 latentperiod The repeated measures ANOVA for the latency of P3 met the sphericity assumption ( p > 0.05): The main effect of condition was significant ( F (2, 90) = 5.589, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.113), with the latency period of extreme negative deviant stimuli being shorter than the reaction time for moderate negative deviant stimuli. The main effect of group was significant( F (1, 45) = 4.997, p <0.05, η 2 p = 0.102), with the latency period of P3 wave amplitude in the control group being significantly shorter than in the experimental group. Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig. 12 ). 4 Discussion 4.1 The effect of physical exercise on the emotional intensity of college students under high psychological stress In this study using the dual Oddball paradigm, reaction time and cost were key metrics. Typically, high-frequency standard stimuli elicit longer reaction times due to dominant response induction. For negative deviations, individuals must inhibit these responses, causing delays or inaccuracies, aligning with previous research 21, 22 . Both groups showed decreased reaction times for negative and standard stimuli, but these changes were not statistically significant. This might be because tasks with negative emotional deviations demand more cognitive control, limiting significant speed gains in emotional response inhibition through physical exercise. High-stress subjects, in a disrupted homeostatic state, experience impaired vascular-immune communication, leading to poor brain recovery, resource depletion, fatigue, and imbalance 23 . Negative stimuli activate the \"disgust-defense motivational system\", while positive ones trigger the \"liking-approach system\", causing physiological arousal 24, 25 . This results in reaction time variations based on emotional valence, with negative stimuli causing longer times than neutral, due to activation of different motivational systems by visual emotional stimuli. Post-exercise analysis indicated that the experimental group significantly reduced reaction time costs, while the control group saw increased costs under positive deviations and no change under negative ones. Reaction time cost, reflecting the smaller decrease in reaction times to deviations versus standard stimuli, indicates enhanced behavioral inhibition and more accurate emotional intensity perception. Comparing the groups, significant differences in reaction time and cost emerged under different emotional deviations. The experimental group exhibited improved inhibitory and cognitive switching abilities post-exercise. In contrast, prolonged psychological stress may impair these functions, as seen in the control group's slower reaction times and higher costs in the dual-choice Oddball task. In line with Gable et al.'s emotional motivation dimension model, the influence of emotions on attention control, akin to cognitive scope, is modulated by emotional intensity 26 . Life stress and intense psychological experiences narrow emotional attention focus, particularly with negative deviation emotions. This focused attention makes perceiving new stimuli difficult, reduces cognitive flexibility, and impairs inhibitory and cognitive switching functions, obstructing normal emotional experiences 27 . Physical exercise, conversely, broadens the attention span, disperses attentional resources, aids in detecting new targets, and boosts cognitive flexibility 28 . Enhanced inhibitory and switching functions can lessen the effects of intense emotional deviations due to psychological stress, thus bettering attention control and promoting healthy emotional processing. The post-exercise reduction in reaction time to standard deviation and stimuli in the experimental group highlights physical exercise's role in boosting response inhibition in high-stress individuals. Yet, their performance in tasks involving emotional conflict or inconsistency remains less efficient. 4.2 Neuroelectrophysiological mechanism of physical exercise affecting emotional intensity of college students under high psychological stress Waveform analysis revealed that 120ms post-stimulus, all valence conditions' deviation stimuli elicited significant N1 responses, showing early visual attention sensitivity. This indicates a focus on visual stimuli in negative emotional states 29 . While N1 marks the onset of visual processing, it doesn't distinctly process negative emotions. Significant differences in P2, N2, and P3 components were observed under various emotional conditions. Starting at 140ms, emotional waveforms diverged, with P2 amplitudes varying by condition. By 160ms, positive valences had notable P2 peaks, whereas extreme and moderate negative conditions showed lower P2 amplitudes than neutral. This supports the association of P2 with early stimulus feature analysis 30 . Further discussion on P2 component changes pre- and post-experiment will follow. 4.2.1 P2 The study found that the difficulty of perceptual analysis across emotional valences is inversely related to P2 wave amplitude. Notably, under extreme negative emotions, P2 amplitude is much lower than in moderate conditions, indicating increased brain sensitivity to intense negative emotions linked to survival risks. This results in the most efficient perceptual analysis under intense negativity, as shown by the lowest wave amplitude 31 . IConversely, low negative or positive emotions require more comprehensive perceptual analysis for emotional intensity and content, leading to reduced sensitivity 32 . P2 latency data support this, showing shorter latency in extreme than in moderate or neutral conditions, suggesting faster perceptual processing in high negativity. The P2 phase, before 170ms, likely involves automated, rapid processing 33 . This study highlights the brain's automatic response to high-intensity negative stimuli during early emotional valence identification, suggesting an evolutionary advantage for quick threat detection and adaptation. 4.2.2 N2 Waveforms from different emotional conditions began to significantly diverge after perceptual analysis, showing the brain's recognition of emotional intensity variations. Around 250ms, a notable negative peak in the Event-Related Potential (ERP), the N2 wave, appeared for all emotions. The N2 wave's amplitude varied with emotional valences, being higher in extreme negativity than moderate. The N2 component, linked to attention orientation, responds more to negative emotions, redirecting attention to significant events 34 . The experiment observed a transition from unconscious processing in the P2 phase to conscious attention in the N2 phase, where the brain evaluates emotional stimulus characteristics, focusing more on higher negativity as indicated by increased amplitudes. Under low negativity, the amplitude is lower than in neutral or extremely negative conditions, showing that high-stress individuals differentiate extreme from moderate negativity, focusing attention accordingly. Extreme negativity, posing the greatest survival threat, attracts the most attention, reflected in the largest N2 amplitude. Under negative conditions, significant N2 latency differences were noted between groups, with the control group exhibiting shorter latency than the experimental group. This suggests variation in emotional event processing, where high-stress individuals focus more on negative emotions, including near-neutral ones. Post-exercise, the experimental group displayed reduced reactions to negative stimuli, evidenced by longer latencies and more automated emotional intensity regulation. The N2 component indicates early response inhibition, with amplitude related to conflict monitoring and latency to perception speed. These results are consistent with previous studies showing that high-stress individuals struggle with N2 response inhibition, marked by decreased conflict detection and slower perception speed 35 . In the dual Oddball task, both groups showed shorter latency for wave amplitudes in response to extremely negative stimuli, reflecting a bias towards negative processing and quicker perception and judgment of negative emotions. This suggests an improved monitoring ability for negative emotions in the physical exercise group. 4.2.3 P3 Approximately 390ms after stimulus onset, ERP waveforms for each emotional valence condition reach their positive peak, forming the P3 component. In ERP studies, the P3 component is associated with advanced cognitive activities related to emotion, inhibitory processing, and cognitive evaluation 36 . It is well-documented that cognitive evaluation, as denoted by P3, plays a pivotal role in emotion generation and regulation 37 . Consequently, the P3 component is intimately linked to the cognition and perception of emotional significance or importance 38 . During the P3 phase, individuals gain a clear understanding of previously experienced emotional content, including emotions of various intensities. This phase differs from earlier emotional attention biases as emotional information is adequately characterized, with emotional evaluation and analysis being a synthesis of internal and external environments and knowledge experience 39 . Therefore, cognitive processing at this stage is detailed and controlled. The study found the P3 wave amplitude was lowest for extremely negative emotions. Under negative conditions, the control group exhibited higher P3 amplitude than the experimental group. In moderate negativity, the control group's average P3 amplitude was larger, but this difference wasn't significant under extreme negativity. P3 amplitude was higher for deviation stimuli than standard stimuli, indicating late-stage response inhibition where amplitude reflects inhibitory control strength and latency marks inhibitory processing completion. After the N2 stage, high-stress individuals fully comprehend emotional content and significance during the P3 phase. Research suggests that emotional information inhibition is inversely proportional to P3 amplitude 40 . In the dual-choice Oddball paradigm, individuals are required to inhibit emotional content under each valence condition to judge and complete tasks related to standard or deviant emotional stimuli. Humans exhibit a pronounced bias towards processing negative emotions, essential for survival, which intensifies with stronger negative stimuli. Thus, those with high psychological stress demonstrate significant inhibitory control over extremely negative content, shown by the smallest P3 amplitude in such cases. In less intense negative emotions, the brain shows reduced inhibition, resulting in larger wave amplitudes. Therefore, individuals with high stress have weaker inhibitory control over highly positive content, as indicated by larger P3 wave amplitudes 41, 42 . High psychological stress can hinder early frontal lobe processing (N2 component), using more attention resources and elevating N2 amplitude. This may lead to late-stage inhibitory control fatigue, as indicated by increased P3 amplitude. In the experimental group, the P3 amplitude for negative stimuli was lower than in the control group, suggesting improved inhibitory control through physical exercise and better cognitive resource allocation. During the P3 phase, controlled processing is used for emotional discrimination across valences 43 . Under high negative emotions, P3 peak latency is significantly shorter than in low negative or neutral conditions, reflecting the brain's adaptive processing for high negative stimuli, possibly due to evolutionary factors. In the dual Oddball task, both groups exhibited smaller P3 amplitudes and shorter latencies for negative stimuli, indicating weaker inhibitory responses. The control group's shorter P3 latency, compared to the experimental group, suggests that stress-prone individuals without regular exercise have diminished emotional response capabilities, linked to reduced response inhibition. This aligns with previous study findings 44 . In summary, the brain retains memory traces of intense negative emotions even after a button-pressing task, showing lasting emotional impact. In contrast, the response to low negative emotions fades quickly after the P3 component, evidenced by overlapping ERP waveforms for low negative and neutral emotions post-P3. This indicates diverse psychological processing for different emotional intensities, underscoring the complexity of emotional perception. 5 Conclusion Stressed college students exhibit delayed responses to extreme negative emotions compared to standard ones, primarily affected by standard emotional stimuli. Extreme negative emotions differ in early automation, attention allocation, and mature emotional significance perception compared to other negative emotions. Physical exercise intervention in stressed college students improved behavioral responses and inhibitory control over intense negative emotions. Neurophysiological studies indicate these individuals processed emotional stimuli differently, with the experimental group showing better early perception and conflict response to negative emotions. They also demonstrated improved late-stage emotional inhibition, adjusting biases in negative emotion processing. These results suggest that physical exercise enhances both behavioral and neurophysiological responses to intense negative emotions. Declarations Author Contribution Baole Tao, the lead author, played a pivotal role in this study. He was instrumental in conceiving the research questions, developing the research strategies, and drafting the manuscripts. Tianci Lu was responsible for data processing, bringing crucial analytical insights to the study. Yueyan Jiang contributed significantly by revising the manuscript, ensuring its academic rigor. Both Hanwen Chen and Hao Chen made valuable contributions by adjusting the format of the article and further refining the manuscript through meticulous revisions. Jun Yan, the project director, had an equal role in shaping the research. His contributions were vital in formulating the research questions, overseeing the progress of the research, and revising various versions of the manuscripts. 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Chinese Journal of Sports Medicine 35(10), 940–946 + 971 (2016). Hu, Z., Zhang, J., Li, C.H., Guo, C.Y. The effect of emotional valence and arousal of background on retrieval process in source memory. Studies in Psychology and Behavior 18(2), 185–192 (2020). Kemp, A.H., Griffiths, K., Felmingham, K.L., et al. Disorder specificity despite comorbidity: resting EEG alpha asymmetry in major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychology 85(2), 350–354 (2010). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-3908570\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":272670292,\"identity\":\"661a7efd-36cf-4577-808b-b90f2f5fa5e2\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Baole Tao\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Yangzhou University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"submittingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Baole\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Tao\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":272670293,\"identity\":\"cbbc8d61-e69c-4228-bb3d-587510e522b2\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Tianci 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life, with the right intensity being key for physical and mental health, and creativity. College students, often stressed, are susceptible to negative emotions, leading to an attentional bias and heightened alertness to these emotions, which hampers overcoming their influence. This bias facilitates quick processing of emotional events, resulting in specific emotional experiences post-perception. Emotional sensitivity is crucial for social adaptation, underscoring its importance. People experience emotions, whether positive or negative, with varying intensity or valence strength \\u003csup\\u003e1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Valence strength, the intensity of feelings towards emotional stimuli, is different from physiological arousal \\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e. For instance, the joy of winning first place in a competition varies from the joy of second place, as does the disappointment of coming second compared to third. Differing valence strengths, especially negative ones, impact cognitive functions \\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Intense negative emotions can impair memory and decision-making, potentially leading to emotional disorders \\u003csup\\u003e4, 5\\u003c/sup\\u003e, while positive emotions may slow decision-making \\u003csup\\u003e6\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Low-intensity negative emotions minimally impact cognitive processes, enhancing cognitive sensitivity for detection or decision-making tasks \\u003csup\\u003e7\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Ancient texts like 《Ling Shu》 discuss the heart's response to emotional stimuli and how emotional intensity affects bodily functions, suggesting excessive intensity can disrupt qi and blood flow, causing diseases \\u003csup\\u003e8\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Despite its importance, the study of emotional valence strength has been often overlooked.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePsychological stress significantly influences physical, mental, and cognitive health, increasing emotional vulnerability. Understanding emotional processing under psychological stress is crucial for comprehending human emotional cognition. Investigating how high-stress individuals respond to negative emotion intensity (valence strength) can reveal biases in emotional processing. Evolutionarily, sustained intense negative emotions may lead to physical and mental health issues. Neurophysiological research shows that humans are particularly sensitive to changes in negative emotion intensity \\u003csup\\u003e1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. For instance, intense fear enhances early (P2 component) and late-stage (LPC) cognitive processing in cross-modal emotional experiments, unlike neutral or milder fear emotions which have a lesser effect on the P2 component[9]. Prolonged negative states show larger N2, N3, and LPC components, with reduced P3 amplitude \\u003csup\\u003e10\\u003c/sup\\u003e, indicating that high-intensity emotional faces may distort temporal perception. Negative stimuli increase posterior brain electrical components like EPN and LPP, reflecting emotional processing stages \\u003csup\\u003e11\\u003c/sup\\u003e. However, in positive stimuli, no significant differences are observed in early P2, N2, or late LPC components between high and low intensities \\u003csup\\u003e12\\u003c/sup\\u003e, suggesting the brain's greater susceptibility to negative over positive stimuli, known as the emotional valence strength effect \\u003csup\\u003e13\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Psychological stress makes individuals more prone to negative emotions, which can lead to cognitive impairments \\u003csup\\u003e14\\u003c/sup\\u003e. College students, in a vital developmental stage, may be particularly susceptible to skewed emotional intensity perceptions due to stress. Physical exercise can regulate the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, enhancing adrenal sensitivity and reducing anxiety-related behaviors and emotions, affecting perception of negative emotion intensity \\u003csup\\u003e15\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Cross-sectional surveys show regular physical exercisers have better self-control and handle negative emotions more effectively \\u003csup\\u003e16\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Thus, physical exercise could positively influence the emotional perception of stressed college students.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn conclusion, physical exercise potentially influences how college students under psychological stress perceive the intensity of negative emotions. This research will employ Event-Related Potentials (ERP) technology, alongside a dual-choice oddball paradigm of high ecological validity, to examine how psychological stress affects individuals' sensitivity to the valence strength of negative emotional stimuli. Additionally, it will explore the role of physical exercise in this context.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2 Subjects and Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Experimental Subjects\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn the study, 715 university students were initially surveyed using a demographic questionnaire and the Psychological Stress Scale for Chinese College Students, achieving a 69% response rate with 494 valid responses \\u003csup\\u003e17\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The sample included 208 males (42.1%) and 286 females (57.9%). Students with stress scores\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026ge;\\u0026thinsp;61 on the scale were considered high-stress, totaling 89. Criteria for participation were no mental or genetic disorders, good mental health, normal or corrected vision (\\u0026ge;\\u0026thinsp;0.8), no color vision deficiencies, no substance dependence, right-handedness, and no prior similar study involvement. Fifty students volunteered, giving informed consent, and underwent jump rope training before the experiment. Participants were compensated afterwards. This study has obtained informed consent from all participants. This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Review Committee of Yangzhou University (NO: YXYLL-2022-109). This study was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eA G*Power analysis determined a required sample size of 26 (Power\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.85, Effect size\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.25). Due to one withdrawal for health reasons and two exclusions for data quality, the final sample included 47 participants: 22 in the control group (11 male, 11 female) and 25 in the experimental group (12 male, 13 female), with an average age of 19.12\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;1.02 years.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Experimental Methods\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2.1 Experimental Materials\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe study used Yuan Jiajin et al.'s \\u003csup\\u003e18\\u003c/sup\\u003e modified dual-choice Oddball paradigm to evaluate the response of physically exercised college students with high stress to negative emotional intensity. The experiment consisted of 6 blocks, each with 100 trials, featuring 70% standard and 30% deviant stimuli. Natural scenery images served as standard stimuli. For emotional conditions, 30 images each of high, low, and neutral negativity (totaling 90) were chosen from the Chinese Affective Picture System (CAPS) \\u003csup\\u003e19\\u003c/sup\\u003e. These images maintained consistent arousal levels but varied in valence (high negativity\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;6.18, low negativity\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;5.78, neutral\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;5.89; high negativity\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.77, low negativity\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;3.45, neutral\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;5.57), providing distinct emotional stimuli.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec6\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2.2 Experimental Tasks and Procedures\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe experiment had 6 blocks, with rests after every 3 blocks. Standard and deviant emotional stimuli were randomized in each block. Participants first fixated on a black cross for 300ms, followed by a 500-1500ms blank screen. Then, various emotional stimuli were displayed. They pressed F (left index finger) for standard stimuli and J (right index finger) for deviant stimuli. Stimuli lasted up to 1000ms or until a key press, with an immediate transition to the next stimulus. Responses were required within 1000ms. A black cross appeared post-response for 1000ms before the next trial. Each participant completed two experiments in random order. Accuracy in perceiving emotional stimulus intensity was crucial; thus, 10 practice trials with 100% accuracy were mandatory before the main experiment (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2.3 Physical exercise intervention program\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe physical exercise intervention program was designed based on the guidelines of the American College of Sports Medicine \\u003csup\\u003e20\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The guidelines suggest that physical activity 3 to 5 days per week can offer psychological benefits. Aerobic exercise lasting 10 to 15 minutes can improve mood, while more than 20 minutes can significantly reduce anxiety and enhance mood. Additionally, exercise ranging from low to high intensity has a positive impact on mood, with moderate to high-intensity exercise potentially being more effective.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe experimental group participated in group jump rope exercises three times weekly, in addition to regular school activities. These sessions, aiming for mid-to-high intensity (64%-95% maximum heart rate), consisted of a 5-minute warm-up, 30 minutes of aerobic exercise, and 5 minutes of stretching, over 12 weeks. Heart rates were monitored using Polar watches. The control group engaged only in standard school physical activities, without additional exercise (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). During the 12-week program, the experimental group consistently met the 30-minute moderate to high-intensity exercise target (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.3 statistic analysis of data\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe EEG segment spanned from \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;200 to 1000ms, with the first 200ms as baseline. Data from various emotional conditions were overlaid and averaged. Components (P2, N2, P3) and channels (FP1, FPZ, FP2, F1, FZ, F2, FC1, FCZ, FC2, C1, CZ, C2) were selected based on literature and waveform analysis. Indicators included average amplitude and latency. A 2\\u0026times;2\\u0026times;3 repeated measures ANOVA assessed reaction time, accuracy, and EEG component differences pre- and post-exercise in stressed students. Simple effects analysis with Bonferroni corrections was used for interactions. Significance was set at p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05, and effect size denoted by η2p.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3 Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec10\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.1 Physical Exercise and Its Effect on Emotional Intensity in Stressed College Students\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.1.1 Result analysis of negative deviant stimulus response time\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis study utilized Repeated Measures ANOVA to assess the effects of group, condition, and time on reaction time to emotional intensity perception, including their combined impacts. Sphericity was confirmed statistically(\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05). As per Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e, the main effects of group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.087, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.002)and time(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.461, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.011), along with the interactions of condition-group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.693, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.038), time-group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.137, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.003), and condition-time (\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.011, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.001), were not significant. However, the main effect of condition(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;31.681, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.424) was significant, indicating distinct reaction times between standard and deviant stimuli. The interaction of condition-time-group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;7.235, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.144) also showed significance, highlighting differences in emotional reaction times to negative deviant conditions over time between groups, detailed in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAnalyzing the Impact of Exercise on Emotional Perception in Highly Stressed College Students\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eInteraction\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSum of squares of type III\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDegree\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMean square\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCondition\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e58523.67\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e58523.67\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e31.681\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.424\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eGroup\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e327.007\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e327.007\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.087\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.769\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.002\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCondition-Group Interaction\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3126.674\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3126.674\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.693\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.038\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTime\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1759.802\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1759.802\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.461\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.501\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.011\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTime-Group Interaction\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e523.647\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e523.647\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.137\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.713\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.003\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCondition-Time Interaction\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e15.867\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e15.867\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.011\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.916\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCondition-Time-Group Interaction\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10298.87\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10298.87\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.235\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.01\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.144\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe results showed that a 12-week physical exercise program influenced reaction times to emotional stimuli in highly stressed students, with varying effects. Simple effects analysis of the condition-time-group interaction revealed significant pre-intervention differences in reaction times for both standard and negative emotional deviant stimuli in the experimental group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;19.468, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.312) and the control group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;7.357, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.146). Initially, both groups had longer reaction times for negative deviations. Post-intervention, however, the experimental group showed no significant reaction time differences(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.893, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.020), unlike the control group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;17.210, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.286). After the intervention, the experimental group's reaction times to standard and negative stimuli aligned, while the control group maintained significant differences. These findings highlight marked changes in emotional perception reaction times between the groups over time and for different stimuli (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.1.2 Analysis of time cost of negative deviant stimulus response\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eA repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to assess the individual and interactive effects of group and time on the reaction time cost to negative emotion intensity. The data met the sphericity assumption (\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05). According to Tables\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e, the main effect of group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.680, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.038) and the main effect of time (\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.014, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.001) were not significant. However, the interaction between time and group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;7.248, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.144) was significant. This suggests notable differences in reaction time cost for perceiving emotional intensity between pre-test and post-test in both experimental and control groups, as detailed in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTime-Cost Analysis of Exercise Impact on Emotional Perception in Stressed College Students stress\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eInteraction\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eInteraction\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSum of squares of type III\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDegree\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTime\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e40.201\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e40.201\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.014\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.906\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eGroup\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6201.267\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6201.267\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.68\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.202\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.038\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTime-Group Interaction\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e20665.45\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e20665.45\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.248\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.01\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.144\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe 12-week physical exercise program significantly impacted reaction time cost in highly stressed students when responding to different emotional stimuli. Pre-intervention, the reaction time cost difference between the experimental and control groups was not significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.861, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.020). Post-intervention, however, a notable difference emerged(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;6.053, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.123). The experimental group showed a reduced reaction time cost compared to the control group. The change in reaction time cost was significant for the experimental group(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;4.444, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.094) but not for the control group (\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;2.980, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026gt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.065). A means comparison indicated a significant reduction in reaction time cost for the experimental group over the intervention period (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec13\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.2 Physical Exercise and Electrophysiological Response to Stress in College Students\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEEG data from both groups were recorded using the Neuroscan wireless EEG system, both pre- and post-experiment. The superimposed average amplitude method was applied for statistical analysis of EEG components. P2, N2, and P3 components were identified from waveform charts, with their time windows determined by peak occurrences. Component topographic maps (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e) were created based on these time windows. For analysis, FZ, CZ, and PZ points were selected from these topographic maps.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003eP2 Average amplitude\\u003c/b\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe repeated measures ANOVA for P2 average amplitude met the sphericity assumption (\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05): The main effect of condition was significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(2, 90)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;25.698, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.369), with the average amplitude for neutral deviant stimuli being greater than that for moderate and extreme negative deviant stimuli. Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003eP2 latentperiod\\u003c/b\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe repeated measures ANOVA for the latency of P2 met the sphericity assumption (\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05): The main effect of condition was significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(2, 90)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;5.196, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.106), with the latency for moderate negative deviant stimuli being greater than that for negative deviant stimuli. The main effect of group was significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;2.526, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.054). Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003eN2 Average amplitude\\u003c/b\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe repeated measures ANOVA for N2 average amplitude met the sphericity assumption(\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05): The main effect of condition was significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(2, 90)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;18.712, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.298), with the average amplitude of neutral deviant stimuli being greater than moderate negativity, and the amplitude of extreme negative deviant stimuli being significantly greater than moderate negative stimuli. Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003eN2 latentperiod\\u003c/b\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe repeated measures ANOVA for N2 latency confirmed sphericity (\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05). There was a significant main effect of condition(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(2, 90)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;7.797, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.079), with longer latency for moderate negative deviant stimuli compared to extreme negative ones. The main group effect was also significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;4.073, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.085), where the control group showed a shorter N2 wave latency period than the experimental group. Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig10\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003eP3 Average amplitude\\u003c/b\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe repeated measures ANOVA for P3 latency confirmed sphericity (\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05). There was a significant main effect of condition(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(2, 90)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;22.858, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.342), with P3's average amplitude for neutral stimuli higher than for extreme and moderate negative ones. The main group effect was also significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;6.411, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.127), with the control group's P3 amplitude greater than the experimental group's. Additionally, the condition-group interaction was significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(2, 90)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;8.148, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.156). For the control group, the average amplitude for moderate deviance was higher than the other conditions. Conversely, in the experimental group, it was lower for moderate negativity than the other conditions. Regarding conditions, the control group's average amplitude was higher than the experimental group's for moderate deviance and negativity, but not for extreme negativity. No other main effects or interactions were significant (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig11\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e11\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003eP3 latentperiod\\u003c/b\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe repeated measures ANOVA for the latency of P3 met the sphericity assumption (\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05): The main effect of condition was significant (\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(2, 90)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;5.589, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.113), with the latency period of extreme negative deviant stimuli being shorter than the reaction time for moderate negative deviant stimuli. The main effect of group was significant(\\u003cem\\u003eF\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e(1, 45)\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;4.997, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026lt;0.05, \\u003cem\\u003eη\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.102), with the latency period of P3 wave amplitude in the control group being significantly shorter than in the experimental group. Other main effects and interaction effects were not significant (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig12\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e12\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4 Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003e4.1 The effect of physical exercise on the emotional intensity of college students under high psychological stress\\u003c/b\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn this study using the dual Oddball paradigm, reaction time and cost were key metrics. Typically, high-frequency standard stimuli elicit longer reaction times due to dominant response induction. For negative deviations, individuals must inhibit these responses, causing delays or inaccuracies, aligning with previous research \\u003csup\\u003e21, 22\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Both groups showed decreased reaction times for negative and standard stimuli, but these changes were not statistically significant. This might be because tasks with negative emotional deviations demand more cognitive control, limiting significant speed gains in emotional response inhibition through physical exercise. High-stress subjects, in a disrupted homeostatic state, experience impaired vascular-immune communication, leading to poor brain recovery, resource depletion, fatigue, and imbalance \\u003csup\\u003e23\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Negative stimuli activate the \\\"disgust-defense motivational system\\\", while positive ones trigger the \\\"liking-approach system\\\", causing physiological arousal \\u003csup\\u003e24, 25\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This results in reaction time variations based on emotional valence, with negative stimuli causing longer times than neutral, due to activation of different motivational systems by visual emotional stimuli.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePost-exercise analysis indicated that the experimental group significantly reduced reaction time costs, while the control group saw increased costs under positive deviations and no change under negative ones. Reaction time cost, reflecting the smaller decrease in reaction times to deviations versus standard stimuli, indicates enhanced behavioral inhibition and more accurate emotional intensity perception. Comparing the groups, significant differences in reaction time and cost emerged under different emotional deviations. The experimental group exhibited improved inhibitory and cognitive switching abilities post-exercise. In contrast, prolonged psychological stress may impair these functions, as seen in the control group's slower reaction times and higher costs in the dual-choice Oddball task.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn line with Gable et al.'s emotional motivation dimension model, the influence of emotions on attention control, akin to cognitive scope, is modulated by emotional intensity \\u003csup\\u003e26\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Life stress and intense psychological experiences narrow emotional attention focus, particularly with negative deviation emotions. This focused attention makes perceiving new stimuli difficult, reduces cognitive flexibility, and impairs inhibitory and cognitive switching functions, obstructing normal emotional experiences \\u003csup\\u003e27\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Physical exercise, conversely, broadens the attention span, disperses attentional resources, aids in detecting new targets, and boosts cognitive flexibility \\u003csup\\u003e28\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Enhanced inhibitory and switching functions can lessen the effects of intense emotional deviations due to psychological stress, thus bettering attention control and promoting healthy emotional processing. The post-exercise reduction in reaction time to standard deviation and stimuli in the experimental group highlights physical exercise's role in boosting response inhibition in high-stress individuals. Yet, their performance in tasks involving emotional conflict or inconsistency remains less efficient.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec15\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e4.2 Neuroelectrophysiological mechanism of physical exercise affecting emotional intensity of college students under high psychological stress\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWaveform analysis revealed that 120ms post-stimulus, all valence conditions' deviation stimuli elicited significant N1 responses, showing early visual attention sensitivity. This indicates a focus on visual stimuli in negative emotional states \\u003csup\\u003e29\\u003c/sup\\u003e. While N1 marks the onset of visual processing, it doesn't distinctly process negative emotions. Significant differences in P2, N2, and P3 components were observed under various emotional conditions. Starting at 140ms, emotional waveforms diverged, with P2 amplitudes varying by condition. By 160ms, positive valences had notable P2 peaks, whereas extreme and moderate negative conditions showed lower P2 amplitudes than neutral. This supports the association of P2 with early stimulus feature analysis \\u003csup\\u003e30\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Further discussion on P2 component changes pre- and post-experiment will follow.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e4.2.1 P2\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe study found that the difficulty of perceptual analysis across emotional valences is inversely related to P2 wave amplitude. Notably, under extreme negative emotions, P2 amplitude is much lower than in moderate conditions, indicating increased brain sensitivity to intense negative emotions linked to survival risks. This results in the most efficient perceptual analysis under intense negativity, as shown by the lowest wave amplitude \\u003csup\\u003e31\\u003c/sup\\u003e. IConversely, low negative or positive emotions require more comprehensive perceptual analysis for emotional intensity and content, leading to reduced sensitivity \\u003csup\\u003e32\\u003c/sup\\u003e. P2 latency data support this, showing shorter latency in extreme than in moderate or neutral conditions, suggesting faster perceptual processing in high negativity. The P2 phase, before 170ms, likely involves automated, rapid processing \\u003csup\\u003e33\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This study highlights the brain's automatic response to high-intensity negative stimuli during early emotional valence identification, suggesting an evolutionary advantage for quick threat detection and adaptation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec17\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e4.2.2 N2\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWaveforms from different emotional conditions began to significantly diverge after perceptual analysis, showing the brain's recognition of emotional intensity variations. Around 250ms, a notable negative peak in the Event-Related Potential (ERP), the N2 wave, appeared for all emotions. The N2 wave's amplitude varied with emotional valences, being higher in extreme negativity than moderate. The N2 component, linked to attention orientation, responds more to negative emotions, redirecting attention to significant events \\u003csup\\u003e34\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The experiment observed a transition from unconscious processing in the P2 phase to conscious attention in the N2 phase, where the brain evaluates emotional stimulus characteristics, focusing more on higher negativity as indicated by increased amplitudes. Under low negativity, the amplitude is lower than in neutral or extremely negative conditions, showing that high-stress individuals differentiate extreme from moderate negativity, focusing attention accordingly. Extreme negativity, posing the greatest survival threat, attracts the most attention, reflected in the largest N2 amplitude.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUnder negative conditions, significant N2 latency differences were noted between groups, with the control group exhibiting shorter latency than the experimental group. This suggests variation in emotional event processing, where high-stress individuals focus more on negative emotions, including near-neutral ones. Post-exercise, the experimental group displayed reduced reactions to negative stimuli, evidenced by longer latencies and more automated emotional intensity regulation. The N2 component indicates early response inhibition, with amplitude related to conflict monitoring and latency to perception speed. These results are consistent with previous studies showing that high-stress individuals struggle with N2 response inhibition, marked by decreased conflict detection and slower perception speed \\u003csup\\u003e35\\u003c/sup\\u003e. In the dual Oddball task, both groups showed shorter latency for wave amplitudes in response to extremely negative stimuli, reflecting a bias towards negative processing and quicker perception and judgment of negative emotions. This suggests an improved monitoring ability for negative emotions in the physical exercise group.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec18\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e4.2.3 P3\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eApproximately 390ms after stimulus onset, ERP waveforms for each emotional valence condition reach their positive peak, forming the P3 component. In ERP studies, the P3 component is associated with advanced cognitive activities related to emotion, inhibitory processing, and cognitive evaluation \\u003csup\\u003e36\\u003c/sup\\u003e. It is well-documented that cognitive evaluation, as denoted by P3, plays a pivotal role in emotion generation and regulation \\u003csup\\u003e37\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Consequently, the P3 component is intimately linked to the cognition and perception of emotional significance or importance \\u003csup\\u003e38\\u003c/sup\\u003e. During the P3 phase, individuals gain a clear understanding of previously experienced emotional content, including emotions of various intensities. This phase differs from earlier emotional attention biases as emotional information is adequately characterized, with emotional evaluation and analysis being a synthesis of internal and external environments and knowledge experience \\u003csup\\u003e39\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Therefore, cognitive processing at this stage is detailed and controlled.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe study found the P3 wave amplitude was lowest for extremely negative emotions. Under negative conditions, the control group exhibited higher P3 amplitude than the experimental group. In moderate negativity, the control group's average P3 amplitude was larger, but this difference wasn't significant under extreme negativity. P3 amplitude was higher for deviation stimuli than standard stimuli, indicating late-stage response inhibition where amplitude reflects inhibitory control strength and latency marks inhibitory processing completion. After the N2 stage, high-stress individuals fully comprehend emotional content and significance during the P3 phase. Research suggests that emotional information inhibition is inversely proportional to P3 amplitude \\u003csup\\u003e40\\u003c/sup\\u003e. In the dual-choice Oddball paradigm, individuals are required to inhibit emotional content under each valence condition to judge and complete tasks related to standard or deviant emotional stimuli.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHumans exhibit a pronounced bias towards processing negative emotions, essential for survival, which intensifies with stronger negative stimuli. Thus, those with high psychological stress demonstrate significant inhibitory control over extremely negative content, shown by the smallest P3 amplitude in such cases. In less intense negative emotions, the brain shows reduced inhibition, resulting in larger wave amplitudes. Therefore, individuals with high stress have weaker inhibitory control over highly positive content, as indicated by larger P3 wave amplitudes \\u003csup\\u003e41, 42\\u003c/sup\\u003e. High psychological stress can hinder early frontal lobe processing (N2 component), using more attention resources and elevating N2 amplitude. This may lead to late-stage inhibitory control fatigue, as indicated by increased P3 amplitude. In the experimental group, the P3 amplitude for negative stimuli was lower than in the control group, suggesting improved inhibitory control through physical exercise and better cognitive resource allocation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDuring the P3 phase, controlled processing is used for emotional discrimination across valences \\u003csup\\u003e43\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Under high negative emotions, P3 peak latency is significantly shorter than in low negative or neutral conditions, reflecting the brain's adaptive processing for high negative stimuli, possibly due to evolutionary factors. In the dual Oddball task, both groups exhibited smaller P3 amplitudes and shorter latencies for negative stimuli, indicating weaker inhibitory responses. The control group's shorter P3 latency, compared to the experimental group, suggests that stress-prone individuals without regular exercise have diminished emotional response capabilities, linked to reduced response inhibition. This aligns with previous study findings \\u003csup\\u003e44\\u003c/sup\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn summary, the brain retains memory traces of intense negative emotions even after a button-pressing task, showing lasting emotional impact. In contrast, the response to low negative emotions fades quickly after the P3 component, evidenced by overlapping ERP waveforms for low negative and neutral emotions post-P3. This indicates diverse psychological processing for different emotional intensities, underscoring the complexity of emotional perception.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"5 Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eStressed college students exhibit delayed responses to extreme negative emotions compared to standard ones, primarily affected by standard emotional stimuli. Extreme negative emotions differ in early automation, attention allocation, and mature emotional significance perception compared to other negative emotions.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePhysical exercise intervention in stressed college students improved behavioral responses and inhibitory control over intense negative emotions. Neurophysiological studies indicate these individuals processed emotional stimuli differently, with the experimental group showing better early perception and conflict response to negative emotions. They also demonstrated improved late-stage emotional inhibition, adjusting biases in negative emotion processing. These results suggest that physical exercise enhances both behavioral and neurophysiological responses to intense negative emotions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBaole Tao, the lead author, played a pivotal role in this study. He was instrumental in conceiving the research questions, developing the research strategies, and drafting the manuscripts. Tianci Lu was responsible for data processing, bringing crucial analytical insights to the study. Yueyan Jiang contributed significantly by revising the manuscript, ensuring its academic rigor. Both Hanwen Chen and Hao Chen made valuable contributions by adjusting the format of the article and further refining the manuscript through meticulous revisions. Jun Yan, the project director, had an equal role in shaping the research. His contributions were vital in formulating the research questions, overseeing the progress of the research, and revising various versions of the manuscripts. All authors have unanimously agreed on the final manuscript to be submitted and are committed to taking full responsibility for all aspects of the work.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eYuan, J., Li, H. Human sensitivity to the valence strength of emotional events and its neural mechanisms. Advances in Psychological Science 20(1), 10\\u0026ndash;19 (2012).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eMai, Z.F., Xu, H.Y., Ma, N. Acute sleep deprivation's impact on cognitive and emotional functions and its neural mechanisms: A research review. Chinese Journal of General Medicine 24(29), 3653\\u0026ndash;3659 (2021).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eLi, X.W., Wang, X.C. The influence of emotional valence on action speed: A behavioral study. Journal of Shanghai University of Sport 42(2), 113\\u0026ndash;118 (2018).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eXie, W., Zhang, W. Negative emotion enhances mnemonic precision and subjective feelings of remembering in visual long-term memory. Cognition 166, 73\\u0026ndash;83 (2017).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eYang, H., Li, J., Zheng, X. Different Influences of Negative and Neutral Emotional Interference on Working Memory in Trait Anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology 12, 570552 (2021).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eEtkin, J., Ghosh, A.P., Dahl, D., et al. When Being in a Positive Mood Increases Choice Deferral. Journal of Consumer Research 45(1), 208\\u0026ndash;225 (2018).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eSubramaniam, K., Gill, J., Slattery, P., et al. Neural Mechanisms of Positive Mood Induced Modulation of Reality Monitoring. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 10, 581 (2016).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eLiu, J.M., Liu, D.X. Insights and clinical application of the Seven Emotions theory in traditional Chinese medicine. Chinese Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 35(10), 5009\\u0026ndash;5011 (2020).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eZhao, Z., Lei, S., Weiqi, H., et al. The influence of the cross-modal emotional pre-preparation effect on audiovisual integration. Neuroreport 31(16), 1161\\u0026ndash;1166 (2020).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eLiu, X., Liu, Y., Shi, H., et al. Regulation of Mindfulness-Based Music Listening on Negative Emotions Related to COVID-19: An ERP Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(13), 7063 (2022).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eMonnart, A., Kornreich, C., Verbanck, P., et al. Just Swap Out of Negative Vibes? Rumination and Inhibition Deficits in Major Depressive Disorder: Data from Event-Related Potentials Studies. 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Studies in Psychology and Behavior 18(2), 185\\u0026ndash;192 (2020).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eKemp, A.H., Griffiths, K., Felmingham, K.L., et al. Disorder specificity despite comorbidity: resting EEG alpha asymmetry in major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychology 85(2), 350\\u0026ndash;354 (2010).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Physical exercise, Negative emotions, Valence, Oddball, Intervention\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3908570/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3908570/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003ch2\\u003eMethod\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEmploying the \\\"Chinese College Students' Psychological Stress Scale,\\\" 47 high-stress students were divided into a 25-member experimental group and a 22-member control group. The experimental group engaged in 40-minute group rope-jumping exercises thrice weekly for 12 weeks, following ACSM guidelines. A dual-choice Oddball task assessed the exercise intervention's impact on negative emotions. Results: (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e) Post-intervention, the experimental group exhibited no significant change in reaction time to negative stimuli (p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05); (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e) The group experienced a notable reduction in negative reaction cost post-intervention (p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05); (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e) Significant variances were observed in P2, N2, and P3 waveform average amplitude and latency in main condition effects (p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05); (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e) Under negative conditions, the control group had shorter N2 latency (p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05), higher P3 amplitude (p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05), and shorter P3 latency (p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05) than the experimental group. Conclusion: Physical exercise intervention enhances conflict inhibition abilities in individuals with high psychological stress. However, the neurophysiological responses to varying emotional stimulus intensities are more pronounced in these students.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"The Impact of Moderate to High-Intensity Physical Exercise on the Perception of Negative Emotional Intensity in College Students with High Psychological Stress\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2024-02-14 18:36:37\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3908570/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"5f1434b8-e08e-46d4-a601-391f998f9d17\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"February 14th, 2024\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":28741052,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Psychology\"},{\"id\":28741053,\"name\":\"Health sciences/Health care\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2024-04-09T19:44:27+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2024-02-14 18:36:37\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-3908570\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-3908570\",\"identity\":\"rs-3908570\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"FbvkV6FR0MCFSLy54lSbu\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}