{"paper_id":"32658d83-48cb-464f-882e-0cc2bb3193fa","body_text":"Optimal Design of Rain-gauge Stations Network to Estimate Rainfall in Non-Gauged Plain and Mountainous Regions | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Optimal Design of Rain-gauge Stations Network to Estimate Rainfall in Non-Gauged Plain and Mountainous Regions Mahdi Zarei, Rasoul Sarvestan, Seyed Hassan Alavinia This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5399880/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 31 Jan, 2025 Read the published version in Earth Science Informatics → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Nowadays, due to the insufficient number of stations for input in hydrological models, it is not possible to simulate runoff and floods for points without stations. Therefore, to solve this problem, rain gauge networks should be designed for these station points. The present research was carried out to design an optimal rain gauge network for rainfall estimation in plain and mountainous regions in northeastern Iran. The R software was utilized to identify extreme events within the study area. Four events (representing all of the identified events) were selected and modeled using the weather research and forecasting model under four schemes, namely Purdue-Lin (Lin), WRF Single-Moment class 3,5 (WSM3, WSM5), and WRF Double-Moment class 6 (WDM6). According to the modeling result, 91 rain gauge stations were required to cover the study area, with the rain gauge stations designed at different distances from the synoptic station. The microphysical Lin scheme produced better accuracy levels for the rainfall modeling, as indicated by false alarm ratio and threat score of 17 and 0.91 for the rain-gauge stations located in the mountainous areas and 9 and 0.83 for the rain-gauge stations located in the plain areas, respectively. The rain-gauge stations located in the mountainous and plain areas tend to give more acceptable accuracies within 6 and 8 km of the main synoptic station, respectively, as indicated by False Alarm Ratio (FAR) of 0.30 and 0, respectively. Generally, Outputs of the rain-gauge network design coupled with future-period (24hr) forecasts enable authorities to become aware of extreme rainfall events and the rainfall data derived from this network can use as input to hydrological models in non-gauged regions. modeling extreme rainfall WRF non-gauged areas northeastern Iran Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 31 Jan, 2025 Read the published version in Earth Science Informatics → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 03 Dec, 2024 Reviews received at journal 01 Dec, 2024 Reviews received at journal 28 Nov, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Nov, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Nov, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Nov, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Nov, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Nov, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 24 Nov, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 24 Nov, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 06 Nov, 2024 First submitted to journal 06 Nov, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-5399880\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":374922384,\"identity\":\"72896ef1-791c-40e8-a17e-2929f96de470\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Mahdi Zarei\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Hakim Sabzevari University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Mahdi\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Zarei\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":374922386,\"identity\":\"a8e57e94-0522-4929-97f8-9ebd1ee596a3\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Rasoul Sarvestan\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJADxgdAgoePaPU8DAzMBiCajRQtbBIgBkEt5g3sDz9XttnY27OfPVb5NcdOho2B+eGjG3i0yBzgMZY825aW2MOTl3Zbdlsy0GFsxsY5eLRIAF0k2XDmcAIPQ47ZbcltzEAtPGzS+LWwP/7ZcOa/PQ//G7NiyW31xGhhMJNsqDjA2CORY8b4cdthIrQw85hZNlQkJ/bceGMszbjtOA8bMyG/sLc/vtlgYGfP3p9j+PHntmp7fvbmh4/xaWFgRmbzoIsQBIw/SFE9CkbBKBgFIwYAAI9/O5lhRtT9AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Hakim Sabzevari University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Rasoul\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Sarvestan\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":374922387,\"identity\":\"f69a6d95-7612-4270-a97b-7e884caaa84d\",\"order_by\":2,\"name\":\"Seyed Hassan Alavinia\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"University of Kashan\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Seyed\",\"middleName\":\"Hassan\",\"lastName\":\"Alavinia\",\"suffix\":\"\"}],\"badges\":[],\"createdAt\":\"2024-11-06 06:08:14\",\"currentVersionCode\":1,\"declarations\":\"\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5399880/v1\",\"doiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5399880/v1\",\"draftVersion\":[],\"editorialEvents\":[{\"content\":\"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-025-01721-3\",\"type\":\"published\",\"date\":\"2025-01-31T15:57:34+00:00\"}],\"editorialNote\":\"\",\"failedWorkflow\":false,\"files\":[{\"id\":75351272,\"identity\":\"c576bccd-a668-4a8c-8b96-8f0f3121cd91\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-02-03 16:08:48\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":1100218,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5399880/v1_covered_70704176-9fcc-43f8-baae-2229b96b5a43.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Optimal Design of Rain-gauge Stations Network to Estimate Rainfall in Non-Gauged Plain and Mountainous Regions\",\"fulltext\":[],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":false,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":true,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":true,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"earth-science-informatics\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"esin\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Earth Science Informatics](http://link.springer.com/journal/12145)\",\"snPcode\":\"12145\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12145/3\",\"title\":\"Earth Science Informatics\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"em\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Springer Hybrid\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false},\"keywords\":\"modeling, extreme rainfall, WRF, non-gauged areas, northeastern Iran\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5399880/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5399880/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eNowadays, due to the insufficient number of stations for input in hydrological models, it is not possible to simulate runoff and floods for points without stations. Therefore, to solve this problem, rain gauge networks should be designed for these station points. The present research was carried out to design an optimal rain gauge network for rainfall estimation in plain and mountainous regions in northeastern Iran. The R software was utilized to identify extreme events within the study area. Four events (representing all of the identified events) were selected and modeled using the weather research and forecasting model under four schemes, namely Purdue-Lin (Lin), WRF Single-Moment class 3,5 (WSM3, WSM5), and WRF Double-Moment class 6 (WDM6). According to the modeling result, 91 rain gauge stations were required to cover the study area, with the rain gauge stations designed at different distances from the synoptic station. The microphysical Lin scheme produced better accuracy levels for the rainfall modeling, as indicated by false alarm ratio and threat score of 17 and 0.91 for the rain-gauge stations located in the mountainous areas and 9 and 0.83 for the rain-gauge stations located in the plain areas, respectively. The rain-gauge stations located in the mountainous and plain areas tend to give more acceptable accuracies within 6 and 8 km of the main synoptic station, respectively, as indicated by False Alarm Ratio (FAR) of 0.30 and 0, respectively. Generally, Outputs of the rain-gauge network design coupled with future-period (24hr) forecasts enable authorities to become aware of extreme rainfall events and the rainfall data derived from this network can use as input to hydrological models in non-gauged regions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Optimal Design of Rain-gauge Stations Network to Estimate Rainfall in Non-Gauged Plain and Mountainous Regions\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2024-11-22 18:51:00\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5399880/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2024-12-03T20:08:18+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-12-01T18:55:04+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-11-28T13:24:01+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"267111969078493851440640174103025929718\",\"date\":\"2024-11-25T16:06:56+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"230775228273209146062539348151900739422\",\"date\":\"2024-11-25T15:01:16+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"229281385140827958538778324260079318802\",\"date\":\"2024-11-25T06:43:28+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"302718861968096218640101797368644035685\",\"date\":\"2024-11-25T04:37:28+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"321618246659392204844895087066616258005\",\"date\":\"2024-11-25T04:20:39+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-11-25T01:24:43+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-11-25T01:23:31+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-11-06T15:19:11+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Earth Science Informatics\",\"date\":\"2024-11-06T05:56:02+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"earth-science-informatics\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"esin\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Earth Science Informatics](http://link.springer.com/journal/12145)\",\"snPcode\":\"12145\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12145/3\",\"title\":\"Earth Science Informatics\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"em\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Springer Hybrid\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"1998bd86-d74f-4a40-ab03-2ec354d8ee0f\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"November 22nd, 2024\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"published-in-journal\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-02-03T16:02:40+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":{\"articleIdentity\":\"rs-5399880\",\"link\":\"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-025-01721-3\",\"journal\":{\"identity\":\"earth-science-informatics\",\"isVorOnly\":false,\"title\":\"Earth Science Informatics\"},\"publishedOn\":\"2025-01-31 15:57:34\",\"publishedOnDateReadable\":\"January 31st, 2025\"},\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2024-11-22 18:51:00\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"10.1007/s12145-025-01721-3\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-025-01721-3\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-5399880\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-5399880\",\"identity\":\"rs-5399880\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}