{"paper_id":"31ac6091-0b93-49db-b030-70ff33d40b44","body_text":"Centralized Control in the Digital Age: Reputational Security and Embassy Communication during Qatar’s 2022 FIFA World Cup | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Centralized Control in the Digital Age: Reputational Security and Embassy Communication during Qatar’s 2022 FIFA World Cup Banu Akdenizli This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8858481/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Mega sporting events are often seen as transformative opportunities for place branding and public diplomacy. However, increased visibility also leads to greater scrutiny and reputational risks. This study explores how Qatari embassies exercised centralized control over digital communication during the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Using an original dataset of 2,320 Twitter/X posts from 23 embassies in countries involved in World Cup qualifying, the article examines communication practices across pre-tournament, tournament, and post-tournament phases. Results show a highly coordinated digital diplomacy system where embassy accounts mainly acted as amplifiers for content produced by Qatar’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and senior leaders. Instead of encouraging decentralized engagement, platform features allowed for message discipline and hierarchical coordination on a global level. The study builds on Cull’s concept of reputational security by showing how embassies operated within centralized visibility regimes, suggesting that mega-events tend to amplify existing diplomatic trends rather than fundamentally change a nation’s reputation. reputational security digital diplomacy sports mega-events embassy communication FIFA 2022 Qatar Introduction Mega sporting events have become key tools in place branding and public diplomacy, providing host nations with unmatched opportunities to showcase national identity, enhance international reputation, and establish a symbolic presence on the global stage. Beyond their economic and infrastructural effects, mega-events serve as communication platforms through which countries aim to share stories of competence, modernity, and cultural legitimacy with the world. Roche ( 2003 ) describes such events as “large-scale cultural (including commercial and sporting) events with a dramatic character, mass popular appeal, and international significance” (p. 1). While research on sports diplomacy highlights how mega-events can boost soft power and influence external perceptions (Murray 2012 ; Grix and Lee 2013), place branding studies focus on how these events increase visibility through global media, thereby connecting national identity to widely viewed spectacles (Anholt 2007 ). Often seen as “media events” in Dayan and Katz’s (1992) terms, and as “total social spectacles” (Debord 1994 ; Horne and Manzenreiter 2006 ), World Cups attract worldwide attention and amplify the symbolic importance of representing a nation. Qatar’s successful bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup marked a landmark moment in the country’s sports diplomacy and place branding efforts. As the first World Cup held in the Middle East and in the smallest host nation in the tournament’s history, the event gave Qatar a unique chance to reshape its international image. Qatar highlighted a series of unprecedented features as part of its branding story: the first World Cup in a Muslim-majority country, the first held in winter, a compact tournament with seven newly built stadiums within a 55-kilometer radius, and technological innovations including semi-automated offside systems, AI-enabled match balls, and female referees officiating men’s matches. The tournament was also promoted as the first carbon-neutral World Cup, emphasizing sustainability, technological advancement, and inclusivity as key parts of Qatar’s desired international reputation. At the same time, FIFA 2022 served as a major test of reputation. Allegations of corruption related to the 2010 bid raised questions about governance and legitimacy (Vox 2022 ), while the decision to hold the tournament in winter disrupted European football calendars and drew ongoing criticism from leagues and clubs (The Guardian 2015 ). Most notably, Qatar faced heavy international scrutiny over migrant labor conditions, with media and human rights groups documenting unsafe working conditions, wage violations, and high death rates linked to construction projects (The Guardian 2021; Human Rights Watch 2023 ). Widely circulated figures—such as The Guardian ’s estimate of 6,500 migrant worker deaths—became central to global discussion, even as Qatari officials and some observers challenged their interpretation, noting that these numbers included deaths of migrant workers from all causes over a decade, not solely those directly related to World Cup construction (Al Jazeera 2021; Qarjouli 2021 ; LaMay 2022 ). These disputed stories highlight the increased reputational pressure facing the tournament and the polarized communication environment in which Qatar aimed to gain diplomatic advantages. Recent scholarship views Qatar 2022 as a combined effort in place branding and public diplomacy aimed at highlighting hospitality, Islamic cultural values, and modern infrastructure while addressing Islamophobia and negative stereotypes of Muslim societies (e.g., Munzilin et al. 2025 ; Ismail and Putra 2023 ). However, these efforts occurred within highly polarized media and digital environments, especially in Western contexts where critiques of labor rights, governance, and values remained prominent. Twitter/X became a key platform for reputation battles, with research showing early polarization around migrant labor, governance, and “sportswashing,” particularly in the Global North (Dun et al. 2022 ). Although sentiment improved gradually regarding infrastructure, organization, and cultural inclusion (Farrag et al. 2023), simply being the host nation did not lead to significant reputation change. Survey-based and visitor-focused studies also indicate modest, selective improvements in views of hospitality, culture, and competence, with limited shifts in political or normative judgments (Ibrahim and Aleksanyan 2023; Knott et al. 2024 ). Overall, current research suggests that Qatar 2022 served more as a boost to reputation rather than a complete reset. These mixed outcomes are reflected in Qatar’s broader soft power trajectory. According to the Global Soft Power Index, Qatar’s global ranking improved from 26th to 20th between 2022 and 2025, with gains mainly in political influence and international relations rather than cultural familiarity or overall public perception (Brand Finance 2022 –2025). Despite hosting one of the most widely viewed sporting events in history, Qatar’s cultural visibility remained uneven, and concerns about human rights and values continued. This pattern highlights a key tension in sports diplomacy: while mega-events can boost elite recognition and diplomatic standing, they have limited power to change deeply rooted public attitudes. Building on scholarship about sports mega-events (Roche 2000 ; Horne and Manzenreiter 2006 ; Boykoff 2020) and sports diplomacy (Brannagan and Giulianotti 2018; Reiche 2015 ), this study links these fields with digital diplomacy to explore how embassies interpreted and amplified the 2022 FIFA World Cup as it happened. While previous research on Qatar highlights soft power goals and governance issues (Brannagan and Reiche 2022; Soyland and Moriconi 2022), this paper shifts focus to how foreign missions narrated the event through platform-based, emotional, and real-time practices. In this context, this study investigates how Qatari embassies in countries participating in the World Cup communicated during the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Using an original dataset of 2,320 Twitter/X posts from 23 embassies collected between November and December 2022, the article examines embassy-level public diplomacy during Qatar’s most prominent international event. While existing research on Qatar 2022 has mainly focused on overall social media sentiment, legacy media framing, or para-state broadcasters, it has given limited attention to how official diplomatic actors communicated in real time during the tournament. This gap is significant considering public diplomacy scholarship’s focus on embassies as key players in advocacy, representation, and relationship-building (Cull 2008 , 2019 ), and recent studies that highlight reputational security—the preservation of legitimacy, credibility, and standing under ongoing scrutiny—as a central goal of modern diplomacy (Cull 2024 ). Located within rapid digital environments, embassy communication during mega-events is shaped by the dynamics of real-time diplomacy, where compressed media cycles and emotionally charged publics demand continuous, responsive messaging (Seib 2012 ). By analyzing how embassies adjusted their messaging throughout pre-tournament, tournament, and post-tournament phases—balancing event promotion with routine diplomatic outreach—this study highlights state-led digital diplomacy as a crucial mechanism through which host nations aim to manage reputational security during mega-events. Conceptual Framework Mega-events function as arenas of national display and symbolic politics. Roche ( 2003 ) conceptualizes them as high-visibility cultural performances, while Dayan and Katz (1992) describe them as ritualized media events capable of suspending routine communication patterns and concentrating global attention. The FIFA World Cup, often characterized as a “total social spectacle” (Debord 1994 ; Horne and Manzenreiter 2006 ), enables states to compete for cultural, political, and symbolic prominence on a global scale. From a place-branding perspective, such events enable nations to position themselves within global hierarchies of modernity and legitimacy (Grix and Lee 2013). This study explores Qatar’s embassy communication through the lenses of nation branding, real-time diplomacy, and reputational security. Nation branding sees international reputation as a strategic asset built through narratives of culture, governance, and global contributions, with visibility functioning as a form of soft power (Anholt 2007 ). Public diplomacy scholarship highlights the role of embassies as key institutional actors in this process. Cull’s framework (2008, 2019) views public diplomacy as an integrated system of listening, advocacy, cultural exchange, and engagement, while his more recent work identifies reputational security as a main goal of contemporary diplomacy—defined as maintaining legitimacy, credibility, and standing under continuous scrutiny (Cull 2024 ). These dynamics are increasingly taking place within accelerated digital environments. Seib’s concept of real-time diplomacy illustrates how digital platforms compress diplomatic timescales, necessitating continuous and responsive communication as events unfold and publics respond emotionally. Mega-events heighten these conditions by gathering global attention while also increasing reputational risk. In this setting, reputational security relies not on coercive or material means but on perception management, narrative dissemination, and emotional alignment across institutional networks. Embassies as Digital Actors in a Mega-Event Environment Embassies have become central actors in contemporary digital communication ecosystems, with platforms such as Twitter/X extending diplomatic practice into broader public spheres. While embassies continue to perform traditional consular and political functions, their online presence enables new forms of identity representation, strategic messaging, and content circulation. As state representatives abroad, embassies mediate between national interests, host-country contexts, and global audiences through a hybrid mix of diplomacy, public relations, and platform-enabled engagement. During major events, these dynamics become more intense. Greater visibility and faster-paced timelines make real-time diplomacy more important, as embassies react to developing situations while promoting carefully crafted national stories. Embassy communication is both reactive and performative, managing responses while protecting reputation. This study looks at what embassies post during the World Cup, the kinds of content they share and promote, the officials they interact with, how they juggle event-specific messages with regular diplomatic talk, and how language choices show their target audience in different countries. By focusing on embassies in World Cup–qualifying countries—where public engagement with the tournament was likely highest—this research demonstrates how diplomatic communication during mega-events is strategically targeted toward receptive audiences. Analyzing embassy communication in these contexts reveals how host states calibrate public diplomacy to maximize the reputational returns of mega-event investment. Building on this context, the study is guided by the following research questions: What narratives and themes do Qatari embassies foreground during the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and how do these align with Qatar’s place branding objectives? What communicative practices—such as original posts, retweets, and replies—characterize embassy activity, and which institutional actors are most often amplified? How do embassies balance World Cup–related promotion with traditional diplomatic content, and what does this reveal about reputational security strategies during mega-events? What languages do embassies use, and how does language choice signal different audience orientations? How do posting patterns differ across embassies, and what do these differences reveal about coordination, localization, and distributed nation branding? Methods Case Selection and Sample The study analyzes Qatari embassy communication during the 2022 FIFA World Cup by focusing on embassies in countries that qualified for the tournament. Embassy selection was based on two criteria: (1) the country’s qualification for the 2022 FIFA World Cup and (2) the presence of an official, verifiable Twitter/X account operated by the Qatari embassy that showed activity during the study period. Although 32 national teams qualified for the tournament, not all corresponding Qatari embassies had active Twitter/X accounts. Of these, 24 embassies initially met the inclusion criteria. One account (Senegal) was later excluded because it had no tweets during the sampling period, resulting in a final sample of 23 Qatari embassies in World Cup–qualifying countries (hereafter called Qatari WC embassies). Focusing on qualifying countries enables the study to investigate embassy communication in contexts where public engagement with the tournament and media coverage were likely at their peak, making these contexts especially relevant for analyzing diplomatic messaging during a high-visibility mega-event. Table 1 summarizes the 23 Qatari WC embassies included in the study, listing each embassy’s Twitter/X handle, follower and following counts, and account creation date as of October 2022, right before data collection. Table 1 Qatari WC Embassies Included in the Study Host Country Handle Followers Following Date Created Argentina @QatarEmb_BA 2535 122 July-2016 Australia @QatarEmb_CBR 2798 75 May-2016 Belgium @QatarEmb_BXL 6918 242 March-2016 Brazil @QatarEmb_BRS 4130 67 April-2016 Canada @QatarEmb_Ottawa 7266 102 April-2016 Costa Rica @QatarEmb_SJ 770 121 February-2016 Croatia @ZagrebEmbqatar 1048 14 July-2017 England & Wales @QatarEmb_London 30181 318 July-2011 France @QatarAmbFrance 10406 380 March-2015 Germany @QatarEmb_Berlin 9079 227 March-2015 Japan @QatarEmbassyJp 913 133 April-2019 Mexico @QatarembassyMex 4897 415 September-2017 Morocco @QatarEmb_Rabat 2881 323 October-2015 Netherlands @Qataremb_NL 1835 205 September-2016 Poland @QatarEmb_Warsaw 2183 140 September-2016 Portugal @QatarEmb_Lisbon 2094 80 October-2015 Serbia @QatarembassyRS 2096 131 November-2015 South Korea @QatarEmbSeoul 3953 193 November-2015 Spain @QatarEmb_Madrid 3873 242 June-2015 Switzerland @QatarEmb_Bern 1322 218 December-2015 Tunisia @QatarEmb_Tunis 3023 21 January-2016 Uruguay @QatarEmb_MVD 2077 65 September-2015 United States @QatarEmbassy_US 18500 165 September-2012 Data Collection The study period runs from November 1 to December 31, 2022, covering the pre-tournament buildup, the tournament itself (November 20–December 18), and the immediate post-tournament phase. This two-month timeframe allows for systematic observation of changes in embassy communication practices during different stages of increased global attention and reputational sensitivity. Tweets were collected through the Twitter/X API, which provided access to all publicly available posts from the selected embassy accounts during the study period. The API allowed extraction of tweet content, timestamps, media links, engagement metrics (likes, retweets, replies), and metadata including language and source type. All original tweets, retweets, and replies created or shared by the embassy accounts were included in the dataset, resulting in a total of 2,320 posts. Unit of Analysis The unit of analysis for this study is the individual tweet. Each original post, retweet, or reply published by an embassy account during the study period was considered a separate communicative act and coded accordingly. This method allows for detailed analysis of both content and practice, showing how embassies communicated, what narratives they highlighted, and how they interacted with institutional actors and audiences in real time during the World Cup. Coding Framework Tweets were coded across four analytical dimensions aimed at capturing communicative practices, thematic focus, institutional engagement, and audience orientation. 1. Topic of the tweet. This variable captures the main communicative focus of each post and is divided into nine thematic clusters that reflect key aspects of public diplomacy and place branding during mega-events. These include event-related image projection, cultural diplomacy, bilateral relations, media amplification, consular outreach, institutional self-presentation, and reputational management. Full definitions and subcategories for each topic are provided in Appendix A. 2. Tweet type. This variable indicates the structural form of communication—original tweet, retweet, or reply—distinguishing content creation, amplification, and interaction. 3. Interactional direction. For retweets and replies, this variable records the institutional actor involved, including Qatari leadership, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, other Qatari government agencies, Qatari embassies, foreign ministries, FIFA or event organizers, Qatari media, international media, and NGOs or international organizations. This dimension allows analysis of institutional amplification patterns and relational positioning. 4. Language of communication. This variable indicates the language used in each tweet (e.g., Arabic, Global English, host-country languages, multilingual, or visual-only). The choice of language serves as a proxy for audience targeting and localization strategies in embassy communication. Together, these dimensions enable a systematic analysis of what embassies communicated and how they communicated during the tournament. An extensive codebook, including category definitions, decision rules, and subcodes, is provided in Appendix A. Reliability and Validity Content validity was confirmed through iterative development and refinement of the coding framework. Initial categories were based on existing research on public diplomacy, digital diplomacy, and place branding. The codebook was pilot-tested on a sample of tweets from five embassy accounts (Argentina, France, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States). This pilot phase helped define category boundaries and led to minor updates of category definitions to ensure clarity and consistency across cases. Intercoder reliability was evaluated through a collaborative, consensus-based method. Two coders independently analyzed a random sample of 150 tweets. Discrepancies were discussed and resolved jointly, leading to further clarification of coding rules where necessary. Following agreement, the remaining tweets were coded using the finalized codebook. Regular calibration checks were conducted throughout the coding process to ensure consistency, especially for multilingual and context-dependent posts. Multilingual Data Processing and Use of AI Tools Tweets were originally posted in multiple languages, including English, Arabic, Spanish, French, and other national languages depending on the host country. To ensure consistent cross-case analysis, all tweets were automatically translated into English using machine translation tools integrated into the data processing workflow. These translations created a standardized analytical corpus while maintaining key semantic and contextual elements necessary for thematic coding. AI-assisted tools were employed to support multilingual processing and initial data organization. All key coding decisions—including assigning topics, interpreting communicative intent, and resolving ambiguous cases—were made by human coders. AI tools served only as analytical aids and did not replace human judgment. This combined approach improved consistency across languages while preserving interpretive rigor and alignment with the study’s public diplomacy framework. Results Overview of Embassy Activity Between November 1 and December 31, 2022, the 23 Qatari embassies located in World Cup–qualifying countries produced a total of 2,320 tweets on Twitter/X. The overall timeline of posts exhibits a distinctly event-driven pattern aligned with key moments of the tournament, reflecting embassies’ role as distributed agents of Qatar’s place branding and reputational diplomacy. As shown in Table 2 , more than half of all tweets (51.9%, n = 1,203) were posted during the tournament period (November 20–December 18), while 38.3% (n = 888) appeared in the pre-tournament phase (November 1–19), and only 9.9% (n = 229) were published after the final (December 19–31). This distribution underscores how embassy communication intensified during peak moments of global visibility and declined sharply once the mega-event concluded. Table 2 Timeline of Posts Time Period Dates # of Tweets % of Dataset Pre-tournament Nov. 1–19 888 38.3% Tournament Nov. 20-Dec. 18 1,203 51.9% Post-Tournament Dec. 19–31 229 9.9% Activity in early November was relatively moderate, averaging fewer than 30 posts per day, and was largely oriented toward routine diplomatic communication, bilateral engagements, and anticipatory messaging related to Qatar’s hosting role. A notable early spike occurred on November 3 (113 tweets), signaling intensified pre-tournament positioning. On that day, the Qatari Embassy in Uruguay posted: “ دولة قطر تؤكد أن الأحداث الرياضية الكبرى تسهم في تعزيز التفاهم بين الشعوب ونشر قيم السلام والتسامح” (“Qatar affirms that major sporting events contribute to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples and spreading values of peace and tolerance”), while the Qatari Embassy in Brazil announced fan-zone arrangements for visitors, emphasizing hospitality and organizational readiness. The Qatari Embassy in Tunisia simultaneously amplified statements by Assistant Foreign Minister Lolwah Alkhater on Qatar’s commitment to human rights, illustrating early reputational positioning ahead of kickoff. Activity increased again in mid-November as the tournament approached. The opening phase of the World Cup generated the first sustained surge, with elevated posting on November 20 (72 tweets), November 21 (78 tweets ) , and November 22 (70 tweets) - corresponding to the opening ceremony and first group-stage matches. During this period, embassies primarily amplified centralized state messaging and leadership visibility, reinforcing Qatar’s institutional presence at the start of the global spectacle. For example, the Qatari Embassy in Brazil reposted coverage of His Highness the Emir receiving U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken, while the Qatari Embassy in the Netherlands circulated official opening-day visuals from Doha. At the same time, the Qatari Embassy in Japan posted localized content in Japanese announcing ambassadorial engagements, demonstrating how embassies combined global narratives with host-country language to advance localized place-branding strategies. Posting volumes remained consistently high throughout late November and early December, averaging approximately 40–55 tweets per day, as embassies circulated sports diplomacy content alongside bilateral engagements and cultural programming. This phase illustrates how institutional diplomacy continued in parallel with event-driven branding. For instance, on December 6, following Japan’s exit from the competition, the Qatari Embassy in Japan tweeted: “ありがとうございました日本代表!🇯🇵👏 You made us proud,” blending affective sports messaging with diplomatic presence. Similarly, the Qatari Embassy in Germany highlighted its ambassador’s attendance at the Germany–Costa Rica match on December 10, while the Qatari Embassy in Uruguay posted about participation in innovation-focused cultural events, underscoring the integration of cultural diplomacy within the tournament period. Activity reached another symbolic peak on December 18 (91 tweets), the day of the World Cup Final, driven largely by retweets amplifying Qatari leadership and official tournament content. Embassy accounts across multiple countries circulated centralized messages from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and senior Qatari officials, reinforcing Qatar’s brand visibility at the tournament’s climax. The immediate post-final period also saw elevated activity, particularly on December 19 (71 tweets), characterized by congratulatory posts, affective closure, and early legacy framing. The Qatari Embassy in Canada tweeted, “What a joyful tournament filled with talent and unforgettable moments,” while the Qatari Embassy in Brazil circulated content challenging Western media criticism, reflecting a shift from celebratory branding to reputational defense. The Qatari Embassy in the United States similarly marked the tournament’s conclusion by congratulating Qatar on hosting a historic World Cup that united global audiences. After December 20, embassy activity declined sharply, falling to fewer than 15 tweets per day, with posts primarily consisting of year-end greetings and routine institutional updates. Type of Posts Across the tweets analyzed, most were retweets (80.6%), followed by original posts (19.4%), with only a negligible share classified as replies. Retweets thus accounted for more than four-fifths of all embassy activity, indicating that sharing or amplifying content from other accounts constituted the primary mode of communication. Nearly two-thirds of all retweets (63.2%) originated from Qatar’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and MOFA leadership accounts, reflecting strong institutional alignment. An additional 11.6% came from Qatari leadership accounts, including the Emir and Royal Court, while 7.6% were sourced from other Qatari government agencies. Together, these official Qatari actors accounted for 82.4% of all retweeted content. Retweets from FIFA and other event organizers represented 6.6% of amplified posts, while content originating from Qatari media comprised 3.9%. Retweets from other Qatari embassies accounted for 3.6%, and engagement with foreign governments, international media, NGOs, and international organizations collectively made up less than 4% of retweeted content. Topically, retweets from MOFA were dominated by public diplomacy and bilateral relations (Topic 40), alongside substantial shares of national branding (Topic 70) and crisis response and reputation protection (Topic 80), indicating that centralized institutional messaging emphasized diplomatic visibility and reputational management. In contrast, retweets originating from FIFA and official event organizers were overwhelmingly concentrated in sports diplomacy and global visibility (Topic 20), with approximately 60% of FIFA-related reposts devoted to match-centered content, fan engagement, and tournament promotion. Original tweets, which comprised just under one-fifth of all posts, were primarily used to share embassy-specific announcements, cultural programming, official visits, and consular information. Replies appeared only once in the entire dataset, underscoring the limited use of interactive features during the study period. Use of Language The language distribution across all 2,320 embassy posts shows a clear preference for English (39.3%) and Arabic (33.1%), together accounting for more than two-thirds of all communication. Host-country languages—including Spanish, French, German, Portuguese, Polish, Japanese, and Korean—collectively represented 17.8% of tweets. A smaller portion of posts were multilingual (5.8%), combining two or more languages within a single tweet, while visual-only posts without accompanying text accounted for 4.0% of the dataset. Use of host-country languages was especially prevalent among embassies in Spanish-, French-, and Japanese-speaking contexts. The Qatari Embassies in Mexico, Spain, Uruguay, and Argentina frequently posted in Spanish, while the embassies in France and Belgium showed sustained use of French. The Qatari Embassy in Japan consistently employed Japanese in embassy announcements and event updates, reflecting localized outreach practices. In English-speaking environments—including the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom—embassies relied primarily on English as the national language of communication. English also featured prominently among several European missions, including the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, and Switzerland, where English-language tweets accounted for a substantial share of embassy output. In these contexts, English functioned as a common communicative medium for institutional announcements, leadership amplification, and tournament-related messaging, extending embassy reach beyond host-country publics. Arabic-language posts were most visible in embassies serving Arabophone or Muslim-majority contexts, including Morocco and Tunisia, but Arabic was also used across non-Arab environments for leadership statements, Ministry of Foreign Affairs announcements, and major tournament milestones. This cross-regional deployment of Arabic underscores its continued presence in embassy communication throughout the tournament period. Overall, the language distribution indicates that embassy communication relied primarily on English and Arabic, with host-country languages used selectively for localized engagement. Multilingual and visual-only posts appeared less frequently but were present throughout the dataset, particularly during high-visibility moments such as opening matches and the World Cup Final. What Did They Post About Public diplomacy and bilateral relations constituted the largest share of embassy communication during the study period (41.3%), followed by sports diplomacy and global visibility (17.6%). Cultural diplomacy and national identity projection accounted for 10.0% of posts, while event-led place image projection represented 9.3%. National branding of Qatar abroad comprised 8.8% of tweets, and crisis response, condolences, and reputation protection made up 6.7%. Smaller proportions of content focused on media visibility and narrative amplification (2.8%), consular outreach and community support (1.9%), and embassy identity and institutional self-presentation (1.4%). Taken together, these distributions indicate that while World Cup–related content formed a substantial component of embassy communication, the majority of posts centered on routine diplomatic engagement and institutional messaging across the two-month period. Table 3 Topic Breakdown of All Posts Public Diplomacy & Bilateral relations 41.3% Sports Diplomacy & Global Visibility 17.6% Cultural Diplomacy & National Identity 10.0% Event-Led Place Image Projection 9.3% National Branding of Qatar Abroad 8.8% Crisis/Condolences/Reputation Protection 6.7% Media Visibility & Narrative Amplification 2.8% Consular Outreach & Community Support 1.9% Embassy Identity & Self-Presentation 1.4% When examined across the pre-tournament, tournament, and post-tournament phases, however, notable shifts in thematic emphasis emerge. Public diplomacy and bilateral relations remained the dominant topic throughout, accounting for 38.9% of tweets before kickoff, increasing to 43.2% during the tournament, and remaining high at 41.0% after the final. Sports diplomacy and global visibility showed the most pronounced temporal change, rising from 11.7% in the pre-tournament phase to 22.3% during the tournament, before declining to 16.2% post-tournament. Event-led place image projection was most prominent prior to kickoff (14.1%) and decreased substantially during the tournament (6.8%) and afterward (3.5%). Cultural diplomacy and national identity projection increased in the post-tournament period, reaching 18.3%, while crisis response and reputation protection declined during the tournament (3.9%) but rose again after the final (8.3%). National branding of Qatar abroad peaked during the tournament period (11.4%), whereas consular outreach and embassy self-presentation remained marginal across all phases. Overall, embassy communication moved from anticipatory place image projection before kickoff, to sports-centered visibility during the tournament, and toward cultural diplomacy and reputational stabilization after the final—indicating a phased diplomatic strategy aligned with the emotional arc of the mega-event. Posts related to sports diplomacy and global visibility featured expressions of solidarity with national teams and ambassadorial participation in World Cup activities. For example, on December 10, the Qatari Embassy in Rabat shared that His Highness the Emir had called Morocco’s King Mohammed VI to congratulate the Moroccan national team on advancing to the semifinals of the tournament. Similarly, on November 21, the Qatari Embassy in Berlin posted about organizing a fan zone attended by ambassadors and accredited diplomats, highlighting diplomatic engagement within the tournament atmosphere. Event-led place image projection posts emphasized Qatar’s hosting role through welcoming messages and visual content tied to team arrivals and tournament preparation. On November 14, the Qatari Embassy in Bern welcomed Switzerland’s national team with a post tagging FIFA and Swiss Airlines (“Welcome to Qatar!”), while the Qatari Embassy in Brazil shared official World Cup–linked visual content on the same day, reinforcing Qatar’s visibility as host in the immediate pre-tournament period. Cultural diplomacy and national identity projection included posts marking Qatar’s National Day and celebrating collective identity alongside the World Cup. On December 20, the Qatari Embassy in Tunis posted about Qatar’s embassies and consulates abroad continuing National Day celebrations. Similarly, on December 18, the Qatari Embassy in Lisbon posted National Day greetings to Qatar, highlighting shared celebration and cultural solidarity during the World Cup period. Public diplomacy and bilateral relations remained prominent throughout the tournament, with embassies amplifying high-level meetings and institutional engagements. On December 13, the Qatari Embassy in Brussels shared coverage of His Highness the Emir meeting the King of Malaysia at Lusail Stadium during World Cup events. Earlier, on December 12, the Qatari Embassy in Montevideo posted in recognition of International Anti-Corruption Day, illustrating the continuation of routine diplomatic messaging alongside tournament-related content. Tweets categorized as national branding of Qatar abroad highlighted Qatar’s broader international positioning beyond match-centered narratives. On December 13, the Qatari Embassy in Montevideo announced Doha’s selection as the Arab Tourism Capital for 2023, while on November 26, the Qatari Embassy in Brussels posted about Qatar’s $ 20 million contribution to humanitarian programs supporting African countries, foregrounding Qatar’s global development engagement during the tournament period. Crisis response and reputation protection posts reflected efforts to manage symbolic risk and address international scrutiny surrounding Qatar’s hosting role. On November 19, the Qatari Embassy in Seoul shared content emphasizing Arab support for Qatar’s World Cup hosting while condemning hostile media campaigns. Earlier, on November 3, the Qatari Embassy in Brazil amplified the International Labour Organization’s 2022 report on Qatar’s labor reforms, situating the tournament within broader narratives of institutional progress and reform. Smaller proportions of tweets addressed media amplification, consular outreach, and institutional self-presentation, including reposts of Qatari media coverage and embassy announcements. Who Posted the Most Posting activity varied substantially across Qatari embassies, with a small number of accounts generating the majority of content. The Qatari Embassy in Brazil was by far the most active, producing 766 tweets (33.0% of the full dataset). This was followed by the Qatari Embassy in Uruguay with 261 posts (11.3%), Tunisia with 208 posts (9.0%), and Spain with 167 posts (7.2%). Collectively, these four embassies accounted for approximately 60.5% of all tweets, indicating a highly concentrated pattern of institutional engagement during the World Cup period (Table 4 ). Notably, the Qatari Embassy in Argentina exhibited comparatively low activity, producing only 14 tweets (0.6% of the dataset), despite Argentina entering the tournament as one of the leading fan favorites and ultimately winning the World Cup. This contrast highlights substantial variation in embassy communication intensity across countries, including those with high global visibility and strong football cultures. Table 4 Top Ten Active Embassies Qatar Embassy in Brazil 33.0% Qatar Embassy in Uruguay 11.3% Qatar Embassy in Tunisia 9.0% Qatar Embassy in Spain 7.2% Qatar Embassy in Belgium 6.0% Qatar Embassy in Australia 5.5% Qatar Embassy in the USA 4.1% Qatar Embassy in Canada 3.5% Qatar Embassy in Japan 2.8% Qatar Embassy in the Netherlands 2.4% The Qatari Embassy in Brazil demonstrated the most intensive posting behavior, combining institutional diplomacy with tournament-related visibility. For example, on December 21, the embassy shared coverage of Qatar’s Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs meeting international counterparts, foregrounding high-level diplomatic engagement during the post-final period. Earlier, on November 7, the embassy amplified content from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs using the hashtag #Qatar2022, reinforcing centralized government messaging in the pre-tournament phase. The Qatari Embassy in Uruguay, the second most active account, emphasized formal diplomatic relations and international cooperation. On December 21, the embassy posted about His Highness the Emir awarding a diplomatic honor to China’s ambassador, highlighting bilateral recognition during the World Cup period. On December 12, it circulated content related to the Bali International Conference, linking Qatar’s tournament visibility with broader multilateral engagement. The Qatari Embassy in Tunisia combined public diplomacy with cultural programming and ministerial engagement. On December 13, the embassy shared welcoming remarks for Croatia’s Minister of Foreign Affairs during an official visit, while on November 21 it posted visual content from embassy-hosted cultural activities, illustrating how institutional diplomacy and cultural outreach were integrated into World Cup-period communication. The Qatari Embassy in Spain balanced fan-centered engagement with practical information and public-facing outreach. On November 18, the embassy posted images from the FIFA Fan Festival in Doha, emphasizing celebratory atmosphere and supporter participation. A day earlier, on November 17, it shared guidance on vaccination requirements for travelers, reflecting the continued presence of consular information alongside tournament-related content. Discussion and Conclusion The main finding of this study is the centralized structure of Qatar's embassy communication during the 2022 FIFA World Cup. With 80.6% of all posts being retweets and 82.4% of amplified content originating from Qatar's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, leadership accounts, or government agencies, Qatari embassies mainly acted as distributed amplification nodes within a coordinated digital diplomacy strategy. This pattern contrasts with research showing greater autonomy and localization in Western diplomatic social media practices (Manor 2019 ; Bjola and Holmes 2015 ). Qatar's centralized approach reflects the institutional structures typical of Gulf monarchies, where hierarchical coordination extends into digital communication. By focusing content production at the ministry level, Qatar ensured message consistency across its geographically dispersed missions, reduced the risk of conflicting messages, and maintained professional standards—benefits especially important during high-stakes events that demand quick, consistent communication responses. This architecture closely aligns with Cull’s conceptualization of reputational security, where sustained external scrutiny motivates states to protect their international image through tightly coordinated communication (Cull 2024 ). In such contexts, states tend to prioritize institutional coordination over conversational engagement, a pattern also seen in studies of IOs and MFAs that use social media mainly as one-way broadcasting tools instead of dialogic forums (Ecker-Ehrhardt 2023 ; Manor and Crilley 2019; Thunø and Nielbo 2023). The rare use of replies in our dataset (only one out of 2,320 posts) highlights that these embassies served as broadcasting nodes rather than interactive participants. Overall, these findings challenge the assumption—central to early “digital diplomacy” and PD 2.0 thinking—that distributed platforms naturally promote decentralized, participatory communication (Bjola and Holmes 2015 ; Bjola 2016 ). Instead, the Qatari case demonstrates how specific platform features—particularly the retweet function—can be harnessed for centrally coordinated messaging on a global scale, with authoritarian states adapting digital tools to reinforce hierarchy rather than weaken it (Lin 2024 ; Kafiliveyjuyeh and Porter 2024; Merkouraki 2024 ). A second key finding is the persistence of routine diplomatic communication throughout the tournament. Despite FIFA 2022 being Qatar's most visible international moment, public diplomacy and bilateral relations accounted for 41.3% of embassy posts—more than twice the share dedicated to sports content (17.6%). Instead of suspending normal diplomatic activities, embassies utilized the World Cup as an amplified context that increased the visibility of ongoing relationships. High-level bilateral meetings gained heightened importance when held during the tournament, but they remained essentially routine diplomatic engagements. The Qatari Embassy in Brussels increased coverage of the Emir meeting Malaysia's King at Lusail Stadium—standard diplomacy made more visible through the World Cup staging. Temporal analysis reveals a phased communication strategy aligned with the tournament's progression. Event-driven place image projection peaked before kickoff (14.1%), portraying Qatar as a welcoming host. Sports diplomacy increased during matches (22.3%) as embassies amplified tournament content and showed solidarity with national teams. Cultural diplomacy surged after the tournament (18.3%), shifting toward ongoing relationship-building. Public diplomacy remained dominant throughout, actually rising from 38.9% before the tournament to 43.2% during matches. This pattern reflects strategic adaptation to the ceremonial timing of media events, in which anticipation, live performance, and aftermath generate distinct communicative logics (Dayan and Katz 1992). Before kickoff, communication focused on anticipation and readiness; during the tournament, messaging emphasized match excitement and spectacle; after the final, content shifted toward cultural unity and reputation stabilization. This adaptation illustrates Seib's (2012) concept of real-time diplomacy: embassies adapted to changing symbolic contexts while maintaining institutional stability. These findings complicate assumptions in place branding scholarship that mega-events function as transformative reputational interventions (Anholt 2007 ; Dinnie 2008 ). Qatar's embassy communication shows a more modest picture: the World Cup increased the visibility of ongoing diplomatic relationships but did not fundamentally change communication practices. This indicates that mega-events serve more as amplifiers of communication than as transformers of reputation—boosting awareness of existing national traits rather than allowing for a complete redefinition of national identity. The gap between the unprecedented visibility (5 billion global viewers) and modest reputation gains (Global Soft Power Index moving from 26th to 20th, mainly in elite political spheres rather than public opinion) highlights the limits of visibility-driven place branding. Embassy communications contributed to shaping information environments but could not influence how Qatar's hosting was perceived by different global audiences. Visibility provides a chance for reputation-building but does not ensure positive perceptions. The study's findings on crisis response (6.7% of posts) shed light on how embassies managed their reputational security. Instead of directly addressing criticism, embassies focused on selective amplification—sharing reports on ILO labor reforms, Qatar's humanitarian efforts, and Arab solidarity statements—while highlighting diplomatic achievements. This approach avoided defensive stances that could validate critics' narratives, while ensuring alternative stories were spread. Crisis-related content declined during the tournament itself (3.9%), when positive coverage was prevalent, but grew afterward (8.3%) as attention shifted. This timing shows that reputational security relies on carefully timed responses that adapt to changing media environments. Language patterns show a dual approach of global outreach and targeted localization. English (39.3%) and Arabic (33.1%) dominated, making up 72.4% of communication, while host-country languages accounted for 17.8%. English served as a lingua franca for international audiences, allowing communication beyond immediate geographic areas to diplomatic observers and global publics. Arabic's presence across all contexts—including non-Arab countries—highlighted cultural identity and regional unity, with leadership statements often in Arabic to anchor Qatar's diplomacy in Arab and Islamic identity. Host-country languages (Spanish in Latin America, French in Belgium and France, Japanese in Tokyo) demonstrated the ability for localized engagement while complementing English-Arabic bilingualism. Although the communication was mainly centralized, embassy messaging showed signs of selective localization, using language choices to target different audiences: English for global outreach, Arabic for cultural authenticity, and host-country languages for specific relationship-building. The findings complicate dialogic and two-way symmetrical models of digital public diplomacy that emphasize listening, reciprocity, and relationship co-creation (Kent and Taylor 2002; Grunig 2009 ). With virtually no interactive engagement, Qatari embassies operated primarily through broadcast-oriented advocacy rather than dialogic exchange. This pattern aligns with Cull’s ( 2008 ) distinction between advocacy and listening functions in public diplomacy, suggesting a strategic prioritization of message discipline over relational engagement. During FIFA 2022—Qatar’s most scrutinized international moment—embassies did not shift toward conversational responsiveness. Instead, they relied on established institutional logics: centralized coordination, systematic amplification of official narratives, and calibrated visibility management. While dialogic engagement may foster trust through reciprocity, broadcast models offer advantages under reputational pressure, ensuring coherence, consistency, and risk mitigation in high-stakes communicative environments. Three broader implications emerge. First, mega-events intensify the structural centralization of digital diplomacy. Under conditions of reputational scrutiny, states prioritize coordination over decentralization to maintain narrative coherence across distributed networks. Second, mega-event diplomacy is temporally adaptive. Embassies recalibrate messaging across anticipatory, celebratory, and consolidating phases while preserving continuity in routine diplomatic engagement. Third, the findings underscore the conditional limits of dialogic engagement. When legitimacy is contested, states may privilege broadcast-oriented advocacy—valued for message discipline and risk mitigation—over interactive engagement that introduces communicative uncertainty. This study advances scholarship on public diplomacy, place branding, and mega-event communication in four ways. First, it demonstrates how digital platforms can be leveraged to enable centralized coordination at global scale, challenging assumptions of platform determinism. Second, it extends Cull’s ( 2024 ) concept of reputational security by illustrating how distributed institutional networks sustain legitimacy through strategic visibility management rather than direct contestation. Third, it reframes mega-events as amplified contexts for routine diplomacy, suggesting they intensify existing diplomatic trajectories rather than producing transformative reputational shifts. Finally, it highlights the strategic role of multilingual communication in audience segmentation, showing how code-switching between English (global reach), Arabic (cultural identity), and host-country languages (local engagement) functions as a calibrated tool of digital statecraft. For practitioners, these findings suggest that effective mega-event diplomacy depends on integrating event-specific messaging within sustained institutional communication rather than treating tournaments as discrete reputational interventions. Qatar’s experience demonstrates that unprecedented visibility does not automatically translate into positive perception; attention creates opportunity but does not determine outcomes. States must therefore calibrate communication strategies to institutional capacity and reputational context, balancing the advantages of centralized coordination—message consistency and risk mitigation—against the relational benefits of dialogic engagement, including trust-building and adaptive responsiveness. This study has several limitations. First, it analyzes Twitter/X only, capturing one dimension of a broader multi-platform diplomatic ecosystem. Future research should examine Instagram, Facebook, and other channels to assess how platform affordances shape differentiated communicative strategies. Second, the analysis focuses on production rather than reception. Evaluating effectiveness requires examining audience responses, engagement metrics, and potential downstream effects on perceptions. Third, the dataset covers the immediate tournament period but not longer-term communication trajectories. Longitudinal analysis could determine whether mega-events produce sustained shifts in diplomatic practice or merely temporary intensifications. Finally, comparative research across other mega-events—such as the Olympics, World Expos, or major political summits—and across democratic and authoritarian contexts would clarify which patterns are Qatar-specific, Gulf-regional, or more broadly characteristic of centralized mega-event diplomacy. FIFA Qatar 2022 demonstrates that mega-events function not only as spectacles of sport but as laboratories of digital statecraft—revealing how states mobilize institutional logics, safeguard reputational security, and navigate the persistent tension between visibility and legitimacy under conditions of intensified global scrutiny. Declarations Author Contribution Akdenizli is the sole author of this work. References Al Jazeera. 2021. 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Public Diplomacy: Foundations for Global Engagement in the Digital Age . Cambridge: Polity. Cull, Nicholas J. 2024. Reputational Security: Refocusing Public Diplomacy for a Dangerous World . Cambridge: Polity. Dayan, Daniel, Elihu Katz. 1992. Media Events: The Live Broadcasting of History . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Debord, Guy. 1994. The Society of the Spectacle . Translated by Donald Nicholson-Smith. New York: Zone Books. Originally published 1967. Dinnie, Keith. 2008. Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice . Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Dun, Susan, Hatim Rachdi, Shahan Ali Memon, Rohith Krishnan Pillai, and Yelena Mejova, Ingmar Weber. 2022. Perceptions of FIFA Men’s World Cup 2022 Host Nation Qatar in the Twittersphere. International Journal of Sport Communication 15:1–10. Ecker-Ehrhardt, Matthias. 2023. Public Legitimation by ‘Going Personal’? The Ambiguous Role of International Organization Officials on Social Media. Politics and Governance 11(3):213–225. Farrag, Dalia A, Youssef Al Yasir Fadol, Hariri, and Amr ElAlfy. Harnessing Big Data for Soft Power: A Sentiment Analysis of FIFA Qatar 2022. Event Management 29 , 8: 1185–1203. Grix, Jonathan, Donna Lee. 2013. Soft Power, Sports Mega-Events and Emerging States: The Lure of the Politics of Attraction. Global Society 27(4):521–536. Grunig, James E. 2009. Paradigms of Global Public Relations in an Age of Digitalisation. PRism 6(2):1–19. Horne, John, and Wolfram Manzenreiter. 2006. Sports Mega-Events: Social Scientific Analyses of a Global Phenomenon . Oxford: Blackwell. Human, Rights Watch. 2023. FIFA: No Remedy for Qatar Migrant Worker Abuses. November 20, 2023. https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/20/fifa-no-remedy-qatar-migrant-worker-abuses Ibrahim, Mohamed A. S. 2023. and Vahagn Aleksanyan. Mega-Sporting Events and Soft Power: Perceived Changes in Qatar’s Nation Brand Following the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Journal of Economics, Finance and Accounting Studies . Ismail, Mustafa Osman. 2023. Countering Islamophobia through Sports: Qatar’s Initiatives during the 2022 FIFA World Cup. International Journal of Membrane Science and Technology 10(1):45–60. Kent, Michael L., Maureen Taylor. 2002. Toward a Dialogic Theory of Public Relations. Public Relations Review 28(1):21–37. Knott, Beverley, Kamilla Swart, Omar Althawadi, and Z. Ali Yousuf. 2024. Nation-Branding Opportunities through Sport Mega-Events: Tourism Impact from FIFA World Cup in South Africa 2010 and Qatar 2022. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Tourism Research , 7 (1). Munzilin, Khairul, Afifa Nurhaliza, and Ulya Fatimatuzzahra, Diva Nur Lathifa. 2025. The 2022 FIFA World Cup: Qatar’s Nation Branding to Promote Cultural Understanding in Post COVID-19. Jurnal Ilmiah Muqoddimah: Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Politik dan Humaniora 9(1):56–61. LaMay, Craig Llewellyn. 2022. How Qatar Can Save Its World Cup Legacy. Foreign Policy , October 25, 2022. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/10/25/qatar-world-cup-media-journalism-freedom-migrant-labor/ Lin, Zhi. 2024. A Virtual Battlefield for Embassies: Longitudinal Network Analysis of Competing Mediated Public Diplomacy on Social Media. Political Communication 41(5):808–836. Manor, Ilan. 2019. The Digitalization of Public Diplomacy . London: Palgrave Macmillan. Manor, Ilan, Rhys Crilley. 2020. The Mediatisation of MFAs: Diplomacy in the New Media Ecology. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 15(1–2):66–92. Merkouraki, Maria. 2024. Turkey’s Digital Public Diplomacy in the Age of Uncertainty. International Journal of International Relations Media and Mass Communication Studies 10(2):41–54. Murray, Stuart. 2012. The Two Halves of Sports-Diplomacy. Diplomacy & Statecraft 23(3):576–592. Putra, D. I., and Ansusa. 2023. Representing the Belief of Muslims: Role and Actions of Qatar to Encounter Islamophobia during 2022 World Cup. Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization 13(1):1–20. Qarjouli, Asmaa. 2021. Qatar Slams Amnesty’s ‘Sensationalist’ Claims over Migrant Worker Deaths. Doha News , August 26, 2021. https://dohanews.co/qatar-slams-amnestys-sensationalist-claims-over-migrant-worker-deaths/ Reiche, Danyel. 2015. Investing in Sporting Success as a Domestic and Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of Qatar. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7(4):489–504. Roche, Maurice. 2000. Mega-Events and Modernity: Olympics and Expos in the Growth of Global Culture . London: Routledge. Roche, Maurice. 2003. Mega-Events, Time and Modernity. Time & Society 12(1):99–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X03012001373 Seib, Philip. 2012. Real-Time Diplomacy: Politics and Power in the Social Media Era . London: Palgrave Macmillan. Soyland, Martin, Marco Moriconi. 2022. The Politics of Qatar’s World Cup: Sportswashing, Legitimacy and Global Narratives. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 14(4):663–679. The Guardian. 2015. European Clubs Fear Chaos over FIFA’s Winter 2022 World Cup Plan. February 23, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/feb/23/european-clubs-fifa-winter-2022-world-cup The Guardian. 2021. Revealed: 6,500 Migrant Workers Have Died in Qatar since the World Cup Was Awarded. February 23, 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/feb/23/revealed-migrant-worker-deaths-qatar-fifa-world-cup-2022 Thunø, Mette, Kristoffer Laigaard Nielbo. 2024. The Initial Digitalization of Chinese Diplomacy (2019–2021): Establishing Global Communication Networks on Twitter. Journal of Contemporary China 33(146):244–266. Vox. 2022. Qatar’s World Cup Controversies, Explained. November 20, 2022. https://www.vox.com/world/23450515/world-cup-fifa-qatar-2022-controversy-scandals-explained Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files AppendixA.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-8858481\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":593990396,\"identity\":\"977f049c-d8a6-441c-9688-0a2f098f2785\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Banu Akdenizli\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,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\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Northwesteern University Qatar\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Banu\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Akdenizli\",\"suffix\":\"\"}],\"badges\":[],\"createdAt\":\"2026-02-12 06:53:32\",\"currentVersionCode\":1,\"declarations\":\"\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8858481/v1\",\"doiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8858481/v1\",\"draftVersion\":[],\"editorialEvents\":[],\"editorialNote\":\"\",\"failedWorkflow\":false,\"files\":[{\"id\":103506142,\"identity\":\"6fa626af-9338-4f9d-90aa-10f5a21955d1\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-02-26 13:34:14\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":760419,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8858481/v1/d5c3d625-b173-42a2-923e-fcf16786de26.pdf\"},{\"id\":103230545,\"identity\":\"70f627da-df9b-4471-b178-ef5ea6d5b8fc\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-02-23 12:07:27\",\"extension\":\"docx\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"supplement\",\"size\":24418,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"AppendixA.docx\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8858481/v1/f351863754973607091dbc90.docx\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Centralized Control in the Digital Age: Reputational Security and Embassy Communication during Qatar’s 2022 FIFA World Cup\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMega sporting events have become key tools in place branding and public diplomacy, providing host nations with unmatched opportunities to showcase national identity, enhance international reputation, and establish a symbolic presence on the global stage. Beyond their economic and infrastructural effects, mega-events serve as communication platforms through which countries aim to share stories of competence, modernity, and cultural legitimacy with the world. Roche (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR41\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2003\\u003c/span\\u003e) describes such events as \\u0026ldquo;large-scale cultural (including commercial and sporting) events with a dramatic character, mass popular appeal, and international significance\\u0026rdquo; (p. 1). While research on sports diplomacy highlights how mega-events can boost soft power and influence external perceptions (Murray \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR36\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003e; Grix and Lee 2013), place branding studies focus on how these events increase visibility through global media, thereby connecting national identity to widely viewed spectacles (Anholt \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2007\\u003c/span\\u003e). Often seen as \\u0026ldquo;media events\\u0026rdquo; in Dayan and Katz\\u0026rsquo;s (1992) terms, and as \\u0026ldquo;total social spectacles\\u0026rdquo; (Debord \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1994\\u003c/span\\u003e; Horne and Manzenreiter \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR24\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003e), World Cups attract worldwide attention and amplify the symbolic importance of representing a nation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar\\u0026rsquo;s successful bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup marked a landmark moment in the country\\u0026rsquo;s sports diplomacy and place branding efforts. As the first World Cup held in the Middle East and in the smallest host nation in the tournament\\u0026rsquo;s history, the event gave Qatar a unique chance to reshape its international image. Qatar highlighted a series of unprecedented features as part of its branding story: the first World Cup in a Muslim-majority country, the first held in winter, a compact tournament with seven newly built stadiums within a 55-kilometer radius, and technological innovations including semi-automated offside systems, AI-enabled match balls, and female referees officiating men\\u0026rsquo;s matches. The tournament was also promoted as the first carbon-neutral World Cup, emphasizing sustainability, technological advancement, and inclusivity as key parts of Qatar\\u0026rsquo;s desired international reputation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAt the same time, FIFA 2022 served as a major test of reputation. Allegations of corruption related to the 2010 bid raised questions about governance and legitimacy (Vox \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR47\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), while the decision to hold the tournament in winter disrupted European football calendars and drew ongoing criticism from leagues and clubs (The Guardian \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR44\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2015\\u003c/span\\u003e). Most notably, Qatar faced heavy international scrutiny over migrant labor conditions, with media and human rights groups documenting unsafe working conditions, wage violations, and high death rates linked to construction projects (The Guardian 2021; Human Rights Watch \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). Widely circulated figures\\u0026mdash;such as \\u003cem\\u003eThe Guardian\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026rsquo;s estimate of 6,500 migrant worker deaths\\u0026mdash;became central to global discussion, even as Qatari officials and some observers challenged their interpretation, noting that these numbers included deaths of migrant workers from all causes over a decade, not solely those directly related to World Cup construction (Al Jazeera 2021; Qarjouli \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR38\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e; LaMay \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR31\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). These disputed stories highlight the increased reputational pressure facing the tournament and the polarized communication environment in which Qatar aimed to gain diplomatic advantages.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRecent scholarship views Qatar 2022 as a combined effort in place branding and public diplomacy aimed at highlighting hospitality, Islamic cultural values, and modern infrastructure while addressing Islamophobia and negative stereotypes of Muslim societies (e.g., Munzilin et al. \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR30\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e ; Ismail and Putra \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR37\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). However, these efforts occurred within highly polarized media and digital environments, especially in Western contexts where critiques of labor rights, governance, and values remained prominent. Twitter/X became a key platform for reputation battles, with research showing early polarization around migrant labor, governance, and \\u0026ldquo;sportswashing,\\u0026rdquo; particularly in the Global North (Dun et al. \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). Although sentiment improved gradually regarding infrastructure, organization, and cultural inclusion (Farrag et al. 2023), simply being the host nation did not lead to significant reputation change. Survey-based and visitor-focused studies also indicate modest, selective improvements in views of hospitality, culture, and competence, with limited shifts in political or normative judgments (Ibrahim and Aleksanyan 2023; Knott et al. \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e). Overall, current research suggests that Qatar 2022 served more as a boost to reputation rather than a complete reset.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThese mixed outcomes are reflected in Qatar\\u0026rsquo;s broader soft power trajectory. According to the Global Soft Power Index, Qatar\\u0026rsquo;s global ranking improved from 26th to 20th between 2022 and 2025, with gains mainly in political influence and international relations rather than cultural familiarity or overall public perception (Brand Finance \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;2025). Despite hosting one of the most widely viewed sporting events in history, Qatar\\u0026rsquo;s cultural visibility remained uneven, and concerns about human rights and values continued. This pattern highlights a key tension in sports diplomacy: while mega-events can boost elite recognition and diplomatic standing, they have limited power to change deeply rooted public attitudes.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBuilding on scholarship about sports mega-events (Roche \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR40\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e; Horne and Manzenreiter \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR24\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003e; Boykoff 2020) and sports diplomacy (Brannagan and Giulianotti 2018; Reiche \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR39\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2015\\u003c/span\\u003e), this study links these fields with digital diplomacy to explore how embassies interpreted and amplified the 2022 FIFA World Cup as it happened. While previous research on Qatar highlights soft power goals and governance issues (Brannagan and Reiche 2022; Soyland and Moriconi 2022), this paper shifts focus to how foreign missions narrated the event through platform-based, emotional, and real-time practices.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn this context, this study investigates how Qatari embassies in countries participating in the World Cup communicated during the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Using an original dataset of 2,320 Twitter/X posts from 23 embassies collected between November and December 2022, the article examines embassy-level public diplomacy during Qatar\\u0026rsquo;s most prominent international event. While existing research on Qatar 2022 has mainly focused on overall social media sentiment, legacy media framing, or para-state broadcasters, it has given limited attention to how official diplomatic actors communicated in real time during the tournament. This gap is significant considering public diplomacy scholarship\\u0026rsquo;s focus on embassies as key players in advocacy, representation, and relationship-building (Cull \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2008\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2019\\u003c/span\\u003e), and recent studies that highlight reputational security\\u0026mdash;the preservation of legitimacy, credibility, and standing under ongoing scrutiny\\u0026mdash;as a central goal of modern diplomacy (Cull \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLocated within rapid digital environments, embassy communication during mega-events is shaped by the dynamics of real-time diplomacy, where compressed media cycles and emotionally charged publics demand continuous, responsive messaging (Seib \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR42\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003e). By analyzing how embassies adjusted their messaging throughout pre-tournament, tournament, and post-tournament phases\\u0026mdash;balancing event promotion with routine diplomatic outreach\\u0026mdash;this study highlights state-led digital diplomacy as a crucial mechanism through which host nations aim to manage reputational security during mega-events.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eConceptual Framework\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eMega-events function as arenas of national display and symbolic politics. Roche (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR41\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2003\\u003c/span\\u003e) conceptualizes them as high-visibility cultural performances, while Dayan and Katz (1992) describe them as ritualized media events capable of suspending routine communication patterns and concentrating global attention. The FIFA World Cup, often characterized as a \\u0026ldquo;total social spectacle\\u0026rdquo; (Debord \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1994\\u003c/span\\u003e; Horne and Manzenreiter \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR24\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003e), enables states to compete for cultural, political, and symbolic prominence on a global scale. From a place-branding perspective, such events enable nations to position themselves within global hierarchies of modernity and legitimacy (Grix and Lee 2013).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis study explores Qatar\\u0026rsquo;s embassy communication through the lenses of nation branding, real-time diplomacy, and reputational security. Nation branding sees international reputation as a strategic asset built through narratives of culture, governance, and global contributions, with visibility functioning as a form of soft power (Anholt \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2007\\u003c/span\\u003e). Public diplomacy scholarship highlights the role of embassies as key institutional actors in this process. Cull\\u0026rsquo;s framework (2008, 2019) views public diplomacy as an integrated system of listening, advocacy, cultural exchange, and engagement, while his more recent work identifies reputational security as a main goal of contemporary diplomacy\\u0026mdash;defined as maintaining legitimacy, credibility, and standing under continuous scrutiny (Cull \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThese dynamics are increasingly taking place within accelerated digital environments. Seib\\u0026rsquo;s concept of real-time diplomacy illustrates how digital platforms compress diplomatic timescales, necessitating continuous and responsive communication as events unfold and publics respond emotionally. Mega-events heighten these conditions by gathering global attention while also increasing reputational risk. In this setting, reputational security relies not on coercive or material means but on perception management, narrative dissemination, and emotional alignment across institutional networks.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eEmbassies as Digital Actors in a Mega-Event Environment\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEmbassies have become central actors in contemporary digital communication ecosystems, with platforms such as Twitter/X extending diplomatic practice into broader public spheres. While embassies continue to perform traditional consular and political functions, their online presence enables new forms of identity representation, strategic messaging, and content circulation. As state representatives abroad, embassies mediate between national interests, host-country contexts, and global audiences through a hybrid mix of diplomacy, public relations, and platform-enabled engagement.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDuring major events, these dynamics become more intense. Greater visibility and faster-paced timelines make real-time diplomacy more important, as embassies react to developing situations while promoting carefully crafted national stories. Embassy communication is both reactive and performative, managing responses while protecting reputation. This study looks at what embassies post during the World Cup, the kinds of content they share and promote, the officials they interact with, how they juggle event-specific messages with regular diplomatic talk, and how language choices show their target audience in different countries.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBy focusing on embassies in World Cup\\u0026ndash;qualifying countries\\u0026mdash;where public engagement with the tournament was likely highest\\u0026mdash;this research demonstrates how diplomatic communication during mega-events is strategically targeted toward receptive audiences. Analyzing embassy communication in these contexts reveals how host states calibrate public diplomacy to maximize the reputational returns of mega-event investment.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBuilding on this context, the study is guided by the following research questions:\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003col\\u003e \\u003cspan\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat narratives and themes do Qatari embassies foreground during the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and how do these align with Qatar\\u0026rsquo;s place branding objectives?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003c/span\\u003e \\u003cspan\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat communicative practices\\u0026mdash;such as original posts, retweets, and replies\\u0026mdash;characterize embassy activity, and which institutional actors are most often amplified?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003c/span\\u003e \\u003cspan\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHow do embassies balance World Cup\\u0026ndash;related promotion with traditional diplomatic content, and what does this reveal about reputational security strategies during mega-events?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003c/span\\u003e \\u003cspan\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhat languages do embassies use, and how does language choice signal different audience orientations?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003c/span\\u003e \\u003cspan\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHow do posting patterns differ across embassies, and what do these differences reveal about coordination, localization, and distributed nation branding?\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003c/span\\u003e \\u003c/ol\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eCase Selection and Sample\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe study analyzes Qatari embassy communication during the 2022 FIFA World Cup by focusing on embassies in countries that qualified for the tournament. Embassy selection was based on two criteria: (1) the country\\u0026rsquo;s qualification for the 2022 FIFA World Cup and (2) the presence of an official, verifiable Twitter/X account operated by the Qatari embassy that showed activity during the study period. Although 32 national teams qualified for the tournament, not all corresponding Qatari embassies had active Twitter/X accounts. Of these, 24 embassies initially met the inclusion criteria. One account (Senegal) was later excluded because it had no tweets during the sampling period, resulting in a final sample of 23 Qatari embassies in World Cup\\u0026ndash;qualifying countries (hereafter called Qatari WC embassies).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFocusing on qualifying countries enables the study to investigate embassy communication in contexts where public engagement with the tournament and media coverage were likely at their peak, making these contexts especially relevant for analyzing diplomatic messaging during a high-visibility mega-event. Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e summarizes the 23 Qatari WC embassies included in the study, listing each embassy\\u0026rsquo;s Twitter/X handle, follower and following counts, and account creation date as of October 2022, right before data collection.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatari WC Embassies Included in the Study\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHost Country\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHandle\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFollowers\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFollowing\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDate Created\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eArgentina\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_BA\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2535\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e122\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eJuly-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAustralia\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_CBR\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2798\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e75\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMay-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBelgium\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_BXL\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6918\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e242\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMarch-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBrazil\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_BRS\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4130\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e67\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eApril-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCanada\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_Ottawa\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7266\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e102\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eApril-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCosta Rica\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_SJ\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e770\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e121\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFebruary-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCroatia\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@ZagrebEmbqatar\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1048\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e14\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eJuly-2017\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEngland \\u0026amp; Wales\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_London\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e30181\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e318\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eJuly-2011\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFrance\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarAmbFrance\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10406\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e380\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMarch-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eGermany\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_Berlin\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e9079\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e227\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMarch-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eJapan\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmbassyJp\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e913\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e133\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eApril-2019\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMexico\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarembassyMex\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4897\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e415\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSeptember-2017\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMorocco\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_Rabat\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2881\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e323\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOctober-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNetherlands\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@Qataremb_NL\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1835\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e205\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSeptember-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePoland\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_Warsaw\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2183\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e140\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSeptember-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePortugal\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_Lisbon\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2094\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e80\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOctober-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSerbia\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarembassyRS\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2096\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e131\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNovember-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSouth Korea\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmbSeoul\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3953\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e193\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNovember-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSpain\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_Madrid\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3873\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e242\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eJune-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSwitzerland\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_Bern\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1322\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e218\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDecember-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTunisia\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_Tunis\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3023\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e21\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eJanuary-2016\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUruguay\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmb_MVD\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2077\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e65\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSeptember-2015\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUnited States\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e@QatarEmbassy_US\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e18500\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e165\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSeptember-2012\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eData Collection\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe study period runs from November 1 to December 31, 2022, covering the pre-tournament buildup, the tournament itself (November 20\\u0026ndash;December 18), and the immediate post-tournament phase. This two-month timeframe allows for systematic observation of changes in embassy communication practices during different stages of increased global attention and reputational sensitivity.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTweets were collected through the Twitter/X API, which provided access to all publicly available posts from the selected embassy accounts during the study period. The API allowed extraction of tweet content, timestamps, media links, engagement metrics (likes, retweets, replies), and metadata including language and source type. All original tweets, retweets, and replies created or shared by the embassy accounts were included in the dataset, resulting in a total of 2,320 posts.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eUnit of Analysis\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe unit of analysis for this study is the individual tweet. Each original post, retweet, or reply published by an embassy account during the study period was considered a separate communicative act and coded accordingly. This method allows for detailed analysis of both content and practice, showing how embassies communicated, what narratives they highlighted, and how they interacted with institutional actors and audiences in real time during the World Cup.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eCoding Framework\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTweets were coded across four analytical dimensions aimed at capturing communicative practices, thematic focus, institutional engagement, and audience orientation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1. \\u003cstrong\\u003eTopic of the tweet.\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003eThis variable captures the main communicative focus of each post and is divided into nine thematic clusters that reflect key aspects of public diplomacy and place branding during mega-events. These include event-related image projection, cultural diplomacy, bilateral relations, media amplification, consular outreach, institutional self-presentation, and reputational management. Full definitions and subcategories for each topic are provided in Appendix A.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e2. \\u003cstrong\\u003eTweet type.\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;This variable indicates the structural form of communication\\u0026mdash;original tweet, retweet, or reply\\u0026mdash;distinguishing content creation, amplification, and interaction.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e3. \\u003cstrong\\u003eInteractional direction.\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;For retweets and replies, this variable records the institutional actor involved, including Qatari leadership, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, other Qatari government agencies, Qatari embassies, foreign ministries, FIFA or event organizers, Qatari media, international media, and NGOs or international organizations. This dimension allows analysis of institutional amplification patterns and relational positioning.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e4. \\u003cstrong\\u003eLanguage of communication.\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003eThis variable indicates the language used in each tweet (e.g., Arabic, Global English, host-country languages, multilingual, or visual-only). The choice of language serves as a proxy for audience targeting and localization strategies in embassy communication.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTogether, these dimensions enable a systematic analysis of what embassies communicated and how they communicated during the tournament. An extensive codebook, including category definitions, decision rules, and subcodes, is provided in Appendix A.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eReliability and Validity\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eContent validity was confirmed through iterative development and refinement of the coding framework. Initial categories were based on existing research on public diplomacy, digital diplomacy, and place branding. The codebook was pilot-tested on a sample of tweets from five embassy accounts (Argentina, France, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States). This pilot phase helped define category boundaries and led to minor updates of category definitions to ensure clarity and consistency across cases.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIntercoder reliability was evaluated through a collaborative, consensus-based method. Two coders independently analyzed a random sample of 150 tweets. Discrepancies were discussed and resolved jointly, leading to further clarification of coding rules where necessary. Following agreement, the remaining tweets were coded using the finalized codebook. Regular calibration checks were conducted throughout the coding process to ensure consistency, especially for multilingual and context-dependent posts.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eMultilingual Data Processing and Use of AI Tools\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTweets were originally posted in multiple languages, including English, Arabic, Spanish, French, and other national languages depending on the host country. To ensure consistent cross-case analysis, all tweets were automatically translated into English using machine translation tools integrated into the data processing workflow. These translations created a standardized analytical corpus while maintaining key semantic and contextual elements necessary for thematic coding.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAI-assisted tools were employed to support multilingual processing and initial data organization. All key coding decisions\\u0026mdash;including assigning topics, interpreting communicative intent, and resolving ambiguous cases\\u0026mdash;were made by human coders. AI tools served only as analytical aids and did not replace human judgment. This combined approach improved consistency across languages while preserving interpretive rigor and alignment with the study\\u0026rsquo;s public diplomacy framework.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eOverview of Embassy Activity\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBetween November 1 and December 31, 2022, the 23 Qatari embassies located in World Cup–qualifying countries produced a total of 2,320 tweets on Twitter/X. The overall timeline of posts exhibits a distinctly event-driven pattern aligned with key moments of the tournament, reflecting embassies’ role as distributed agents of Qatar’s place branding and reputational diplomacy. As shown in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e, more than half of all tweets (51.9%, n = 1,203) were posted during the tournament period (November 20–December 18), while 38.3% (n = 888) appeared in the pre-tournament phase (November 1–19), and only 9.9% (n = 229) were published after the final (December 19–31). This distribution underscores how embassy communication intensified during peak moments of global visibility and declined sharply once the mega-event concluded.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003ctable id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTimeline of Posts\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTime Period\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDates\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e# of Tweets\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e% of Dataset\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePre-tournament\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNov. 1–19\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e888\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e38.3%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTournament\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNov. 20-Dec. 18\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1,203\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e51.9%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePost-Tournament\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDec. 19–31\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e229\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e9.9%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eActivity in early November was relatively moderate, averaging fewer than 30 posts per day, and was largely oriented toward routine diplomatic communication, bilateral engagements, and anticipatory messaging related to Qatar’s hosting role. A notable early spike occurred on November 3 (113 tweets), signaling intensified pre-tournament positioning. On that day, the Qatari Embassy in Uruguay posted: \\u003cem\\u003e“\\u003c/em\\u003eدولة قطر تؤكد أن الأحداث الرياضية الكبرى تسهم في تعزيز التفاهم بين الشعوب ونشر قيم السلام والتسامح” (“Qatar affirms that major sporting events contribute to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples and spreading values of peace and tolerance”), while the Qatari Embassy in Brazil announced fan-zone arrangements for visitors, emphasizing hospitality and organizational readiness. The Qatari Embassy in Tunisia simultaneously amplified statements by Assistant Foreign Minister Lolwah Alkhater on Qatar’s commitment to human rights, illustrating early reputational positioning ahead of kickoff.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eActivity increased again in mid-November as the tournament approached. The opening phase of the World Cup generated the first sustained surge, with elevated posting on November 20 (72 tweets), November 21 (78 tweets\\u003cb\\u003e)\\u003c/b\\u003e, and November 22 (70 tweets)\\u003cb\\u003e-\\u003c/b\\u003e corresponding to the opening ceremony and first group-stage matches. During this period, embassies primarily amplified centralized state messaging and leadership visibility, reinforcing Qatar’s institutional presence at the start of the global spectacle. For example, the Qatari Embassy in Brazil reposted coverage of His Highness the Emir receiving U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken, while the Qatari Embassy in the Netherlands circulated official opening-day visuals from Doha. At the same time, the Qatari Embassy in Japan posted localized content in Japanese announcing ambassadorial engagements, demonstrating how embassies combined global narratives with host-country language to advance localized place-branding strategies.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePosting volumes remained consistently high throughout late November and early December, averaging approximately 40–55 tweets per day, as embassies circulated sports diplomacy content alongside bilateral engagements and cultural programming. This phase illustrates how institutional diplomacy continued in parallel with event-driven branding. For instance, on December 6, following Japan’s exit from the competition, the Qatari Embassy in Japan tweeted: \\u003cem\\u003e“ありがとうございました日本代表!🇯🇵👏 You made us proud,”\\u003c/em\\u003e blending affective sports messaging with diplomatic presence. Similarly, the Qatari Embassy in Germany highlighted its ambassador’s attendance at the Germany–Costa Rica match on December 10, while the Qatari Embassy in Uruguay posted about participation in innovation-focused cultural events, underscoring the integration of cultural diplomacy within the tournament period.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eActivity reached another symbolic peak on December 18 (91 tweets), the day of the World Cup Final, driven largely by retweets amplifying Qatari leadership and official tournament content. Embassy accounts across multiple countries circulated centralized messages from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and senior Qatari officials, reinforcing Qatar’s brand visibility at the tournament’s climax. The immediate post-final period also saw elevated activity, particularly on December 19 (71 tweets), characterized by congratulatory posts, affective closure, and early legacy framing. The Qatari Embassy in Canada tweeted, \\u003cem\\u003e“What a joyful tournament filled with talent and unforgettable moments,”\\u003c/em\\u003e while the Qatari Embassy in Brazil circulated content challenging Western media criticism, reflecting a shift from celebratory branding to reputational defense. The Qatari Embassy in the United States similarly marked the tournament’s conclusion by congratulating Qatar on hosting a historic World Cup that united global audiences.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAfter December 20, embassy activity declined sharply, falling to fewer than 15 tweets per day, with posts primarily consisting of year-end greetings and routine institutional updates.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec13\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eType of Posts\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAcross the tweets analyzed, most were retweets (80.6%), followed by original posts (19.4%), with only a negligible share classified as replies. Retweets thus accounted for more than four-fifths of all embassy activity, indicating that sharing or amplifying content from other accounts constituted the primary mode of communication.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNearly two-thirds of all retweets (63.2%) originated from Qatar’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and MOFA leadership accounts, reflecting strong institutional alignment. An additional 11.6% came from Qatari leadership accounts, including the Emir and Royal Court, while 7.6% were sourced from other Qatari government agencies. Together, these official Qatari actors accounted for 82.4% of all retweeted content. Retweets from FIFA and other event organizers represented 6.6% of amplified posts, while content originating from Qatari media comprised 3.9%. Retweets from other Qatari embassies accounted for 3.6%, and engagement with foreign governments, international media, NGOs, and international organizations collectively made up less than 4% of retweeted content.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTopically, retweets from MOFA were dominated by public diplomacy and bilateral relations (Topic 40), alongside substantial shares of national branding (Topic 70) and crisis response and reputation protection (Topic 80), indicating that centralized institutional messaging emphasized diplomatic visibility and reputational management. In contrast, retweets originating from FIFA and official event organizers were overwhelmingly concentrated in sports diplomacy and global visibility (Topic 20), with approximately 60% of FIFA-related reposts devoted to match-centered content, fan engagement, and tournament promotion.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOriginal tweets, which comprised just under one-fifth of all posts, were primarily used to share embassy-specific announcements, cultural programming, official visits, and consular information. Replies appeared only once in the entire dataset, underscoring the limited use of interactive features during the study period.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec14\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eUse of Language\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe language distribution across all 2,320 embassy posts shows a clear preference for English (39.3%) and Arabic (33.1%), together accounting for more than two-thirds of all communication. Host-country languages—including Spanish, French, German, Portuguese, Polish, Japanese, and Korean—collectively represented 17.8% of tweets. A smaller portion of posts were multilingual (5.8%), combining two or more languages within a single tweet, while visual-only posts without accompanying text accounted for 4.0% of the dataset.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUse of host-country languages was especially prevalent among embassies in Spanish-, French-, and Japanese-speaking contexts. The Qatari Embassies in Mexico, Spain, Uruguay, and Argentina frequently posted in Spanish, while the embassies in France and Belgium showed sustained use of French. The Qatari Embassy in Japan consistently employed Japanese in embassy announcements and event updates, reflecting localized outreach practices. In English-speaking environments—including the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom—embassies relied primarily on English as the national language of communication.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEnglish also featured prominently among several European missions, including the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, and Switzerland, where English-language tweets accounted for a substantial share of embassy output. In these contexts, English functioned as a common communicative medium for institutional announcements, leadership amplification, and tournament-related messaging, extending embassy reach beyond host-country publics.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eArabic-language posts were most visible in embassies serving Arabophone or Muslim-majority contexts, including Morocco and Tunisia, but Arabic was also used across non-Arab environments for leadership statements, Ministry of Foreign Affairs announcements, and major tournament milestones. This cross-regional deployment of Arabic underscores its continued presence in embassy communication throughout the tournament period.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOverall, the language distribution indicates that embassy communication relied primarily on English and Arabic, with host-country languages used selectively for localized engagement. Multilingual and visual-only posts appeared less frequently but were present throughout the dataset, particularly during high-visibility moments such as opening matches and the World Cup Final.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec15\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eWhat Did They Post About\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePublic diplomacy and bilateral relations constituted the largest share of embassy communication during the study period (41.3%), followed by sports diplomacy and global visibility (17.6%). Cultural diplomacy and national identity projection accounted for 10.0% of posts, while event-led place image projection represented 9.3%. National branding of Qatar abroad comprised 8.8% of tweets, and crisis response, condolences, and reputation protection made up 6.7%. Smaller proportions of content focused on media visibility and narrative amplification (2.8%), consular outreach and community support (1.9%), and embassy identity and institutional self-presentation (1.4%). Taken together, these distributions indicate that while World Cup–related content formed a substantial component of embassy communication, the majority of posts centered on routine diplomatic engagement and institutional messaging across the two-month period.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003ctable id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTopic Breakdown of All Posts\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePublic Diplomacy \\u0026amp; Bilateral relations\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e41.3%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSports Diplomacy \\u0026amp; Global Visibility\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e17.6%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCultural Diplomacy \\u0026amp; National Identity\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10.0%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEvent-Led Place Image Projection\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e9.3%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNational Branding of Qatar Abroad\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e8.8%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCrisis/Condolences/Reputation Protection\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6.7%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMedia Visibility \\u0026amp; Narrative Amplification\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.8%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eConsular Outreach \\u0026amp; Community Support\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.9%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEmbassy Identity \\u0026amp; Self-Presentation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.4%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhen examined across the pre-tournament, tournament, and post-tournament phases, however, notable shifts in thematic emphasis emerge. Public diplomacy and bilateral relations remained the dominant topic throughout, accounting for 38.9% of tweets before kickoff, increasing to 43.2% during the tournament, and remaining high at 41.0% after the final. Sports diplomacy and global visibility showed the most pronounced temporal change, rising from 11.7% in the pre-tournament phase to 22.3% during the tournament, before declining to 16.2% post-tournament. Event-led place image projection was most prominent prior to kickoff (14.1%) and decreased substantially during the tournament (6.8%) and afterward (3.5%). Cultural diplomacy and national identity projection increased in the post-tournament period, reaching 18.3%, while crisis response and reputation protection declined during the tournament (3.9%) but rose again after the final (8.3%). National branding of Qatar abroad peaked during the tournament period (11.4%), whereas consular outreach and embassy self-presentation remained marginal across all phases. Overall, embassy communication moved from anticipatory place image projection before kickoff, to sports-centered visibility during the tournament, and toward cultural diplomacy and reputational stabilization after the final—indicating a phased diplomatic strategy aligned with the emotional arc of the mega-event.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePosts related to sports diplomacy and global visibility featured expressions of solidarity with national teams and ambassadorial participation in World Cup activities. For example, on December 10, the Qatari Embassy in Rabat shared that His Highness the Emir had called Morocco’s King Mohammed VI to congratulate the Moroccan national team on advancing to the semifinals of the tournament. Similarly, on November 21, the Qatari Embassy in Berlin posted about organizing a fan zone attended by ambassadors and accredited diplomats, highlighting diplomatic engagement within the tournament atmosphere.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEvent-led place image projection posts emphasized Qatar’s hosting role through welcoming messages and visual content tied to team arrivals and tournament preparation. On November 14, the Qatari Embassy in Bern welcomed Switzerland’s national team with a post tagging FIFA and Swiss Airlines (“Welcome to Qatar!”), while the Qatari Embassy in Brazil shared official World Cup–linked visual content on the same day, reinforcing Qatar’s visibility as host in the immediate pre-tournament period.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCultural diplomacy and national identity projection included posts marking Qatar’s National Day and celebrating collective identity alongside the World Cup. On December 20, the Qatari Embassy in Tunis posted about Qatar’s embassies and consulates abroad continuing National Day celebrations. Similarly, on December 18, the Qatari Embassy in Lisbon posted National Day greetings to Qatar, highlighting shared celebration and cultural solidarity during the World Cup period.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePublic diplomacy and bilateral relations remained prominent throughout the tournament, with embassies amplifying high-level meetings and institutional engagements. On December 13, the Qatari Embassy in Brussels shared coverage of His Highness the Emir meeting the King of Malaysia at Lusail Stadium during World Cup events. Earlier, on December 12, the Qatari Embassy in Montevideo posted in recognition of International Anti-Corruption Day, illustrating the continuation of routine diplomatic messaging alongside tournament-related content.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTweets categorized as national branding of Qatar abroad highlighted Qatar’s broader international positioning beyond match-centered narratives. On December 13, the Qatari Embassy in Montevideo announced Doha’s selection as the Arab Tourism Capital for 2023, while on November 26, the Qatari Embassy in Brussels posted about Qatar’s \\u003cspan\\u003e$\\u003c/span\\u003e20\\u0026nbsp;million contribution to humanitarian programs supporting African countries, foregrounding Qatar’s global development engagement during the tournament period.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCrisis response and reputation protection posts reflected efforts to manage symbolic risk and address international scrutiny surrounding Qatar’s hosting role. On November 19, the Qatari Embassy in Seoul shared content emphasizing Arab support for Qatar’s World Cup hosting while condemning hostile media campaigns. Earlier, on November 3, the Qatari Embassy in Brazil amplified the International Labour Organization’s 2022 report on Qatar’s labor reforms, situating the tournament within broader narratives of institutional progress and reform.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSmaller proportions of tweets addressed media amplification, consular outreach, and institutional self-presentation, including reposts of Qatari media coverage and embassy announcements.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eWho Posted the Most\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePosting activity varied substantially across Qatari embassies, with a small number of accounts generating the majority of content. The Qatari Embassy in Brazil was by far the most active, producing 766 tweets (33.0% of the full dataset). This was followed by the Qatari Embassy in Uruguay with 261 posts (11.3%), Tunisia with 208 posts (9.0%), and Spain with 167 posts (7.2%). Collectively, these four embassies accounted for approximately 60.5% of all tweets, indicating a highly concentrated pattern of institutional engagement during the World Cup period (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNotably, the Qatari Embassy in Argentina exhibited comparatively low activity, producing only 14 tweets (0.6% of the dataset), despite Argentina entering the tournament as one of the leading fan favorites and ultimately winning the World Cup. This contrast highlights substantial variation in embassy communication intensity across countries, including those with high global visibility and strong football cultures.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003ctable id=\\\"Tab4\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 4\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTop Ten Active Embassies\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in Brazil\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e33.0%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in Uruguay\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e11.3%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in Tunisia\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e9.0%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in Spain\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.2%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in Belgium\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6.0%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in Australia\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5.5%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in the USA\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4.1%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in Canada\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.5%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in Japan\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.8%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eQatar Embassy in the Netherlands\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.4%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Qatari Embassy in Brazil demonstrated the most intensive posting behavior, combining institutional diplomacy with tournament-related visibility. For example, on December 21, the embassy shared coverage of Qatar’s Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs meeting international counterparts, foregrounding high-level diplomatic engagement during the post-final period. Earlier, on November 7, the embassy amplified content from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs using the hashtag #Qatar2022, reinforcing centralized government messaging in the pre-tournament phase.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Qatari Embassy in Uruguay, the second most active account, emphasized formal diplomatic relations and international cooperation. On December 21, the embassy posted about His Highness the Emir awarding a diplomatic honor to China’s ambassador, highlighting bilateral recognition during the World Cup period. On December 12, it circulated content related to the Bali International Conference, linking Qatar’s tournament visibility with broader multilateral engagement.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Qatari Embassy in Tunisia combined public diplomacy with cultural programming and ministerial engagement. On December 13, the embassy shared welcoming remarks for Croatia’s Minister of Foreign Affairs during an official visit, while on November 21 it posted visual content from embassy-hosted cultural activities, illustrating how institutional diplomacy and cultural outreach were integrated into World Cup-period communication.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Qatari Embassy in Spain balanced fan-centered engagement with practical information and public-facing outreach. On November 18, the embassy posted images from the FIFA Fan Festival in Doha, emphasizing celebratory atmosphere and supporter participation. A day earlier, on November 17, it shared guidance on vaccination requirements for travelers, reflecting the continued presence of consular information alongside tournament-related content.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \"},{\"header\":\"Discussion and Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe main finding of this study is the centralized structure of Qatar's embassy communication during the 2022 FIFA World Cup. With 80.6% of all posts being retweets and 82.4% of amplified content originating from Qatar's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, leadership accounts, or government agencies, Qatari embassies mainly acted as distributed amplification nodes within a coordinated digital diplomacy strategy. This pattern contrasts with research showing greater autonomy and localization in Western diplomatic social media practices (Manor \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2019\\u003c/span\\u003e; Bjola and Holmes \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2015\\u003c/span\\u003e). Qatar's centralized approach reflects the institutional structures typical of Gulf monarchies, where hierarchical coordination extends into digital communication. By focusing content production at the ministry level, Qatar ensured message consistency across its geographically dispersed missions, reduced the risk of conflicting messages, and maintained professional standards—benefits especially important during high-stakes events that demand quick, consistent communication responses.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis architecture closely aligns with Cull’s conceptualization of reputational security, where sustained external scrutiny motivates states to protect their international image through tightly coordinated communication (Cull \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e). In such contexts, states tend to prioritize institutional coordination over conversational engagement, a pattern also seen in studies of IOs and MFAs that use social media mainly as one-way broadcasting tools instead of dialogic forums (Ecker-Ehrhardt \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e; Manor and Crilley 2019; Thunø and Nielbo 2023). The rare use of replies in our dataset (only one out of 2,320 posts) highlights that these embassies served as broadcasting nodes rather than interactive participants. Overall, these findings challenge the assumption—central to early “digital diplomacy” and PD 2.0 thinking—that distributed platforms naturally promote decentralized, participatory communication (Bjola and Holmes \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2015\\u003c/span\\u003e; Bjola \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2016\\u003c/span\\u003e). Instead, the Qatari case demonstrates how specific platform features—particularly the retweet function—can be harnessed for centrally coordinated messaging on a global scale, with authoritarian states adapting digital tools to reinforce hierarchy rather than weaken it (Lin \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e; Kafiliveyjuyeh and Porter 2024; Merkouraki \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA second key finding is the persistence of routine diplomatic communication throughout the tournament. Despite FIFA 2022 being Qatar's most visible international moment, public diplomacy and bilateral relations accounted for 41.3% of embassy posts—more than twice the share dedicated to sports content (17.6%). Instead of suspending normal diplomatic activities, embassies utilized the World Cup as an amplified context that increased the visibility of ongoing relationships. High-level bilateral meetings gained heightened importance when held during the tournament, but they remained essentially routine diplomatic engagements. The Qatari Embassy in Brussels increased coverage of the Emir meeting Malaysia's King at Lusail Stadium—standard diplomacy made more visible through the World Cup staging.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTemporal analysis reveals a phased communication strategy aligned with the tournament's progression. Event-driven place image projection peaked before kickoff (14.1%), portraying Qatar as a welcoming host. Sports diplomacy increased during matches (22.3%) as embassies amplified tournament content and showed solidarity with national teams. Cultural diplomacy surged after the tournament (18.3%), shifting toward ongoing relationship-building. Public diplomacy remained dominant throughout, actually rising from 38.9% before the tournament to 43.2% during matches. This pattern reflects strategic adaptation to the ceremonial timing of media events, in which anticipation, live performance, and aftermath generate distinct communicative logics (Dayan and Katz 1992). Before kickoff, communication focused on anticipation and readiness; during the tournament, messaging emphasized match excitement and spectacle; after the final, content shifted toward cultural unity and reputation stabilization. This adaptation illustrates Seib's (2012) concept of real-time diplomacy: embassies adapted to changing symbolic contexts while maintaining institutional stability.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThese findings complicate assumptions in place branding scholarship that mega-events function as transformative reputational interventions (Anholt \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2007\\u003c/span\\u003e; Dinnie \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2008\\u003c/span\\u003e). Qatar's embassy communication shows a more modest picture: the World Cup increased the visibility of ongoing diplomatic relationships but did not fundamentally change communication practices. This indicates that mega-events serve more as amplifiers of communication than as transformers of reputation—boosting awareness of existing national traits rather than allowing for a complete redefinition of national identity. The gap between the unprecedented visibility (5\\u0026nbsp;billion global viewers) and modest reputation gains (Global Soft Power Index moving from 26th to 20th, mainly in elite political spheres rather than public opinion) highlights the limits of visibility-driven place branding. Embassy communications contributed to shaping information environments but could not influence how Qatar's hosting was perceived by different global audiences. Visibility provides a chance for reputation-building but does not ensure positive perceptions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe study's findings on crisis response (6.7% of posts) shed light on how embassies managed their reputational security. Instead of directly addressing criticism, embassies focused on selective amplification—sharing reports on ILO labor reforms, Qatar's humanitarian efforts, and Arab solidarity statements—while highlighting diplomatic achievements. This approach avoided defensive stances that could validate critics' narratives, while ensuring alternative stories were spread. Crisis-related content declined during the tournament itself (3.9%), when positive coverage was prevalent, but grew afterward (8.3%) as attention shifted. This timing shows that reputational security relies on carefully timed responses that adapt to changing media environments.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLanguage patterns show a dual approach of global outreach and targeted localization. English (39.3%) and Arabic (33.1%) dominated, making up 72.4% of communication, while host-country languages accounted for 17.8%. English served as a lingua franca for international audiences, allowing communication beyond immediate geographic areas to diplomatic observers and global publics. Arabic's presence across all contexts—including non-Arab countries—highlighted cultural identity and regional unity, with leadership statements often in Arabic to anchor Qatar's diplomacy in Arab and Islamic identity. Host-country languages (Spanish in Latin America, French in Belgium and France, Japanese in Tokyo) demonstrated the ability for localized engagement while complementing English-Arabic bilingualism. Although the communication was mainly centralized, embassy messaging showed signs of selective localization, using language choices to target different audiences: English for global outreach, Arabic for cultural authenticity, and host-country languages for specific relationship-building.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe findings complicate dialogic and two-way symmetrical models of digital public diplomacy that emphasize listening, reciprocity, and relationship co-creation (Kent and Taylor 2002; Grunig \\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2009\\u003c/span\\u003e). With virtually no interactive engagement, Qatari embassies operated primarily through broadcast-oriented advocacy rather than dialogic exchange. This pattern aligns with Cull’s (\\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2008\\u003c/span\\u003e) distinction between advocacy and listening functions in public diplomacy, suggesting a strategic prioritization of message discipline over relational engagement. During FIFA 2022—Qatar’s most scrutinized international moment—embassies did not shift toward conversational responsiveness. Instead, they relied on established institutional logics: centralized coordination, systematic amplification of official narratives, and calibrated visibility management. While dialogic engagement may foster trust through reciprocity, broadcast models offer advantages under reputational pressure, ensuring coherence, consistency, and risk mitigation in high-stakes communicative environments.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThree broader implications emerge. First, mega-events intensify the structural centralization of digital diplomacy. Under conditions of reputational scrutiny, states prioritize coordination over decentralization to maintain narrative coherence across distributed networks. Second, mega-event diplomacy is temporally adaptive. Embassies recalibrate messaging across anticipatory, celebratory, and consolidating phases while preserving continuity in routine diplomatic engagement. Third, the findings underscore the conditional limits of dialogic engagement. When legitimacy is contested, states may privilege broadcast-oriented advocacy—valued for message discipline and risk mitigation—over interactive engagement that introduces communicative uncertainty.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study advances scholarship on public diplomacy, place branding, and mega-event communication in four ways. First, it demonstrates how digital platforms can be leveraged to enable centralized coordination at global scale, challenging assumptions of platform determinism. Second, it extends Cull’s (\\u003cspan class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e) concept of reputational security by illustrating how distributed institutional networks sustain legitimacy through strategic visibility management rather than direct contestation. Third, it reframes mega-events as amplified contexts for routine diplomacy, suggesting they intensify existing diplomatic trajectories rather than producing transformative reputational shifts. Finally, it highlights the strategic role of multilingual communication in audience segmentation, showing how code-switching between English (global reach), Arabic (cultural identity), and host-country languages (local engagement) functions as a calibrated tool of digital statecraft.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFor practitioners, these findings suggest that effective mega-event diplomacy depends on integrating event-specific messaging within sustained institutional communication rather than treating tournaments as discrete reputational interventions. Qatar’s experience demonstrates that unprecedented visibility does not automatically translate into positive perception; attention creates opportunity but does not determine outcomes. States must therefore calibrate communication strategies to institutional capacity and reputational context, balancing the advantages of centralized coordination—message consistency and risk mitigation—against the relational benefits of dialogic engagement, including trust-building and adaptive responsiveness.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study has several limitations. First, it analyzes Twitter/X only, capturing one dimension of a broader multi-platform diplomatic ecosystem. Future research should examine Instagram, Facebook, and other channels to assess how platform affordances shape differentiated communicative strategies. Second, the analysis focuses on production rather than reception. Evaluating effectiveness requires examining audience responses, engagement metrics, and potential downstream effects on perceptions. Third, the dataset covers the immediate tournament period but not longer-term communication trajectories. Longitudinal analysis could determine whether mega-events produce sustained shifts in diplomatic practice or merely temporary intensifications. Finally, comparative research across other mega-events—such as the Olympics, World Expos, or major political summits—and across democratic and authoritarian contexts would clarify which patterns are Qatar-specific, Gulf-regional, or more broadly characteristic of centralized mega-event diplomacy.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFIFA Qatar 2022 demonstrates that mega-events function not only as spectacles of sport but as laboratories of digital statecraft—revealing how states mobilize institutional logics, safeguard reputational security, and navigate the persistent tension between visibility and legitimacy under conditions of intensified global scrutiny.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAkdenizli is the sole author of this work.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eAl Jazeera. 2021. 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November 20, 2022. \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://www.vox.com/world/23450515/world-cup-fifa-qatar-2022-controversy-scandals-explained\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"https://www.vox.com/world/23450515/world-cup-fifa-qatar-2022-controversy-scandals-explained\\\" targettype=\\\"URL\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"reputational security, digital diplomacy, sports mega-events, embassy communication, FIFA 2022, Qatar\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8858481/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8858481/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMega sporting events are often seen as transformative opportunities for place branding and public diplomacy. However, increased visibility also leads to greater scrutiny and reputational risks. This study explores how Qatari embassies exercised centralized control over digital communication during the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Using an original dataset of 2,320 Twitter/X posts from 23 embassies in countries involved in World Cup qualifying, the article examines communication practices across pre-tournament, tournament, and post-tournament phases. Results show a highly coordinated digital diplomacy system where embassy accounts mainly acted as amplifiers for content produced by Qatar\\u0026rsquo;s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and senior leaders. Instead of encouraging decentralized engagement, platform features allowed for message discipline and hierarchical coordination on a global level. The study builds on Cull\\u0026rsquo;s concept of reputational security by showing how embassies operated within centralized visibility regimes, suggesting that mega-events tend to amplify existing diplomatic trends rather than fundamentally change a nation\\u0026rsquo;s reputation.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Centralized Control in the Digital Age: Reputational Security and Embassy Communication during Qatar’s 2022 FIFA World Cup\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2026-02-23 12:07:22\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8858481/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"bd44ebd7-766d-4d67-b3be-7a8e422925b0\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"February 23rd, 2026\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-05-19T07:39:56+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2026-02-23 12:07:22\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-8858481\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-8858481\",\"identity\":\"rs-8858481\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}