{"paper_id":"2ff4e240-fbaa-4112-8e2d-3b2d874cd274","body_text":"Occurrence and Ecological Risk of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Water Samples From Obuasi Metropolis of Ghana | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Occurrence and Ecological Risk of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Water Samples From Obuasi Metropolis of Ghana David Azanu, Charles Ato Arthur, David Adu-Poku, Abenaa Owusuwaa Adu, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3833712/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The occurrence of pharmaceutical compounds in surface water is of global concern. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the occurrence of acetaminophen, caffeine, ibuprofen, diclofenac, aspirin, diazepam, and tramadol in water samples from hospitals, waste stabilisation ponds, and river in the Obuasi metropolis, Ghana. Solid phase extraction (SPE) sample preparation followed by analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was performed on the water samples. The removal efficiency of these pharmaceuticals by waste stabilisation ponds in the study area was also determined. Finally, the ecological risk posed by pharmaceuticals analysed was estimated as risk quotient (RQ). All seven pharmaceuticals analysed were found in all hospital effluent, waste stabilisation ponds, and surface water, indicating their occurrence in the aquatic systems in Obuasi municipality. Acetaminophen was the most prevalent compound found in this study, with a maximum concentration of 23.0 µg/L, while diazepam was the least pervasive compound, with a maximum concentration of 2.0 µg/L. The percentage removal efficiency of the waste stabilisation pond ranged from 61.5 to 82.2%. The RQs ranged from 0.0 to 0.191 for surface water, 0.0002 to 0.209 for waste stabilization pond water, and 0.0–0.295 for hospital wastewater. This indicates that the RQ for all pharmaceuticals analysed could pose low to medium risk. This study has revealed the occurrence and estimated the possible threat posed by these pharmaceuticals; thereby staking a justifiable claim for an urgent action against the removal of pharmaceuticals in water. , Pharmaceuticals hospital wastewater waste stabilization ponds ecological risk risk quotient Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. INTRODUCTION Pharmaceuticals play a significant role in human and animal therapy. In fact, without pharmaceuticals, humans and animals would find it challenging to combat disease. Despite their therapeutic effect, pharmaceutically active compounds in water bodies directly have a toxicological impact on aquatic organisms’ health. Studies have reported respiratory disorders, reproductive problems, chronic depression, and congenital problems, including mental retardation and physical abnormalities. Antimicrobial resistance is a significant public health concern, globally, due to the persistent presence of antibiotics in the environment. Pharmaceuticals discharged into the environment have become a significant human and environmental health concern in recent years. The occurrence of these pharmaceuticals has been reported all over the globe in domestic and municipal wastewater (Ekwanzala et al., 2020 ; Ngigi et al., 2020 ; Yao et al., 2021 ), surface water (Azanu et al., 2018 ; Gyesi et al., 2022 ; Kairigo et al., 2020 ), groundwater (Fu et al., 2022 ; Kivits et al., 2018 ; Lenart-Boroń et al., 2022 ; Ma et al., 2021 , 2022 ) and even drinking water (Huang et al., 2022 ; Meng et al., 2021 ; Wang et al., 2016 ). Pharmaceutical residues have also been reported to find their way into plants through uptake, increasing the risk of human exposure through ingestion. In developing countries like Ghana, pharmaceuticals have been recently reported in landfills (Otoo et al., 2022 ), surface water (Azanu et al., 2018 ; Gyesi et al., 2022 ), and fish samples (Adjei et al., 2022 ). However, these studies have focussed on point source pollution and Ghana's three major cities: Accra, Kumasi, and Cape Coast. Research has revealed that waste management practices adopted by the hospitals in Obuasi municipality were below standard; no waste treatment, sorting, or processing of waste is done (Wilhemina et al., 2022 ). There is a need to monitor the existence and movement of these contaminants and assess the water quality used by the people living in the Obuasi municipality to provide an alternative water source if the need arises to safeguard the environment and human health. Additionally, several studies (Diallo, 2016 ; Olufunke and Koné, 2009 ; Owusu-Ansah et al., 2015 ) have reported that sewage generated in Ghana is commonly discharged into the environment without any form of treatment to reduce the degree of contamination and mitigate potential public health and environmental issues. Although some attempts have been made in some parts of Ghana, like Kumasi and Obuasi, to utilize the waste stabilization pond (WSP) system to treat domestic sewage, the ponds often fail to achieve their purpose due to a lack of essential maintenance and supervision (Wilhemina et al., 2022 ). Hence, pharmaceuticals are invariably released into the environment without any monitoring. This research aims to estimate the active pharmaceutical compounds content in surface water and WSPs in Obuasi Municipality. Information obtained may be helpful to determine the efficiency of the WSPs in removing these active pharmaceutical compounds and help wastewater regulatory agency for control and management of the adverse effect of pharmaceuticals on the environment. 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS 2.1 Materials Polypropylene microfilters (Whatman, UK) were purchased from MES Chemicals (Accra, Ghana). Sodium hydroxide (98%, Fizmerk Chemicals, India), methanol HPLC grade (99%, Fisher Scientific, UK), TFA (98%, Fisher Scientific, UK), KMnO 4 (98%, Fisher Scientific, UK), HNO 3 (98%, Fisher Scientific, UK), Milli-Q water produced with Milli-Q water gradient system (Millipore, Bedford, Massachusetts, USA). All glassware used for dilution, storage, and experiments was cleaned with a detergent solution, rinsed with distilled water, and soaked in 10% (v/v) HNO 3 overnight. They were rinsed with distilled water, followed by a rinse with 0.5% (w/v) KMnO4, then rinsed again with distilled water. They were then dried in a laboratory oven at 40 ͦ C before use. The physicochemical characteristics of pharmaceutical substances under investigation are shown in Table 1 . Pharmaceutical substances standards were obtained as pure powders from Ernest Chemists (Accra, Ghana). Stock solutions of 50 mg/L of each analyte were prepared. Working standard solutions were prepared from the stock standard solutions for antibiotics. Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of pharmaceutical substances under investigation Pharmaceutical/ CAS-Nr ID Structure Molecular Formula MW Log Kow pKa Solubility (g/L) Tramadol 36282-47-0 TRAM C 16 H 26 ClNO 2 299.83 2.1 5.6 0.01 Ibuprofen 15687-27-1 IBU C 13 H 18 O 2 206.28 3.97 5.2 0.021 Acetaminophen 103-90-2 ACT C8H 9 NO 2 155.19 0.46 9.38 5.0 Diazepam 439-14-5 DIA C 16 H 13 ClN 2 O 284.74 2.82 3.4 <1 Diclofenac 15307-86-5 DIC C14H11Cl2NO2 296.15 1.4 2.1 2.5 Aspirin 50-78-2 ASP C 9 H 8 O 4 180.16 3 2 Caffeine 58-08-2 CAF C8H10N4O2 194.19 1.3 2 15 2.2 Study Area The Obuasi Municipality is located in Ghana's Ashanti Region, which spans 162.4 square kilometers. The municipality consists of 52 distinct communities. According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census, the Municipality population stands at 104,297, with 51,885 males and 52,412 females (Ghana Statistical Service, 2022 ). In general, the terrain in the municipality is undulating, with the majority of the hills rising above 500 meters above sea level on average. Pompo, Nyam, Akapori, Kwabrafo, and Jimi rivers are among the streams and rivers that drain the municipality, all within the AngloGold Ashanti mine concession's catchment (Ghana Statistical Service, 2022 ). 2.2 Description of Sampling Points and Sampling Two types of samples were collected. Type 1 was wastewater samples; type 2 was surface water samples from Kokoteasua and Kwabrafo streams. The sampling points were carefully selected to meet the study's objectives. Direct visual observations for evidence of adjacent pollution sources were conducted at each sample location. GPS coordinates were recorded subsequently utilized to create a base map, as shown in Fig. 1 . The first sampling point was upstream of the Kokoteasua stream. A sampling at this location reflects the water quality before receiving the wastewater discharges from AngloGold Ashanti Health Foundation (AGAH). The second sampling point was the significant drain that releases wastewater from the hospital to the receiving stream. This sample depicts the wastewater leaving the hospital. The third sample was taken at 100 m from where the hospital wastewater joined the Kokoteasua stream. The fourth sampling point was 500 m from the third sampling point. The fifth sampling point was upstream of the Kwabrafo stream at 1 km from Obuasi Government Hospital (OGH); the main drain was sampled as the sixth sampling point. The seventh point was 78 m away from where the wastewater from OGH enters the Kwabrafo stream. The eighth sampling point was 2 km downstream of the Kwabrafo stream. The ninth point was 1 km upstream of Kwabrafo before Obuasi waste stabilization pond effluent entered. The influent of the Obuasi waste stabilization pond one was sampled as the tenth point, and effluent from the same pond was sampled as the eleventh point. The waste stabilization pond two influent was tested as the twelfth point, and the effluent of pond two was sampled as the thirteenth point. The final effluent from the waste stabilization pond that enters the Kwabrafo Stream was sampled as the fourteenth point and 1.5 km downstream of the Kwabrafo Stream as the fifteenth point. Samples were taken once every month for 3 consecutive months between February and April 2021. Pre-washed plastic bottles (1.5 L) were rinsed two times with water to be collected before samples were fetched into the bottles. A total of 45 water samples were collected from the study area and were placed in an ice chest. The samples were transported to the Chemical Analysis Laboratory of the Centre for Renewable and Energy Efficiency (CREEK), Kumasi Technical University (KsTU), where they were kept in a refrigerator at 4°C until analysis was carried out on them. 2.3 Sample Preparation Filtration of water samples was done using Grade 1 filter paper (Whatman®, Darmstadt, Germany). Filtered samples were placed into brown HDPE bottles in quantities of 1000 mL each. Solid-phase extraction of the samples was done by the method described by Azanu et al. ( 2018 ). Pharmaceuticals were extracted using an Oasis cartridge (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance; 200 mg sorbent; 30m; 6 cm 3 ) provided by Waters Oasis in the USA. An aliquot of 2 mL MeOH, and after that 2 mL distilled water, was used to condition the SPE cartridge. At a 1.5 mL/min flow rate, 100 mL of water samples were put into SPE columns. A 3 mL of water containing 5% MeOH was used to wash dried SPE columns. The pharmaceuticals were eluted with 5 mL MeOH at a flow rate of about 1 mL/min after the sorbent was dried under a vacuum for a few minutes. In preparation for analysis, eluates were dried at 30 ̊C with a moderate nitrogen flow before being infused into flat-cap brown HPLC vials for any further processing. They were reconstituted in 2 mL of 1% MeOH in water. 2.4 Laboratory Analysis 2.4.1 Pharmaceuticals analysis Selected pharmaceuticals were analysed based on the method described by Azanu et al. ( 2018 ), with slight modification. In this study, the experiment was fortified with a degasser, a cooled autosampler (4 ͦ C), and an oven column (an Agilent 1260 Binary Infinity System) to perform the liquid chromatographic (LC) experiments (30 ͦ C). Phenomenex ApS provided a reversed-phase column (Kinetex C18 100 column, 3.8 mm x 150 mm x 5m) for the chromatographic separations (Milford, MA, USA). In this experiment, isocratic elution was carried out at a 1 mL/min flow rate with an injection volume of 5 mL. A 0.05% TFA acid in water was the mobile phase A, and MeOH was the mobile phase B. The total analysis time of 20 minutes with individual retention time being for 1.5 min for acetaminophen, 2.0 min for aspirin, 3.3 for caffeine, 5.7 min for ibuprofen, 9 min for tramadol, 12 min for diazepam, 13.5 min for diclofenac, and 18.4 min for tramadol. The Agilent 1260 Infinity Variable Wavelength Detector VL was set at a wavelength of 230 nm. 2.4.2 Water Quality Parameters Analysis Conductivity, pH, salinity, and total dissolved solids were determined in the laboratory using VWR® pHenomenal® MU 6100 L Multi-Parameter Meter. Alkalinity, chloride, and total hardness were determined by titrimetric method per the procedure described by the American Public Health Association (American Public Health Association et al., 1999). Iron, Pb, and Cd concentrations were determined using the Varian 220 Spectra AA model of Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) after digestion using method 200.8 of USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1995 ). 2.5 Quality Control Procedures By the requirements of the standard guidelines, the method was evaluated for validity (Souri et al., 2010 ). The linear calibration curves were constructed by analyzing standard solutions ranging from 1 to 1000 ng/mL, followed by calculating the ratios of analyte peak area to that of the internal standards. A 1 ng/mL pharmaceuticals-mix solution was injected 8 times to assess precision. To determine the detection limit (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) of this system, it was necessary to calculate the slope (S) of the calibration curve and the standard deviation of the responses from the minimum standard solution (1 ng/mL), which was injected six times. the matrix effect (recovery) was investigated using tap water. A 10 L tap water was collected and filtered. Brown bottles were filled with 8 x 1000 mL of filtered water. A 5 mg/L pharmaceutical combination was pre-spiked (before SPE) into the first four bottles holding the water before being subjected to LC analysis. Following SPE, 1000 mL of a 5 mg/L pharmaceutical combination were added to the four samples. Each analyte's concentration in the samples was determined using standard calibration curves. Similar to the quantification procedure, quality control (QC) samples were collected and analysed. 2.6 Ecological Risk Assessment The Risk Quotient (RQ), as recommended by the European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA, 2006 ), was used to quantify the risk different pharmaceuticals pose in the environment. For every compound, the ratio of the maximum environmental concentrations (MEC) to the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) was used to compute the ecological risk quotient (RQ). Maximum environmental concentrations of each pharmaceutical were the maximum concentration in surface water samples analysed in this study. Predicted no-effect concentration values were estimated from the ecological structure-activity relationships (ECOSAR) model developed by US EPA (US-EPA, 2012 ; USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency), 2011 ). The risk quotient was estimated on algae (Desmodesmus subspicatus ), daphnids (Daphnia magna ), and fish (Oncorhynchus mykiss ). RQ < 0.1 indicates a minimal risk to aquatic organisms; 0.1 ≤ RQ ≤ 1.0 poses a medium risk, and RQ ≥ 1.0 poses a possibly high risk and is likely to harm organisms in the environment (EMEA, 2006 ). 2.7 Statistical Analysis Analysis of variance at a significant level of 0.05 was used to determine the significant difference between the parameters. Correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationship between the variables. Analysis of variance and correlation statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism version 8.0.4 for Windows (GraphPad Software Inc., USA). 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Validation of Analytical Procedure The linearity expressed as percent regression coefficient (r 2 ) for all seven pharmaceuticals ranged from 99.5–99.9%. The precision expressed as the coefficient of variation ranged from 3.0 to 6.0%. The LOD for all pharmaceuticals studied ranged from 1.0 to 2.0 ng/L, and the LOQ for all pharmaceuticals was determined to be between 2.0 and 6.0 ng/L (Table 1 ). The relative recovery (RR) varied from 82.4 to 97.5%, while the matrix absolute recovery (AR) varied from 62.6 to 101.0 (Table 2 ). Table 2 Results for validation of water analytical procedure Pharmaceutical Linearity r 2 (%) LOD (ng/L) LOQ (ng/L) Accuracy (%CV) Precision (%CV) Matrix Effect AR ± RSD (%) RR ± RSD (%) TRA 99.9 2 5 4 3 62.6 ± 14.6 82.4 ± 24.1 IBU 99.9 2 5 3 4 101.0 ± 9.0 91 ± 17.9 ACT 99.5 1 3 5 4 64.7 ± 23.8 84.3 ± 14.5 DIA 99.9 1 3 3 3 66.8 ± 20.9 91.4 ± 23.1 DIC 99.9 2 6 4 3 72.6 ± 12.0 89.2 ± 22.4 ASP 99.8 2 5 5 6 78.7 ± 15.8 88.5 ± 11.5 CAF 99.9 1 2 4 4 67.3 ± 10.1 97.5 ± 20.6 3.2 Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals The mean and standard deviation values of the concentrations of 7 pharmaceuticals in water collected in the study area are summarized in Fig. 2 . Generally, there were statistical differences (p = 0.001) among the different pharmaceutical concentrations in water samples from this study. However, analysis of variance for all the 3-sampling periods indicated no significant difference (p = 0.1) in values. Acetaminophen had the highest occurrence, with a mean value of 10.6 µg/L, a minimum value of 3.9 µg/L, and a maximum value of 23.0 µg/L. Caffeine occurrence was the second highest, with maximum concentration value of 22.5 µg/L. Diclofenac, aspirin, diazepam, and tramadol recorded maximum concentration values of 2.1, 2.5, 2.0, and 4.5 µg/L, respectively (Fig. 2 ). Concentrations of pharmaceuticals found in this study were lower than those found in Kodom et al., ( 2021 ), in effluents from sewerage systems in Accra. These low concentrations of pharmaceuticals could be attributed to the differences in population, drug usage, and industrialization. The differences in concentration among the three sources of pharmaceuticals in this study were significant (p = 0.001). As shown in Fig. 3 , the pharmaceutical concentrations in hospital wastewater were the highest, followed by water from waste stabilization ponds and the river water samples. Nonetheless, there is still some amount of the pharmaceuticals analysed in this study found in rivers (surface water), which could pose ecological risk. Diclofenac, for instance, is found in surface water, undergoes low biodegradability and has high environmental persistence (Angosto et al., 2020 ). This could lead to its bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms. The anti-inflammatory drug acetaminophen was found in the surface water in this study, ranging from 3.9 to 15.3 µg/L. This is relatively lower than the concentration in surface water reported in other studies (Azanu et al., 2021 ). The presence of acetaminophen in surface water is of concern because it accumulates in aquatic settings and has been demonstrated to have essentially negligible sorption or retardation properties in aquifer sand experiments (Greenhagen et al., 2014 ). Additionally, there have been reports of a variety of potential negative effects, including reproductive or DNA damage, accumulation in tissues, oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and behavioral changes observed in algae, microcrustaceans, molluscs, and teleost fish (Wu et al., 2023 ). 3.3 Efficiency of Waste Stabilisation Ponds Figure 4 below shows the removal efficiency of these pharmaceuticals at the waste stabilisation ponds. The removal efficiency of the ponds was analysed during the three sampling periods for all 7 pharmaceutical compounds under discussion. The removal efficiency during the first sampling period for Pond 1 was 80.8%, and for Pond 2, 61.5%. During the second sampling period, the removal efficiency realised for Pond 1 was 82.2%, and for Pond 2, 68.5%. The third sampling period also recorded a similar trend with a removal efficiency of 81.9% and 62.2%. As much as the WSPs were not properly maintained and utilised, good efficiency was realised. Though the data taken is insufficient to establish its efficiency, there is a positive indication. If proper management and maintenance are well carried out, wastewater treatment can be relied on temporarily. 3.4 Correlation of Pharmaceutical with Water Quality Parameters Table 3 indicates the correlation between pharmaceutical compounds and selected physicochemical parameters analysed in this study. Electrical conductivity (EC) demonstrated a weak negative correlation with all pharmaceuticals analysed. A similar trend was reported for EC with pharmaceuticals by Otoo et al. ( 2022 ). There was a weak positive correlation between the pH most pharmaceuticals analysed except diclofenac (with a strong positive correlation, r = 0.67) and tramadol (with a weak negative correlation, r = − 0.12). Largely, Pb and Fe analysed negatively correlated pharmaceuticals considered for this study, and the correlation was significant (p = 0.0001). There was a negative correlation of -0.65 between caffeine and Pb, -0.51 between diazepam and Pb, and − 0.6 diclofenac and Pb. Generally, positive correlation was found between all pharmaceuticals analysed with Pearson's coefficient (r) values ranging from 0.17 to 0.97 (Table 3 ). Specifically, diclofenac and acetaminophen had a strong positive correlation (r = 0.97). This was similar to a study by Otoo et al. ( 2022 ), which found a positive correlation between diclofenac and acetaminophen (r = 0.704). It's crucial to note that pharmaceuticals like acetaminophen and diclofenac can reach the environment in several ways, including wastewater discharges (González Peña et al., 2021 ), inappropriate disposal, and animal and human excretion (Werkneh, 2022 ). Yet, their activity and eventual fate in the ecosystem are complicated and subject to local circumstances, hydrology, and climate. Acetaminophen and diclofenac behave similarly in the environment (Maryam et al., 2020 ). They are more likely to stay in the water column and build up in surface waters because they are relatively persistent and have little affinity for soil and sediments (Bethke et al., 2023 ). Table 3 Pearson correlation analysis pH EC TDS Salinity Cl Alkalinity Total Hardness Fe Pb ACT DIC ASP CAF IBU DIA TRA pH EC -0.29*** TDS -0.29*** 1 Salinity 0.06 0.39 0.41 Cl 0.15 0.41 0.42 0.93 Alkalinity 0.04* 0.27 0.29 0.94 0.92 Total Hardness -0.35*** 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.15 -0.002*** Fe 0.66 -0.17*** -0.17*** 0.13 0.1 0.13 -0.38*** Pb -0.17*** 0.59 0.59 0.51 0.4 0.39 0.24 0.19 ACT 0.47 -0.61*** -0.61*** -0.58*** -0.48*** -0.57*** -0.26*** 0.08 -0.67*** DIC 0.64 -0.58*** -0.58*** -0.51*** -0.37*** -0.5*** -0.31*** -0.29*** -0.6*** 0.93 ASP 0.04* -0.36*** -0.36*** -0.46*** -0.47*** -0.53*** 0.12 -0.22*** -0.35*** 0.55 0.35 CAF 0.28 -0.51*** -0.62*** -0.75*** -0.73*** -0.67*** -0.42*** -0.01*** -0.65*** 0.8 0.67 0.61 IBU 0.19 -0.11 -0.11 0.14 0.17 0.03* 0.1 -0.15*** -0.17*** 0.37 0.18 0.55 0.22 DIA 0.11 -0.45*** -0.45*** -0.49*** -0.44*** -0.47*** -0.23*** -0.25*** -0.51*** 0.66 0.47 0.64 0.76 0.43 TRA -0.12*** -0.54*** -0.55*** -0.7*** -0.71*** -0.71*** 0.04* -0.3*** -0.44*** 0.48 0.32 0.75 0.69 0.15 0.71 3.5 Risk Assessment The estimated RQ for 3 trophic levels in the surface water, waste stabilization ponds water, and hospital wastewater are shown in Fig. 5 a-c. The RQ for all pharmaceuticals in analysed to 3 trophic levels selected could pose low to medium risk. The RQs ranged from 0.0 to 0.191 for surface water, 0.0002 to 0.209 for waste stabilization ponds water, and 0.0–0.295 for hospital wastewater. The RQ for ibuprofen was highest, being 0.191, 0.209, and 0.295 for exposure to daphnia in surface water, waste stabilization pond water, and hospital wastewater, respectively, indicating a medium toxicity risk. Maximum tramadol concentration found in WSP water will also exert a medium risk to algae, daphnia, and fish with RQ values of 0.18, 0.19, and 0.12, respectively. The RQ for ibuprofen in hospital wastewater studied was 0.295 for fishes, indicating medium risk. This contradicts RQ of 30.0 reported by Otoo et al. ( 2022 ) for ibuprofen in hospital wastewater studied in Sunyani, Ghana. Generally, the ecotoxicological relevance of analgesics is a cause for concern in several natural water domains, mainly in low-income countries where their use is every day and sometimes uncontrolled (Ripanda et al., 2022 ), somewhat different from the European situation (Bean et al., 2022 ). Ibuprofen concentration in the surface water, waste stabilization ponds water, and hospital wastewater studied could pose a medium risk with RQ values of 0.128, 0.139, and 0.197, respectively. Studies have revealed that ibuprofen can impact fish reproduction by male fish feminization (Gómez-Canela et al., 2019 ; Hong et al., 2021 ). Male fish feminization can reduce the fish population and, hence, have an economic impact. Therefore, RQ of ibuprofen is of great concern as there are no legislation controlling the sale and consumption of pharmaceutical in Ghana. 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS All 7 pharmaceuticals analysed were found in all hospital effluent, waste stabilisation ponds, and surface water, indicating their occurrence in the aquatic systems in Obuasi municipality. Caffeine, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and tramadol were found in all samples with concentrations within tens of µg/L in decreasing order. Hence, they could be considered part of the possible dangerous compounds from an environmental risk point of view in the study area in Ghana. Risk quotients computed for pharmaceuticals in the various ecological compartments for algae, daphnia, and fish were, in most instances, low risk, with few cases of medium risk. Based on the risk assessment calculated, ibuprofen and tramadol posed a medium threat to aquatic organisms. This study has revealed the occurrence and estimated the possible risk posed by these pharmaceuticals; there is, therefore a need for effective implementation of legislation related to the sale and consumption of pharmaceuticals. In addition, regular monitoring of pharmaceuticals in the environment will play an essential role in identifying the primary causes and vulnerable points of occurrence in the environment. Declarations All authors have read, understood, and have complied as applicable with the statement on \"Ethical responsibilities of Authors\" as found in the Instructions for Authors”. The authors also declare that there are no conflicts of interest. Funding This research received no funding from any institution. Acknowledgements Authors would like to thank the Department of Chemical Engineering, KsTU, and CREEK, KsTU, for using their facilities for this study. Finally, the authors are grateful to Mr Smith Cole Ampaabeng Kyeremeh, Mr James Darmey, and Prof. Sampson Kofi Kyei for their technical support. Authorship contribution statement David Azanu: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation Charles Ato Arthur: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision David Adu-Poku: Supervision, validation, Project administration Abenaa Owusuwaa Adu: Review editing, Validation, Data curation Agnes Oppong: Data analysis, visualization, Project administration Timothy Abane Alemya: Writing, Validation, Investigation Availability of data and material Not applicable in this section. References Adjei, J. K., Dayie, A. D., Addo, J. K., Asamoah, A., Amoako, E. O., Egoh, B. Y., Bekoe, E., et al. (2022). Occurrence, ecological risk assessment and source apportionment of pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones and xenoestrogens in the Ghanaian aquatic environments. Toxicology Reports , 9 (June), 1398–1409. 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Science of the Total Environment. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145450 HUANG, D. Y., WU, Y., JIANG, Y. J., ZHANG, M. S., CHENG, L., HE, S. H., and CHEN, B. J. (2022). Rapid determination, pollution characteristics and risk evaluations of antibiotics in drinking water sources of Hainan, China. Chinese Journal of Analytical Chemistry. doi: 10.1016/j.cjac.2022.100164 Kairigo, P., Ngumba, E., Sundberg, L. R., Gachanja, A., and Tuhkanen, T. (2020). Contamination of surface water and river sediments by antibiotic and antiretroviral drug cocktails in low and middle-income countries: Occurrence, risk and mitigation strategies. Water (Switzerland), 12 (5). doi: 10.3390/W12051376 Kivits, T., Broers, H. P., Beeltje, H., van Vliet, M., and Griffioen, J. (2018). Presence and fate of veterinary antibiotics in age-dated groundwater in areas with intensive livestock farming. Environmental Pollution. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.05.085 Kodom, K., Attiogbe, F., and Kuranchie, F. A. (2021). Assessment of removal efficiency of pharmaceutical products from wastewater in sewage treatment plants: A case of the sewerage systems Ghana limited, Accra. Heliyon , 7 (11), e08385. Elsevier Ltd. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08385 Lenart-Boroń, A., Prajsnar, J., Guzik, M., Boroń, P., Grad, B., and Żelazny, M. (2022). Antibiotics in Groundwater and River Water of Białka—A Pristine Mountain River. Applied Sciences (Switzerland) . doi: 10.3390/app122412743 Ma, J. S., Wang, Z., Zhang, Z. Y., Liu, Q., and Li, L. J. (2021). Distribution Characteristics of 29 Antibiotics in Groundwater in Harbin. Yankuang Ceshi. doi: 10.15898/j.cnki.11-2131/td.202101040001 Ma, N., Tong, L., Li, Y., Yang, C., Tan, Q., and He, J. (2022). Distribution of antibiotics in lake water-groundwater - Sediment system in Chenhu Lake area. Environmental Research. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112343 Maryam, B., Buscio, V., Odabasi, S. U., and Buyukgungor, H. (2020). A study on behavior, interaction and rejection of Paracetamol, Diclofenac and Ibuprofen (PhACs) from wastewater by nanofiltration membranes. Environmental Technology and Innovation , 18 , 100641. Elsevier B.V. doi: 10.1016/j.eti.2020.100641 Meng, T., Cheng, W., Wan, T., Wang, M., Ren, J., Li, Y., and Huang, C. (2021). Occurrence of antibiotics in rural drinking water and related human health risk assessment. Environmental Technology (United Kingdom). doi: 10.1080/09593330.2019.1642390 Ngigi, A. N., Magu, M. M., and Muendo, B. M. (2020). Occurrence of antibiotics residues in hospital wastewater, wastewater treatment plant, and in surface water in Nairobi County, Kenya. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. doi: 10.1007/s10661-019-7952-8 Olufunke, and Koné, D. (2009). Case study of sustainable sanitation projects Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste Kumasi, Ghana Project period : Project scale : Case study of sustainable sanitation projects Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste Kumasi, Ghana, 1–7. Otoo, B. A., Amoabeng, I. A., Darko, G., and Borquaye, L. S. (2022). Antibiotic and analgesic residues in the environment – Occurrence and ecological risk study from the Sunyani municipality, Ghana. Toxicology Reports , 9 (July), 1491–1500. Elsevier B.V. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.07.003 Owusu-Ansah, E. D. G. J., Sampson, A., Amponsah, S. K., Abaidoo, R. C., and Hald, T. (2015). Performance, compliance and reliability of Waste stabilization pond: Effluent discharge quality and environmental protection agency standards in Ghana. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 10 (11), 1293–1302. doi: 10.19026/rjaset.10.1825 Ripanda, A. S., Rwiza, M. J., Nyanza, E. C., Machunda, R. L., and Vuai, S. H. (2022). Contribution of Illicit Drug Use to Pharmaceutical Load in the Environment: A Focus on Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Environmental and Public Health. doi: 10.1155/2022/9056476 Souri, O Bala, D. Gowrishankar, K. Abbulu, K. S. (2010). Validation and Calibration of Analytical Instruments. J Biomed Sci and Res., 2 (2), 89–99. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1995). Manual for Analyzing Drinking Water: Criteria and Procedures, Quality Assurance (5th editio.). Cincinnati: Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water. US-EPA. (2012). Ecological Structure-Activity Relationship Model (ECOSAR) Class Program . (K. Mayo-Bean, K. Moran, B. Meylan, and P. Ranslow, Eds.). USA: US EPA/OPPT. USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2011). Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (2011th ed.). Washington DC: National Centre for Environmental Assessment. doi: EPA/600/R-090/052F Wang, H., Wang, N., Wang, B., Zhao, Q., Fang, H., Fu, C., Tang, C., et al. (2016). Antibiotics in Drinking Water in Shanghai and Their Contribution to Antibiotic Exposure of School Children. Environmental Science and Technology. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05749 Werkneh, A. A. (2022). Application of membrane-aerated biofilm reactor in removing water and wastewater pollutants: Current advances, knowledge gaps and research needs - A review. Environmental Challenges. doi: 10.1016/j.envc.2022.100529 Wilhemina, A., Amedumey, P., and Raphael, G. B. H. (2022). Solid waste management in hospitals: A comparative assessment in some selected hospitals in Obuasi Municipality of Ghana. Cleaner Waste Systems , 3 (December 2021), 100025. Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/j.clwas.2022.100025 Wu, K., Lu, W., and Yan, X. (2023). Potential adverse actions of prenatal exposure of acetaminophen to offspring. Frontiers in Pharmacology. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1094435 Yao, S., Ye, J., Yang, Q., Hu, Y., Zhang, T., Jiang, L., Munezero, S., et al. (2021). Occurrence and removal of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance genes, and bacterial communities in hospital wastewater. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-14735-3 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-3833712\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":267029556,\"identity\":\"2255d75e-3fab-4a3b-808e-e84a1e3f0e41\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"David Azanu\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCA0DEA2YxH4aJGUDECWthSwaREkRpYYBo4TEmTgvf8TOGB97U1MmbS+R8Ni5sq6tjYG/eJsHw6w5OLZJncgwOzjnGZrhzRu7m5JlthyUYeI6VSTD2PcOpxeBAWsJhHjYexg03cjcf5m07IMEgkWMmwdhzGLeW88+AWv5J2G+4kfMYqKVOgkH+DQEtN5IPAFUaJAK1MCfztjEDbeExk2D4gVuL5I3HBw7O7UtI3nDmmbExz7nDkm08acUWiQ24tfCdT2z+8OZbne2G48mPpXnK6vj52Q9vvPHhD24tmIANRCS2kaADCv6QrmUUjIJRMAqGLQAAnsFbTVWxgKQAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"David\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Azanu\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":267029557,\"identity\":\"a452fa9d-853e-4e62-9e7f-f99bb379de0a\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Charles Ato Arthur\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Kumasi Technical 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12:15:38\",\"extension\":\"jpeg\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":573602,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMap of study area showing sampling points\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage8.jpeg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3833712/v1/beb3a7a7ce0703d8b2928cb5.jpeg\"},{\"id\":49620156,\"identity\":\"7a3bdfed-daf1-412c-92a4-955081db0349\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-15 12:15:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":12073,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eConcentration of pharmaceuticals in water samples analysed\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage9.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3833712/v1/b1ab2d71fc3c86f8715afd0c.png\"},{\"id\":49620158,\"identity\":\"96138f13-59aa-440d-82b1-e6df01d89175\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-15 12:15:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":33457,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTotal pharmaceuticals load in various environmental samples collected\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage10.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3833712/v1/622d1f15a0b5565c16834adc.png\"},{\"id\":49620604,\"identity\":\"1c420491-f673-4572-8373-9682dbf62b73\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-15 12:23:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"Figure 4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":33516,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eRemoval Efficiency of Waste Stabilisation Ponds\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage11.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3833712/v1/1cb0a78614c5495ab2f032bd.png\"},{\"id\":49620159,\"identity\":\"da02b9f5-2886-4606-ba4f-803be3a74ff8\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-01-15 12:15:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":18272,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eEcological risk of pharmaceuticals in a) surface water, b) waste stabilization ponds water, and c) hospital wastewater\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage12.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3833712/v1/bae1b31017dcf2324c75d6b4.png\"},{\"id\":63012789,\"identity\":\"f77a24c8-c741-470a-b1ba-254a376be85b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-08-22 06:07:30\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":1521789,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3833712/v1/0eeab149-cd60-4fe5-a5be-e6febaccee32.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eOccurrence and Ecological Risk of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Water Samples From Obuasi Metropolis of Ghana\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"1. INTRODUCTION\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003ePharmaceuticals play a significant role in human and animal therapy. In fact, without pharmaceuticals, humans and animals would find it challenging to combat disease. Despite their therapeutic effect, pharmaceutically active compounds in water bodies directly have a toxicological impact on aquatic organisms\\u0026rsquo; health. Studies have reported respiratory disorders, reproductive problems, chronic depression, and congenital problems, including mental retardation and physical abnormalities. Antimicrobial resistance is a significant public health concern, globally, due to the persistent presence of antibiotics in the environment.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePharmaceuticals discharged into the environment have become a significant human and environmental health concern in recent years. The occurrence of these pharmaceuticals has been reported all over the globe in domestic and municipal wastewater (Ekwanzala et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR9\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e; Ngigi et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR27\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e; Yao et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR40\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e), surface water (Azanu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e; Gyesi et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e; Kairigo et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e), groundwater (Fu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR11\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e; Kivits et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e; Lenart-Boroń et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e; Ma et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR23\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR24\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) and even drinking water (Huang et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e; Meng et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e; Wang et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR36\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2016\\u003c/span\\u003e). Pharmaceutical residues have also been reported to find their way into plants through uptake, increasing the risk of human exposure through ingestion.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn developing countries like Ghana, pharmaceuticals have been recently reported in landfills (Otoo et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), surface water (Azanu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e; Gyesi et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), and fish samples (Adjei et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). However, these studies have focussed on point source pollution and Ghana's three major cities: Accra, Kumasi, and Cape Coast.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eResearch has revealed that waste management practices adopted by the hospitals in Obuasi municipality were below standard; no waste treatment, sorting, or processing of waste is done (Wilhemina et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR38\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). There is a need to monitor the existence and movement of these contaminants and assess the water quality used by the people living in the Obuasi municipality to provide an alternative water source if the need arises to safeguard the environment and human health.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAdditionally, several studies (Diallo, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2016\\u003c/span\\u003e; Olufunke and Kon\\u0026eacute;, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2009\\u003c/span\\u003e; Owusu-Ansah et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR30\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2015\\u003c/span\\u003e) have reported that sewage generated in Ghana is commonly discharged into the environment without any form of treatment to reduce the degree of contamination and mitigate potential public health and environmental issues. Although some attempts have been made in some parts of Ghana, like Kumasi and Obuasi, to utilize the waste stabilization pond (WSP) system to treat domestic sewage, the ponds often fail to achieve their purpose due to a lack of essential maintenance and supervision (Wilhemina et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR38\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). Hence, pharmaceuticals are invariably released into the environment without any monitoring.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis research aims to estimate the active pharmaceutical compounds content in surface water and WSPs in Obuasi Municipality. Information obtained may be helpful to determine the efficiency of the WSPs in removing these active pharmaceutical compounds and help wastewater regulatory agency for control and management of the adverse effect of pharmaceuticals on the environment.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2. MATERIAL AND METHODS\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Materials\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePolypropylene microfilters (Whatman, UK) were purchased from MES Chemicals (Accra, Ghana). Sodium hydroxide (98%, Fizmerk Chemicals, India), methanol HPLC grade (99%, Fisher Scientific, UK), TFA (98%, Fisher Scientific, UK), KMnO\\u003csub\\u003e4\\u003c/sub\\u003e (98%, Fisher Scientific, UK), HNO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e (98%, Fisher Scientific, UK), Milli-Q water produced with Milli-Q water gradient system (Millipore, Bedford, Massachusetts, USA). All glassware used for dilution, storage, and experiments was cleaned with a detergent solution, rinsed with distilled water, and soaked in 10% (v/v) HNO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e overnight. They were rinsed with distilled water, followed by a rinse with 0.5% (w/v) KMnO4, then rinsed again with distilled water. They were then dried in a laboratory oven at 40 ͦ C before use. The physicochemical characteristics of pharmaceutical substances under investigation are shown in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e. Pharmaceutical substances standards were obtained as pure powders from Ernest Chemists (Accra, Ghana). Stock solutions of 50 mg/L of each analyte were prepared. Working standard solutions were prepared from the stock standard solutions for antibiotics.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Cambria\\\",serif;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\\\"Times New Roman\\\",serif;'\\u003eTable 1. Physicochemical characteristics of pharmaceutical substances under investigation\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable style=\\\"width: 5.0e+2pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 69.2pt;border-top: 1pt solid black;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 38.9pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Cambria\\\",serif;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\\\"Times New Roman\\\",serif;color:black;'\\u003ePharmaceutical/\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp 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style=\\\"width: 63.75pt; height: 66.75pt;\\\" alt=\\\"image\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 83.35pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 20.25pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Cambria\\\",serif;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\\\"Times New Roman\\\",serif;color:black;'\\u003eC8H10N4O2\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 35.45pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 20.25pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Cambria\\\",serif;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\\\"Times New Roman\\\",serif;color:black;'\\u003e194.19\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 20.25pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Cambria\\\",serif;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\\\"Times New Roman\\\",serif;color:black;'\\u003e1.3\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 63.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 20.25pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Cambria\\\",serif;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\\\"Times New Roman\\\",serif;color:black;'\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 63.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 20.25pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Cambria\\\",serif;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\\\"Times New Roman\\\",serif;color:black;'\\u003e15\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Study Area\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Obuasi Municipality is located in Ghana's Ashanti Region, which spans 162.4 square kilometers. The municipality consists of 52 distinct communities. According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census, the Municipality population stands at 104,297, with 51,885 males and 52,412 females (Ghana Statistical Service, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). In general, the terrain in the municipality is undulating, with the majority of the hills rising above 500 meters above sea level on average. Pompo, Nyam, Akapori, Kwabrafo, and Jimi rivers are among the streams and rivers that drain the municipality, all within the AngloGold Ashanti mine concession's catchment (Ghana Statistical Service, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Description of Sampling Points and Sampling\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTwo types of samples were collected. Type 1 was wastewater samples; type 2 was surface water samples from Kokoteasua and Kwabrafo streams. The sampling points were carefully selected to meet the study's objectives. Direct visual observations for evidence of adjacent pollution sources were conducted at each sample location. GPS coordinates were recorded subsequently utilized to create a base map, as shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe first sampling point was upstream of the Kokoteasua stream. A sampling at this location reflects the water quality before receiving the wastewater discharges from AngloGold Ashanti Health Foundation (AGAH). The second sampling point was the significant drain that releases wastewater from the hospital to the receiving stream. This sample depicts the wastewater leaving the hospital. The third sample was taken at 100 m from where the hospital wastewater joined the Kokoteasua stream. The fourth sampling point was 500 m from the third sampling point. The fifth sampling point was upstream of the Kwabrafo stream at 1 km from Obuasi Government Hospital (OGH); the main drain was sampled as the sixth sampling point. The seventh point was 78 m away from where the wastewater from OGH enters the Kwabrafo stream. The eighth sampling point was 2 km downstream of the Kwabrafo stream.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe ninth point was 1 km upstream of Kwabrafo before Obuasi waste stabilization pond effluent entered. The influent of the Obuasi waste stabilization pond one was sampled as the tenth point, and effluent from the same pond was sampled as the eleventh point. The waste stabilization pond two influent was tested as the twelfth point, and the effluent of pond two was sampled as the thirteenth point. The final effluent from the waste stabilization pond that enters the Kwabrafo Stream was sampled as the fourteenth point and 1.5 km downstream of the Kwabrafo Stream as the fifteenth point.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSamples were taken once every month for 3 consecutive months between February and April 2021. Pre-washed plastic bottles (1.5 L) were rinsed two times with water to be collected before samples were fetched into the bottles. A total of 45 water samples were collected from the study area and were placed in an ice chest. The samples were transported to the Chemical Analysis Laboratory of the Centre for Renewable and Energy Efficiency (CREEK), Kumasi Technical University (KsTU), where they were kept in a refrigerator at 4\\u0026deg;C until analysis was carried out on them.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec6\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.3 Sample Preparation\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFiltration of water samples was done using Grade 1 filter paper (Whatman\\u0026reg;, Darmstadt, Germany). Filtered samples were placed into brown HDPE bottles in quantities of 1000 mL each. Solid-phase extraction of the samples was done by the method described by Azanu et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e). Pharmaceuticals were extracted using an Oasis cartridge (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance; 200 mg sorbent; 30m; 6 cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e) provided by Waters Oasis in the USA. An aliquot of 2 mL MeOH, and after that 2 mL distilled water, was used to condition the SPE cartridge. At a 1.5 mL/min flow rate, 100 mL of water samples were put into SPE columns. A 3 mL of water containing 5% MeOH was used to wash dried SPE columns. The pharmaceuticals were eluted with 5 mL MeOH at a flow rate of about 1 mL/min after the sorbent was dried under a vacuum for a few minutes. In preparation for analysis, eluates were dried at 30 ̊C with a moderate nitrogen flow before being infused into flat-cap brown HPLC vials for any further processing. They were reconstituted in 2 mL of 1% MeOH in water.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.4 Laboratory Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.4.1 Pharmaceuticals analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSelected pharmaceuticals were analysed based on the method described by Azanu et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e), with slight modification. In this study, the experiment was fortified with a degasser, a cooled autosampler (4 ͦ C), and an oven column (an Agilent 1260 Binary Infinity System) to perform the liquid chromatographic (LC) experiments (30 ͦ C). Phenomenex ApS provided a reversed-phase column (Kinetex C18 100 column, 3.8 mm x 150 mm x 5m) for the chromatographic separations (Milford, MA, USA). In this experiment, isocratic elution was carried out at a 1 mL/min flow rate with an injection volume of 5 mL. A 0.05% TFA acid in water was the mobile phase A, and MeOH was the mobile phase B. The total analysis time of 20 minutes with individual retention time being for 1.5 min for acetaminophen, 2.0 min for aspirin, 3.3 for caffeine, 5.7 min for ibuprofen, 9 min for tramadol, 12 min for diazepam, 13.5 min for diclofenac, and 18.4 min for tramadol. The Agilent 1260 Infinity Variable Wavelength Detector VL was set at a wavelength of 230 nm.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec9\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.4.2 Water Quality Parameters Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eConductivity, pH, salinity, and total dissolved solids were determined in the laboratory using VWR\\u0026reg; pHenomenal\\u0026reg; MU 6100 L Multi-Parameter Meter. Alkalinity, chloride, and total hardness were determined by titrimetric method per the procedure described by the American Public Health Association (American Public Health Association et al., 1999). Iron, Pb, and Cd concentrations were determined using the Varian 220 Spectra AA model of Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) after digestion using method 200.8 of USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR33\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1995\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec10\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.5 Quality Control Procedures\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBy the requirements of the standard guidelines, the method was evaluated for validity (Souri et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR32\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2010\\u003c/span\\u003e). The linear calibration curves were constructed by analyzing standard solutions ranging from 1 to 1000 ng/mL, followed by calculating the ratios of analyte peak area to that of the internal standards. A 1 ng/mL pharmaceuticals-mix solution was injected 8 times to assess precision. To determine the detection limit (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) of this system, it was necessary to calculate the slope (S) of the calibration curve and the standard deviation of the responses from the minimum standard solution (1 ng/mL), which was injected six times. the matrix effect (recovery) was investigated using tap water. A 10 L tap water was collected and filtered. Brown bottles were filled with 8 x 1000 mL of filtered water. A 5 mg/L pharmaceutical combination was pre-spiked (before SPE) into the first four bottles holding the water before being subjected to LC analysis. Following SPE, 1000 mL of a 5 mg/L pharmaceutical combination were added to the four samples. Each analyte's concentration in the samples was determined using standard calibration curves. Similar to the quantification procedure, quality control (QC) samples were collected and analysed.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.6 Ecological Risk Assessment\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe Risk Quotient (RQ), as recommended by the European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003e), was used to quantify the risk different pharmaceuticals pose in the environment. For every compound, the ratio of the maximum environmental concentrations (MEC) to the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) was used to compute the ecological risk quotient (RQ). Maximum environmental concentrations of each pharmaceutical were the maximum concentration in surface water samples analysed in this study. Predicted no-effect concentration values were estimated from the ecological structure-activity relationships (ECOSAR) model developed by US EPA (US-EPA, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR34\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003e; USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency), \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR35\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2011\\u003c/span\\u003e). The risk quotient was estimated on algae (Desmodesmus \\u003cem\\u003esubspicatus\\u003c/em\\u003e), daphnids (Daphnia \\u003cem\\u003emagna\\u003c/em\\u003e), and fish (Oncorhynchus \\u003cem\\u003emykiss\\u003c/em\\u003e). RQ\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.1 indicates a minimal risk to aquatic organisms; 0.1\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026le;\\u0026thinsp;RQ\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026le;\\u0026thinsp;1.0 poses a medium risk, and RQ\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026ge;\\u0026thinsp;1.0 poses a possibly high risk and is likely to harm organisms in the environment (EMEA, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.7 Statistical Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAnalysis of variance at a significant level of 0.05 was used to determine the significant difference between the parameters. Correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationship between the variables. Analysis of variance and correlation statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism version 8.0.4 for Windows (GraphPad Software Inc., USA).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec14\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.1 Validation of Analytical Procedure\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe linearity expressed as percent regression coefficient (r\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e) for all seven pharmaceuticals ranged from 99.5\\u0026ndash;99.9%. The precision expressed as the coefficient of variation ranged from 3.0 to 6.0%. The LOD for all pharmaceuticals studied ranged from 1.0 to 2.0 ng/L, and the LOQ for all pharmaceuticals was determined to be between 2.0 and 6.0 ng/L (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e). The relative recovery (RR) varied from 82.4 to 97.5%, while the matrix absolute recovery (AR) varied from 62.6 to 101.0 (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eResults for validation of water analytical procedure\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePharmaceutical\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLinearity r\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLOD\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(ng/L)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLOQ\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(ng/L)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAccuracy\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(%CV)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePrecision\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e(%CV)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c8\\\" namest=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMatrix Effect\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAR\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;RSD (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRR\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;RSD (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTRA\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e99.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e62.6\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;14.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e82.4\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;24.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIBU\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e99.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e101.0\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;9.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e91\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;17.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eACT\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e99.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e64.7\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;23.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e84.3\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;14.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDIA\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e99.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e66.8\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;20.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e91.4\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;23.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDIC\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e99.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e72.6\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;12.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e89.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;22.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eASP\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e99.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e78.7\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;15.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e88.5\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;11.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCAF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e99.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e67.3\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;10.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e97.5\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;20.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec15\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.2 Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe mean and standard deviation values of the concentrations of 7 pharmaceuticals in water collected in the study area are summarized in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e. Generally, there were statistical differences (p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.001) among the different pharmaceutical concentrations in water samples from this study. However, analysis of variance for all the 3-sampling periods indicated no significant difference (p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.1) in values. Acetaminophen had the highest occurrence, with a mean value of 10.6 \\u0026micro;g/L, a minimum value of 3.9 \\u0026micro;g/L, and a maximum value of 23.0 \\u0026micro;g/L. Caffeine occurrence was the second highest, with maximum concentration value of 22.5 \\u0026micro;g/L. Diclofenac, aspirin, diazepam, and tramadol recorded maximum concentration values of 2.1, 2.5, 2.0, and 4.5 \\u0026micro;g/L, respectively (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). Concentrations of pharmaceuticals found in this study were lower than those found in Kodom et al., (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR21\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e), in effluents from sewerage systems in Accra. These low concentrations of pharmaceuticals could be attributed to the differences in population, drug usage, and industrialization.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe differences in concentration among the three sources of pharmaceuticals in this study were significant (p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.001). As shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e, the pharmaceutical concentrations in hospital wastewater were the highest, followed by water from waste stabilization ponds and the river water samples. Nonetheless, there is still some amount of the pharmaceuticals analysed in this study found in rivers (surface water), which could pose ecological risk. Diclofenac, for instance, is found in surface water, undergoes low biodegradability and has high environmental persistence (Angosto et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e). This could lead to its bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe anti-inflammatory drug acetaminophen was found in the surface water in this study, ranging from 3.9 to 15.3 \\u0026micro;g/L. This is relatively lower than the concentration in surface water reported in other studies (Azanu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e). The presence of acetaminophen in surface water is of concern because it accumulates in aquatic settings and has been demonstrated to have essentially negligible sorption or retardation properties in aquifer sand experiments (Greenhagen et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2014\\u003c/span\\u003e). Additionally, there have been reports of a variety of potential negative effects, including reproductive or DNA damage, accumulation in tissues, oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and behavioral changes observed in algae, microcrustaceans, molluscs, and teleost fish (Wu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR39\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.3 Efficiency of Waste Stabilisation Ponds\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFigure\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e below shows the removal efficiency of these pharmaceuticals at the waste stabilisation ponds. The removal efficiency of the ponds was analysed during the three sampling periods for all 7 pharmaceutical compounds under discussion. The removal efficiency during the first sampling period for Pond 1 was 80.8%, and for Pond 2, 61.5%. During the second sampling period, the removal efficiency realised for Pond 1 was 82.2%, and for Pond 2, 68.5%. The third sampling period also recorded a similar trend with a removal efficiency of 81.9% and 62.2%. As much as the WSPs were not properly maintained and utilised, good efficiency was realised. Though the data taken is insufficient to establish its efficiency, there is a positive indication. If proper management and maintenance are well carried out, wastewater treatment can be relied on temporarily.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec17\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.4 Correlation of Pharmaceutical with Water Quality Parameters\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTable\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e indicates the correlation between pharmaceutical compounds and selected physicochemical parameters analysed in this study. Electrical conductivity (EC) demonstrated a weak negative correlation with all pharmaceuticals analysed. A similar trend was reported for EC with pharmaceuticals by Otoo et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). There was a weak positive correlation between the pH most pharmaceuticals analysed except diclofenac (with a strong positive correlation, r\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.67) and tramadol (with a weak negative correlation, r\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;0.12). Largely, Pb and Fe analysed negatively correlated pharmaceuticals considered for this study, and the correlation was significant (p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.0001). There was a negative correlation of -0.65 between caffeine and Pb, -0.51 between diazepam and Pb, and \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;0.6 diclofenac and Pb.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eGenerally, positive correlation was found between all pharmaceuticals analysed with Pearson's coefficient (r) values ranging from 0.17 to 0.97 (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e). Specifically, diclofenac and acetaminophen had a strong positive correlation (r\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.97). This was similar to a study by Otoo et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), which found a positive correlation between diclofenac and acetaminophen (r\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.704). It's crucial to note that pharmaceuticals like acetaminophen and diclofenac can reach the environment in several ways, including wastewater discharges (Gonz\\u0026aacute;lez Pe\\u0026ntilde;a et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e), inappropriate disposal, and animal and human excretion (Werkneh, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR37\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). Yet, their activity and eventual fate in the ecosystem are complicated and subject to local circumstances, hydrology, and climate. Acetaminophen and diclofenac behave similarly in the environment (Maryam et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e). They are more likely to stay in the water column and build up in surface waters because they are relatively persistent and have little affinity for soil and sediments (Bethke et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePearson correlation analysis\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"17\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" colnum=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\" colnum=\\\"10\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\" colnum=\\\"11\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\" colnum=\\\"12\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\" colnum=\\\"13\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\" colnum=\\\"14\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\" colnum=\\\"15\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\" colnum=\\\"16\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\" colnum=\\\"17\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003epH\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEC\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTDS\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSalinity\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCl\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAlkalinity\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTotal Hardness\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFe\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e 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colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEC\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.29***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e 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colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSalinity\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.06\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.39\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.41\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCl\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.15\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.41\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.42\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.93\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAlkalinity\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.04*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.27\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.29\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.94\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.92\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTotal Hardness\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.35***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.23\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.23\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.22\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.15\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.002***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFe\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.66\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.17***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.17***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.38***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePb\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.17***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.59\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.59\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.51\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.39\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.24\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.19\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eACT\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.47\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.61***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.61***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.58***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.48***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.57***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.26***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.08\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.67***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDIC\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.64\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.58***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.58***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.51***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.37***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.5***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.31***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.29***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.6***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.93\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eASP\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.04*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.36***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.36***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.46***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.47***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.53***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.12\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.22***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.35***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.55\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.35\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCAF\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.28\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.51***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.62***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.75***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.73***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.67***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.42***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.01***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.65***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.8\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.67\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.61\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIBU\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.19\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.14\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.17\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.03*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.15***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.17***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.37\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.18\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.55\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.22\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDIA\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.45***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.45***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.49***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.44***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.47***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.23***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.25***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.51***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.66\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.47\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.64\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.76\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.43\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTRA\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.12***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.54***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.55***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.7***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.71***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e-0.71***\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.04*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.3***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.44***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.48\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.32\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.75\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.69\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c15\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.15\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c16\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e0.71\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c17\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec18\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.5 Risk Assessment\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe estimated RQ for 3 trophic levels in the surface water, waste stabilization ponds water, and hospital wastewater are shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003ea-c. The RQ for all pharmaceuticals in analysed to 3 trophic levels selected could pose low to medium risk. The RQs ranged from 0.0 to 0.191 for surface water, 0.0002 to 0.209 for waste stabilization ponds water, and 0.0\\u0026ndash;0.295 for hospital wastewater. The RQ for ibuprofen was highest, being 0.191, 0.209, and 0.295 for exposure to daphnia in surface water, waste stabilization pond water, and hospital wastewater, respectively, indicating a medium toxicity risk. Maximum tramadol concentration found in WSP water will also exert a medium risk to algae, daphnia, and fish with RQ values of 0.18, 0.19, and 0.12, respectively. The RQ for ibuprofen in hospital wastewater studied was 0.295 for fishes, indicating medium risk. This contradicts RQ of 30.0 reported by Otoo et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) for ibuprofen in hospital wastewater studied in Sunyani, Ghana. Generally, the ecotoxicological relevance of analgesics is a cause for concern in several natural water domains, mainly in low-income countries where their use is every day and sometimes uncontrolled (Ripanda et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR31\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), somewhat different from the European situation (Bean et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR6\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). Ibuprofen concentration in the surface water, waste stabilization ponds water, and hospital wastewater studied could pose a medium risk with RQ values of 0.128, 0.139, and 0.197, respectively. Studies have revealed that ibuprofen can impact fish reproduction by male fish feminization (G\\u0026oacute;mez-Canela et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2019\\u003c/span\\u003e; Hong et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e). Male fish feminization can reduce the fish population and, hence, have an economic impact. Therefore, RQ of ibuprofen is of great concern as there are no legislation controlling the sale and consumption of pharmaceutical in Ghana.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eAll 7 pharmaceuticals analysed were found in all hospital effluent, waste stabilisation ponds, and surface water, indicating their occurrence in the aquatic systems in Obuasi municipality. Caffeine, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and tramadol were found in all samples with concentrations within tens of \\u0026micro;g/L in decreasing order. Hence, they could be considered part of the possible dangerous compounds from an environmental risk point of view in the study area in Ghana. Risk quotients computed for pharmaceuticals in the various ecological compartments for algae, daphnia, and fish were, in most instances, low risk, with few cases of medium risk. Based on the risk assessment calculated, ibuprofen and tramadol posed a medium threat to aquatic organisms. This study has revealed the occurrence and estimated the possible risk posed by these pharmaceuticals; there is, therefore a need for effective implementation of legislation related to the sale and consumption of pharmaceuticals. In addition, regular monitoring of pharmaceuticals in the environment will play an essential role in identifying the primary causes and vulnerable points of occurrence in the environment.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eAll authors have read, understood, and have complied as applicable with the statement on \\u0026quot;Ethical responsibilities of Authors\\u0026quot; as found in the Instructions for Authors\\u0026rdquo;.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors also declare that there are no conflicts of interest.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eFunding\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThis research received no funding from any institution.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAcknowledgements\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAuthors would like to thank the Department of Chemical Engineering, KsTU, and CREEK, KsTU, for using their facilities for this study. Finally, the authors are grateful to Mr Smith Cole Ampaabeng Kyeremeh, Mr James Darmey, and Prof. Sampson Kofi Kyei for their technical support.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAuthorship contribution statement\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eDavid Azanu: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eCharles Ato Arthur: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eDavid Adu-Poku: \\u0026nbsp;Supervision, validation, Project administration\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAbenaa Owusuwaa Adu: Review editing, Validation, Data curation\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAgnes Oppong: Data analysis, visualization, Project administration\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTimothy Abane Alemya: Writing, Validation, Investigation\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAvailability of data and material\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;Not applicable in this section.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eAdjei, J. K., Dayie, A. D., Addo, J. K., Asamoah, A., Amoako, E. O., Egoh, B. Y., Bekoe, E., et al. (2022). Occurrence, ecological risk assessment and source apportionment of pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones and xenoestrogens in the Ghanaian aquatic environments. \\u003cem\\u003eToxicology Reports\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e9\\u003c/em\\u003e(June), 1398\\u0026ndash;1409. Elsevier B.V. doi: \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003e10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.06.011\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.06.011\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eAmerican Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation. (1999). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 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(2022). Solid waste management in hospitals: A comparative assessment in some selected hospitals in Obuasi Municipality of Ghana. \\u003cem\\u003eCleaner Waste Systems\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e3\\u003c/em\\u003e(December 2021), 100025. Elsevier. doi: \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003e10.1016/j.clwas.2022.100025\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1016/j.clwas.2022.100025\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eWu, K., Lu, W., and Yan, X. (2023). Potential adverse actions of prenatal exposure of acetaminophen to offspring. Frontiers in Pharmacology. doi: \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003e10.3389/fphar.2023.1094435\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.3389/fphar.2023.1094435\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eYao, S., Ye, J., Yang, Q., Hu, Y., Zhang, T., Jiang, L., Munezero, S., et al. (2021). Occurrence and removal of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance genes, and bacterial communities in hospital wastewater. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. doi: \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003e10.1007/s11356-021-14735-3\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1007/s11356-021-14735-3\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Pharmaceuticals, hospital wastewater, waste stabilization ponds, ecological risk, risk quotient\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3833712/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3833712/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe occurrence of pharmaceutical compounds in surface water is of global concern. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the occurrence of acetaminophen, caffeine, ibuprofen, diclofenac, aspirin, diazepam, and tramadol in water samples from hospitals, waste stabilisation ponds, and river in the Obuasi metropolis, Ghana. Solid phase extraction (SPE) sample preparation followed by analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was performed on the water samples. The removal efficiency of these pharmaceuticals by waste stabilisation ponds in the study area was also determined. Finally, the ecological risk posed by pharmaceuticals analysed was estimated as risk quotient (RQ). All seven pharmaceuticals analysed were found in all hospital effluent, waste stabilisation ponds, and surface water, indicating their occurrence in the aquatic systems in Obuasi municipality. Acetaminophen was the most prevalent compound found in this study, with a maximum concentration of 23.0 \\u0026micro;g/L, while diazepam was the least pervasive compound, with a maximum concentration of 2.0 \\u0026micro;g/L. The percentage removal efficiency of the waste stabilisation pond ranged from 61.5 to 82.2%. The RQs ranged from 0.0 to 0.191 for surface water, 0.0002 to 0.209 for waste stabilization pond water, and 0.0\\u0026ndash;0.295 for hospital wastewater. This indicates that the RQ for all pharmaceuticals analysed could pose low to medium risk. This study has revealed the occurrence and estimated the possible threat posed by these pharmaceuticals; thereby staking a justifiable claim for an urgent action against the removal of pharmaceuticals in water. ,\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Occurrence and Ecological Risk of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Water Samples From Obuasi Metropolis of Ghana\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2024-01-15 12:15:33\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3833712/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"d828745b-d648-4866-a0c9-d57583e0ae71\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"January 15th, 2024\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2024-11-13T11:08:22+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2024-01-15 12:15:33\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-3833712\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-3833712\",\"identity\":\"rs-3833712\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}