{"paper_id":"2e97fd5f-e262-448a-a602-d5d099e66500","body_text":"Student Perceptions that their Instructor Knows their Name Predicts College Classroom Belonging: Additional Concerns for Underrepresented Students | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Short Report Student Perceptions that their Instructor Knows their Name Predicts College Classroom Belonging: Additional Concerns for Underrepresented Students Chelsea Romney, Ashley Fraser This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6231103/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Positive college classroom experiences are essential to educational success, particularly for students in underrepresented groups, including transfer students, financial aid recipients, and underrepresented racial minority (URM) students. The present study investigated relations between these three student characteristics with class participation and class rating both directly, and indirectly through perceptions that the instructor knew the student’s name and belongingness. Participants included 271 students at a major U.S. Westcoast university (70% URM; 39% transfer students; 39% financial aid recipients) across multiple course sections. First, a confirmatory factor analysis for the classroom belongingness measure was performed with adequate results. Next, a structural equation model tested effects of transfer, financial aid, URM status on perceptions of known name, which then predicted student participation, class rating, and belongingness. Results showed positive direct and indirect effects of student perceptions that their instructor knew their name on belongingness, class rating and class participation. However, URM status was negatively related to all classroom outcomes via negative relations with known name and belongingness. Transfer and financial aid status were not significantly related to the outcomes. Findings reveal that URM students’ perceptions that their instructor does not know their name can greatly influence their classroom experience on college campuses. This is a relatively easy point of intervention for college instructors that could go a long way toward equitable education. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction A feeling of inclusion and belonging in the college classroom is associated with student retention, persistence, engagement, and improved mental health [Gopalan & Brady, 2020; Hilton & Herman, 2017; O’Keefe, 2013]. This is especially true for first-generation and racially minoritized college students, populations that often need extra scaffolding and support to be successful in U.S. colleges and universities compared to majority populations [Gillen-O’Neel, 2021]. Vaccaro and Newman [2022] put forth a theoretical perspective based in the fields of evolutionary theory, social cognitive neuroscience, and psychosocial development that posit belonging as essential to the human experience broadly - and the college experience specifically, for individual flourishing and success within that environment. Flourishing in the academy can look like active participation and high ratings of university courses. College classroom belonging is particularly salient at the present moment as college campuses deal with racial and social class inequity, political polarization, and record numbers of student mental health challenges [Lipson et al., 2022; Ulbig, 2020]. Thus, the current study used a sample of over 250 U.S. undergrad students to seek to understand pathways by which belonging can increase student participation and class ratings, particularly for underrepresented, minoritized students. In line with Vacarro and Newmans’ [2022] theoretical model, researchers have shown that one relatively low-cost but high-yield way instructors can increase students’ ability to approach or relate to their teacher, build the student-teacher relationship, and foster a sense of belongingness in the classroom is to learn the names of each of their students [Gorham, 1988; Tanner, 2011; Zakrajsek, 2007]. Indeed, Cooper et al. [2017] identified that over 80 percent of a class of 185 students, students felt it was important for their teacher to know their name. Although this connection has been established, we know little about what contextual student factors are associated with student perceptions of their instructors’ participation in this inclusive practice. According to developmental psychologist Cynthia Garcia-Coll’s Integrative Model [1996], the most foundational contextual factors in students' lives consist of race, ethnicity, social class, and gender. These factors set the stage for all other developmental processes, including educational experiences. Therefore, we include indicators of these factors as the major predictors in the present study (i.e., transfer status, financial aid, race/ethnicity). Investigating the links between race/ethnicity and social class and student perceptions of having their name known can highlight key points for intervention toward all students’ feelings of belonging, which then perpetuate participation and high course ratings. The present model investigated whether students with different socioeconomic status, transfer status, or minoritized racial identity may be less likely to perceive their name is known by the instructor, and that this, in turn, may directly and indirectly affect their course ratings and participation via feelings of belongingness. We hypothesized that the identity-based factors of being a transfer student, self-reported race, and receiving financial aid would negatively influence how students perceived that their instructor knows their name, which in turn would negatively influence their sense of belonging, student ratings and participation overall. Method Sampling Framework & Procedures To collect data for the study, a survey battery of self-reported items was given to 271 college students taking a social science course at a major university in the Western United States of America. The sample self-identified their race, with 117 students identifying as Asian/Pacific Islander (43.2%), 80 students identifying as White (29.5%), 44 students identifying as Hispanic/Latine (16.2%), 15 students identifying as Black/African American (5.5%), and 15 students identifying as other (5.5%). Those who identified as Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic/Latine, and Black/African American were categorized as underrepresented minority status (URM). Students reported being at the current university for approximately two years ( M months = 20.03), with 105 students identifying as transfer students (38.7%) and 105 students reported that they were receiving needs-based financial aid (38.7%). The sample was drawn from a course that consisted of a bi-weekly didactic lecture given by the course professor to 321 students and weekly teaching assistant-led discussion sections consisting of approximately 20 students ( M =19.5, SD =.83). The teaching assistants were given instructions on a process for taking attendance in which students write their names on a seating chart at the beginning of each class but were not formally required to learn student names. The student survey was given at the end of the academic quarter. Consent forms were signed by each student and responses were deidentified to protect confidentiality. The methods and procedures were approved by the UCLA Office of the Human Research Protection Program (OHRPP) Institutional Review Board (IRB#18-000809), under the oversight of the UCLA Office of the Human Research Protection Program (OHRPP) in accordance with the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki, the Belmont Report, and all relevant federal regulations, including 45 CFR 46. All methods were carried out in accordance with these relevant guidelines and regulations. Measures Demographics Students completed a paper survey at one timepoint. Transfer status was assessed as a binary measure where a student would respond yes or no as to their transfer student status. Race/ethnic identity was assessed using a listing of 5 racial groups, along with a category for “other” and financial aid status was assessed with a yes or no question as to whether the student received any need-based financial aid. Study Measures Students were asked to indicate how much they perceived their section instructor knew their name on a 5-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree, identical to the item used in Cooper et al. [2017]. Due to the multimodal nature of student-professor interactions, we wanted to capture this nuance with a Likert scale, opposed to a binary question. For example, a student may feel that a professor knows their name when grading online from a gradebook but does not use their name in class when addressing them in front of their peers. Students completed a self-reported belongingness scale adjusted from Hoffman et al. [2002]. This scale was composed of 10 questions used to determine the student’s sense of belongingness and was assessed on a 5-point Likert scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree) (see full scale in Supplementary Material). Student’s motivation to participate and perception of the course quality were each assessed using one item each with Likert scale response options. Analytical Strategy Data was first assessed in SPSS v.28 to see if it met the assumptions for linearity, independence, normality, equality of variance and multicollinearity. Next, a confirmatory factor analysis, which is a statistical analysis that establishes the appropriateness of the factor structure (i.e., alignment) of an observed set of variables (i.e., survey items) as representative of a larger theoretical construct, in MPLUS v.8 [Muthén & Muthén, 2024] estimated the strength and appropriateness of the belonging measure (Figure 1) given the scale had been tested using EFA previously [Hoffman et.al, 2002], but no CFA information had been reported. To test CFA model fit we used fit indices commonly used in statistical analysis using the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis coefficient (TLI), and the standardized root mean residual (SRMR) (Wang & Wang, 2019]. Each fit index is measured by a cutoff number that indicates a good fit. For RMSEA the cutoff indicates that values below .08 are acceptable, for CFI and TLI, a value of 0.9 or greater indicates good fit and for SRMR a value at or below .08 indicates good fit. Wang and Wang (2019] indicate that for a well-fitting CFA model, at least 3 of the 4 fit statistics should be in place. A structural equation model, which is a multivariate statistical technique that uses linear equations to model complex relationships between multiple observed and latent variables at once, tested direct effects of student characteristics on the latent construct of belonging, course rating and participation. The model also assessed indirect effects where belonging mediated relations between student perception of their instructor knowing their name with course rating and participation (Figure 2). Results Descriptive statistics and correlations between all variables of interest can be seen in Table 1 . Data met normality assumptions. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) The first analysis of the CFA revealed fit statistics that were below the cut offs indicated by Wang and Wang [2012] and modification indices indicated that three of indicators’ residual error were highly correlated. Additionally, two of the items in the scale, “had section friends” and “disliked by students in the section” had disproportionately low factor loadings (.35-.39) compared to the rest of the items (> .63). Theoretically, we could see how peer relations within the section were qualitatively different from feeling a general belonging in the class and so we dropped these items. We also added the necessary residual error correlation in the next CFA, and the model produced good fit (RMSEA = .04, CFI = .99, TLI = .99, and SRMR = .03). See full results for the CFA in Fig. 1. Structural Equation Model (SEM) The final step in our analysis was to run the structural equation model testing for direct and indirect effects (i.e., relations between predictors and outcomes with and without mediating variables). The model had good fit (RMSEA = .05, CFI = .97, TLI = .95, and SRMR = .04). See all parameter estimates in Fig. 2. See Fig. 2 and Table 2 for the R-Squared values of the SEM model outcomes and parameter estimates for all direct and indirect effects. There were significant relations between known name and our latent belonging variable, and belonging with both participation and class ratings, leading to positive direct and indirect effects. However, significant negative direct and indirect relations emerged between URM status and both known name and belonging, leading to negative total effects on the outcomes of interest for URM students. Direct and indirect effects of transfer status and financial aid status were not as salient to the model outcomes as URM. Discussion The present study aimed to assess how aspects of college student identity influenced student course ratings and motivation to participate in the classroom. We hypothesized that the students’ feelings of belongingness would be influenced by their perception that their name is known by the instructor and, in turn, would affect their rating of the course and their willingness to participate in class. We tested both direct and indirect effects (see all parameter estimates in Table 2 ). Our final CFA model results revealed that the indicators used to measure “belongingness” were significant below the ( p < .001) level and that the construct was unidimensional, only measuring one latent variable. Further, our SEM model indicated significant positive direct and indirect effects between student perceptions of having their name known by their instructor and an increased sense of belongingness in the class, which was in turn significantly positively related to class rating and participation. Considering our three demographic predictors, indirect effects of transfer status and financial aid status on class belonging, participation, and rating were not significant. However, identifying as an URM student had a negative overall effect on class participation and rating (Table 2 ) because they perceived their instructor did not know their name as well as non-URM students and felt less belonging in the classroom. Thus, the positive relations between known name and belonging on participation and rating was effectively flipped for URM students. Findings suggest that if URM students do not feel their instructor has taken the time and care to learn their name it will have a negative effect on their college experience. This is in line with the Integrative Model, which asserts that social class variables, and particularly being of minority status in the case of this study, is a primary indicator of school environment, which then promotes or inhibits adaptive culture and developmental competencies [Garcia-Coll, 1996]. URM students’ perceptions could be influenced by several things including perceived instructor racial bias or an experience where an instructor frequently mispronounces their name. Regardless, current findings show that instructor practices around knowing names have room for improvement regarding URM student success. Limitations and Future Directions Further research should include more covariates to get a better model which accounts for more of the variance in known name and lack of belongingness. Also, further research can examine if the student’s perception that their name is known is identifying a mispronunciation of the student's name per their culture/nationality or a total lack of knowing the student’s name. Future research might also investigate how the teacher's ethnicity and language influence how the student perceives whether their name is known. Taken together, students’ perception that their instructor knows their name influences their course rating and motivation to participate in the classroom, through their feelings of belongingness. Given that minoritized college students had lower perceptions that their instructor knew their name and are also found to be at risk for lack of belonging [Burke, 2022 ] and at increased risk for mental health issues [Smith, 2014], instructors who seek to have an inclusive classroom environment should make targeted efforts to learn the names of URM students. Instructors who are concerned about their ability to memorize students’ names should refer to Cooper et al. [ 2017 ], who found that the use of name tents in a high-enrollment undergraduate class resulted in 78% of students reporting that their instructor knew their name, while a test revealed that the same instructor knew only 53% of student’s names. In sum, learning and using students’ names in the classroom can and should be a part of any inclusive instructors’ classroom practices. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations between all Study Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. URM 2. Financial Aid .14* 3. Transfer Status − .08 .07 4. Known Name − .21** − .02 .03 5. Belonging − .19** − .06 .09 .28** 6. Participation − .14* − .02* − .08 .36** .30** 7. Rating − .06 − .09 .06 .19** .37** .11 Descriptive Statistics Minimum/Maximum 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/4 1.9/4 0/4 2/4 M (SD) .63 (0.48) .39 (0.48) .39 (0.48) 2.60 (1.14) 2.98 (0.46) 2.65 (0.95) 2.99 (0.78) *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Table 2 Standardized Direct and Indirect Effects for Belonging, Class Rating, and Participation (significant paths bolded.) Outcome: Belonging Parameter Estimate (SE) p-value URM Status→ Belonging − .13 (.06) .038 Transfer Status → Belonging .08 (.07) .255 Fin Aid Recipient → Belonging − .04 (.07) .520 Known Name → Belonging .26 (.07) < .001 URM Status→ Known Name → Belonging − .06 (.02) .005 Transfer Status→ Known Name → Belonging - - Fin Aid Recipient→ Known Name → Belonging - - Total Effect on Belonging − .18 (.06) .003 Outcome: Class Rating Parameter Estimate (SE) p-value URM Status→ Class Rating .04 (.06) .465 Transfer Status → Class Rating − .06 (.06) .273 Fin Aid Recipient → Class Rating .04 (.06) .485 Known Name → Class Rating .09 (.07) .192 Known Name → Belonging→ Class Rating .10 (.03) .002 URM Status→ Belonging→ Class Rating − .05 (.02) .048 Transfer Status→ Belonging→ Class Rating .03 (.03) .268 Fin Aid Recipient→ Belonging→ Class Rating − .02 (.02) .527 URM Status→ Known Name → Class Rating − .02 (.02) .238 URM Status→ Known Name → Belonging→ Class Rating − .02 (.01) .019 Total Effect on Class Rating − .09 (.03) .005 Outcome: Participation Parameter Estimate (SE) p-value URM Status→ Participation − .04 (.06) .497 Transfer Status → Participation − .12 (.06) .041 Fin Aid Recipient → Participation .02 (.05) .710 Known Name → Participation .30 (.06) < .001 Known Name → Belonging → Participation .06 (.03) .015 URM Status→ Belonging→ Participation − .03 (.02) .094 Transfer Status→ Belonging→ Participation .02 (.02) .296 Fin Aid Recipient→ Belonging→ Participation − .01 (.02) .550 URM Status→ Known Name → Participation − .06 (.02) .001 URM Status→ Known Name → Belonging→ Participation − .01 (.01) .043 Total Effect on Participation − .15 (.06) .019 Declarations Funding: This research was conducted without funding assistance. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript. Ethics : Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Data Availability : The datasets generated by the survey research during and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the Open Science Framework repository, DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/4Z723 Author Contribution C.R.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation and descriptive statistics, Data Visualization for Table 1, Writing- Original draft preparationA.F.: Data Analyses for the SEM models, Data Visualization for Table 2 and Figures 1 and 2, Writing- Significant contributions to draftBoth authors reviewed the manuscript. Data Availability The datasets generated by this research study are available in the Open Science Framework repository:doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/4Z723. References Burke, E. K., & Park, T. J. (2022). In search of self, belonging, and a degree: The lived experience of historically marginalized racial minority college commuter students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development , 50(3), 128–139. https://doi-org.byu.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/jmcd.12250 Cooper, K. M., Haney, B., Krieg, A., & Brownell, S. E. (2017). What’s in a name? The importance of students perceiving that an instructor knows their names in a high-enrollment biology classroom. CBE—Life Sciences Education , 16 (1), ar8. Garcia-Coll, C. G., Crnic, K., Lamberty, G., Wasik, B. H., Jenkins, R., Garcia, H. V., & McAdoo, H. P. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child development, 67 (5), 1891-1914. Gopalan, M., & Brady, S. T. (2020). College students’ sense of belonging: A national perspective. Educational Researcher , 49 (2), 134-137. Gorham, J. (1988). The relationship between verbal teacher immediacy behaviors and student learning. Communication education , 37 (1), 40-53. Hilton, M., & Herman, J. (Eds.). (2017). Supporting students' college success: The role of assessment of intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies . National Academies Press. Hoffman, M., Richmond, J., Morrow, J., & Salomone, K. (2002). Investigating “sense of belonging” in first-year college students. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice , 4 (3), 227-256. Lipson, S. K., Zhou, S., Abelson, S., Heinze, J., Jirsa, M., Morigney, J., ... & Eisenberg, D. (2022). Trends in college student mental health and help-seeking by race/ethnicity: Findings from the national healthy minds study, 2013–2021. Journal of Affective Disorders , 306 , 138-147. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2024). Mplus User's Guide. Eighth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén O'Keeffe, P. (2013). A sense of belonging: Improving student retention. College Student Journal , 47 (4), 605-613. Smith, K. M., Chesin, M. S., & Jeglic, E. L. (2014). Minority College Student Mental Health: Does Majority Status Matter? Implications for College Counseling Services. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development , 42 (2), 77–92. https://doi-org.byu.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2014.00046.x Tanner, K. D. (2011). Moving theory into practice: a reflection on teaching a large, introductory biology course for majors. CBE—Life Sciences Education , 10 (2), 113-122. Ulbig, S. G. (2020). Angry politics: Partisan hatred and political polarization among college students . University Press of Kansas. Vaccaro, A., & Newman, B. (2022). Theoretical foundations for sense of belonging in college. In The impact of a sense of belonging in college (pp. 3-20). Routledge. Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2019). Structural equation modeling: Applications using Mplus . John Wiley & Sons. Zakrajsek, T. (2007). Effective teaching when class size grows. APS Observer , 20 (5). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 10 Jun, 2025 Reviews received at journal 04 Jun, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jun, 2025 Reviews received at journal 14 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 May, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 05 May, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 28 Apr, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 21 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 21 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-6231103\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Short Report\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":453464707,\"identity\":\"2d02aa4f-193c-4744-b081-7ae337ea405c\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Chelsea Romney\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC/hkMjAdADPsGMN8mAUzx4NEicYOBAazFAEwypBHWYhCBquUwEVqkmw8c/FFhx2BwvDvtwce283kGNxIYH7xtw6NF5ljCYZ4zyQz2PWe3G85su10M1MJsOBefFokcg8OMbcwMdhK526R5224nbriRwAZk4NOS/+Hgz3/1DMYgLX/bzoG0sP/GqyUih+EAb8NhBsMZQC2MbQfAtjDj0yJxI83gMM+x4wwGZ85uk+w5l1wseeZhs+Scc7i18M9IfvjwR001MMR6t0n8KLPL4zuefPDDmzLcWmCgvgFEMrIxMCgcYGwgrB4B/jAwyJOkYRSMglEwCkYCAADSIl3ho4D3qgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Brigham Young University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Chelsea\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Romney\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":453464708,\"identity\":\"7c4e497d-f575-48b4-9e2a-a0d41aa84a73\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Ashley Fraser\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Brigham Young University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Ashley\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Fraser\",\"suffix\":\"\"}],\"badges\":[],\"createdAt\":\"2025-03-15 07:23:08\",\"currentVersionCode\":1,\"declarations\":\"\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6231103/v1\",\"doiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6231103/v1\",\"draftVersion\":[],\"editorialEvents\":[],\"editorialNote\":\"\",\"failedWorkflow\":false,\"files\":[{\"id\":82356081,\"identity\":\"68199448-1756-41c8-91c9-790d876d2551\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-05-09 11:16:52\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":65276,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eCFA Results for Belongingness Measure\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"1.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6231103/v1/0fd1add333eb890d9ac6cb9a.jpg\"},{\"id\":82356083,\"identity\":\"1efb516b-1f03-4f48-a4c9-268dbed933b7\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-05-09 11:16:52\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":69467,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eStructural Equation Model testing for Direct and Indirect Effects\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"2.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6231103/v1/555de4d6b352781db25b071e.jpg\"},{\"id\":82359790,\"identity\":\"88ac75ac-f666-4cb2-9b07-13c6c7c74f28\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-05-09 11:32:57\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":951646,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6231103/v1/53d4d947-72d9-4219-b0d4-46d868974752.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Student Perceptions that their Instructor Knows their Name Predicts College Classroom Belonging: Additional Concerns for Underrepresented Students\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eA feeling of inclusion and belonging in the college classroom is associated with student retention, persistence, engagement, and improved mental health [Gopalan \\u0026amp; Brady, 2020; Hilton \\u0026amp; Herman, 2017; O\\u0026rsquo;Keefe, 2013]. This is especially true for first-generation and racially minoritized college students, populations that often need extra scaffolding and support to be successful in U.S. colleges and universities compared to majority populations [Gillen-O\\u0026rsquo;Neel, 2021]. Vaccaro and Newman [2022] put forth a theoretical perspective based in the fields of evolutionary theory, social cognitive neuroscience, and psychosocial development that posit belonging as essential to the human experience broadly - and the college experience specifically, for individual flourishing and success within that environment. Flourishing in the academy can look like active participation and high ratings of university courses. College classroom belonging is particularly salient at the present moment as college campuses deal with racial and social class inequity, political polarization, and record numbers of student mental health challenges [Lipson et al., 2022; Ulbig, 2020]. Thus, the current study used a sample of over 250 U.S. undergrad students to seek to understand pathways by which belonging can increase student participation and class ratings, particularly for underrepresented, minoritized students.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn line with Vacarro and Newmans\\u0026rsquo; [2022] theoretical model, researchers have shown that one relatively low-cost but high-yield way instructors can increase students\\u0026rsquo; ability to approach or relate to their teacher, build the student-teacher relationship, and foster a sense of belongingness in the classroom is to learn the names of each of their students [Gorham, 1988; Tanner, 2011; Zakrajsek, 2007]. Indeed, Cooper et al. [2017] identified that over 80 percent of a class of 185 students, students felt it was important for their teacher to know their name. Although this connection has been established, we know little about what contextual student factors are associated with student perceptions of their instructors\\u0026rsquo; participation in this inclusive practice. According to developmental psychologist Cynthia Garcia-Coll\\u0026rsquo;s Integrative Model [1996], the most foundational contextual factors in students\\u0026apos; lives consist of race, ethnicity, social class, and gender. These factors set the stage for all other developmental processes, including educational experiences. Therefore, we include indicators of these factors as the major predictors in the present study (i.e., transfer status, financial aid, race/ethnicity). \\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eInvestigating the links between race/ethnicity and social class and student perceptions of having their name known can highlight key points for intervention toward all students\\u0026rsquo; feelings of belonging, which then perpetuate participation and high course ratings. The present model investigated whether students with different socioeconomic status, transfer status, or minoritized racial identity may be less likely to perceive their name is known by the instructor, and that this, in turn, may directly and indirectly affect their course ratings and participation via feelings of belongingness. We hypothesized that the identity-based factors of being a transfer student, self-reported race, and receiving financial aid would negatively influence how students perceived that their instructor knows their name, which in turn would negatively influence their sense of belonging, student ratings and participation overall.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Method\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eSampling Framework \\u0026amp; Procedures\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTo collect data for the study, a survey battery of self-reported items was given to 271 college students taking a social science course at a major university in the Western United States of America. The sample self-identified their race, with 117 students identifying as Asian/Pacific Islander (43.2%), 80 students identifying as White (29.5%), 44 students identifying as Hispanic/Latine (16.2%), 15 students identifying as Black/African American (5.5%), and 15 students identifying as other (5.5%). Those who identified as Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic/Latine, and Black/African American were categorized as underrepresented minority status (URM). Students reported being at the current university for approximately two years (\\u003cem\\u003eM\\u003csub\\u003emonths\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e = 20.03), with 105 students identifying as transfer students (38.7%) and 105 students reported that they were receiving needs-based financial aid (38.7%).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe sample was drawn from a course that consisted of a bi-weekly didactic lecture \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp;given by the course professor to 321 students and weekly teaching assistant-led discussion sections consisting of approximately 20 students (\\u003cem\\u003eM\\u003c/em\\u003e=19.5, \\u003cem\\u003eSD\\u003c/em\\u003e=.83). The teaching assistants were given instructions on a process for taking attendance in which students write their names on a seating chart at the beginning of each class but were not formally required to learn student names. The student survey was given at the end of the academic quarter. Consent forms were signed by each student and responses were deidentified to protect confidentiality. The methods and procedures were approved by the UCLA Office of the Human Research Protection Program (OHRPP) Institutional Review Board (IRB#18-000809), under the oversight of the UCLA Office of the Human Research Protection Program (OHRPP) in accordance with the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki, the Belmont Report, and all relevant federal regulations, including 45 CFR 46. All methods were carried out in accordance with these relevant guidelines and regulations.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eMeasures\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eDemographics\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eStudents completed a paper survey at one timepoint. Transfer status was assessed as a binary measure where a student would respond yes or no as to their transfer student status. Race/ethnic identity was assessed using a listing of 5 racial groups, along with a category for \\u0026ldquo;other\\u0026rdquo; and financial aid status was assessed with a yes or no question as to whether the student received any need-based financial aid.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eStudy Measures\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eStudents were asked to indicate how much they perceived their section instructor knew their name on a 5-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree, identical to the item used in Cooper et al. [2017]. Due to the multimodal nature of student-professor interactions, we wanted to capture this nuance with a Likert scale, opposed to a binary question. For example, a student may feel that a professor knows their name when grading online from a gradebook but does not use their name in class when addressing them in front of their peers. Students completed a self-reported belongingness scale adjusted from Hoffman et al. [2002]. This scale was composed of 10 questions used to determine the student\\u0026rsquo;s sense of belongingness and was assessed on a 5-point Likert scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree) (see full scale in Supplementary Material). Student\\u0026rsquo;s motivation to participate and perception of the course quality were each assessed using one item each with Likert scale response options.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAnalytical Strategy\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eData was first assessed in SPSS v.28 to see if it met the assumptions for linearity, independence, normality, equality of variance and multicollinearity. Next, a confirmatory factor analysis, which is a statistical analysis that establishes the appropriateness of the factor structure (i.e., alignment) of an observed set of variables (i.e., survey items) as representative of a larger theoretical construct, in MPLUS v.8 [Muth\\u0026eacute;n \\u0026amp; Muth\\u0026eacute;n, 2024] estimated the strength and appropriateness of the belonging measure (Figure 1) given the scale had been tested using EFA previously [Hoffman et.al, 2002], but no CFA information had been reported. To test CFA model fit we used fit indices commonly used in statistical analysis using the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis coefficient (TLI), and the standardized root mean residual (SRMR) (Wang \\u0026amp; Wang, 2019]. Each fit index is measured by a cutoff number that indicates a good fit. For RMSEA the cutoff indicates that values below .08 are acceptable, for CFI and TLI, a value of 0.9 or greater indicates good fit and for SRMR a value at or below .08 indicates good fit. Wang and Wang (2019] indicate that for a well-fitting CFA model, at least 3 of the 4 fit statistics should be in place. A structural equation model, which is a multivariate statistical technique that uses linear equations to model complex relationships between multiple observed and latent variables at once, tested direct effects of student characteristics on the latent construct of belonging, course rating and participation. The model also assessed indirect effects where belonging mediated relations between student perception of their instructor knowing their name with course rating and participation (Figure 2).\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eDescriptive statistics and correlations between all variables of interest can be seen in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e. Data met normality assumptions.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eConfirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe first analysis of the CFA revealed fit statistics that were below the cut offs indicated by Wang and Wang [2012] and modification indices indicated that three of indicators\\u0026rsquo; residual error were highly correlated. Additionally, two of the items in the scale, \\u0026ldquo;had section friends\\u0026rdquo; and \\u0026ldquo;disliked by students in the section\\u0026rdquo; had disproportionately low factor loadings (.35-.39) compared to the rest of the items (\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;.63). Theoretically, we could see how peer relations within the section were qualitatively different from feeling a general belonging in the class and so we dropped these items. We also added the necessary residual error correlation in the next CFA, and the model produced good fit (RMSEA\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.04, CFI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.99, TLI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.99, and SRMR\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.03). See full results for the CFA in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;1.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eStructural Equation Model (SEM)\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe final step in our analysis was to run the structural equation model testing for direct and indirect effects (i.e., relations between predictors and outcomes with and without mediating variables). The model had good fit (RMSEA\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.05, CFI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.97, TLI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.95, and SRMR\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.04). See all parameter estimates in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;2. See Fig.\\u0026nbsp;2 and Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e for the R-Squared values of the SEM model outcomes and parameter estimates for all direct and indirect effects. There were significant relations between known name and our latent belonging variable, and belonging with both participation and class ratings, leading to positive direct and indirect effects. However, significant negative direct and indirect relations emerged between URM status and both known name and belonging, leading to negative total effects on the outcomes of interest for URM students. Direct and indirect effects of transfer status and financial aid status were not as salient to the model outcomes as URM.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe present study aimed to assess how aspects of college student identity influenced student course ratings and motivation to participate in the classroom. We hypothesized that the students\\u0026rsquo; feelings of belongingness would be influenced by their perception that their name is known by the instructor and, in turn, would affect their rating of the course and their willingness to participate in class. We tested both direct and indirect effects (see all parameter estimates in Table \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). Our final CFA model results revealed that the indicators used to measure \\u0026ldquo;belongingness\\u0026rdquo; were significant below the (\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;.001) level and that the construct was unidimensional, only measuring one latent variable. Further, our SEM model indicated significant positive direct and indirect effects between student perceptions of having their name known by their instructor and an increased sense of belongingness in the class, which was in turn significantly positively related to class rating and participation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eConsidering our three demographic predictors, indirect effects of transfer status and financial aid status on class belonging, participation, and rating were not significant. However, identifying as an URM student had a negative overall effect on class participation and rating (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e) because they perceived their instructor did not know their name as well as non-URM students and felt less belonging in the classroom. Thus, the positive relations between known name and belonging on participation and rating was effectively flipped for URM students. Findings suggest that if URM students do not feel their instructor has taken the time and care to learn their name it will have a negative effect on their college experience. This is in line with the Integrative Model, which asserts that social class variables, and particularly being of minority status in the case of this study, is a primary indicator of school environment, which then promotes or inhibits adaptive culture and developmental competencies [Garcia-Coll, 1996]. URM students\\u0026rsquo; perceptions could be influenced by several things including perceived instructor racial bias or an experience where an instructor frequently mispronounces their name. Regardless, current findings show that instructor practices around knowing names have room for improvement regarding URM student success.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eLimitations and Future Directions\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFurther research should include more covariates to get a better model which accounts for more of the variance in known name and lack of belongingness. Also, further research can examine if the student\\u0026rsquo;s perception that their name is known is identifying a mispronunciation of the student's name per their culture/nationality or a total lack of knowing the student\\u0026rsquo;s name. Future research might also investigate how the teacher's ethnicity and language influence how the student perceives whether their name is known.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTaken together, students\\u0026rsquo; perception that their instructor knows their name influences their course rating and motivation to participate in the classroom, through their feelings of belongingness. Given that minoritized college students had lower perceptions that their instructor knew their name and are also found to be at risk for lack of belonging [Burke, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e] and at increased risk for mental health issues [Smith, 2014], instructors who seek to have an inclusive classroom environment should make targeted efforts to learn the names of URM students. Instructors who are concerned about their ability to memorize students\\u0026rsquo; names should refer to Cooper et al. [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e], who found that the use of name tents in a high-enrollment undergraduate class resulted in 78% of students reporting that their instructor knew their name, while a test revealed that the same instructor knew only 53% of student\\u0026rsquo;s names. In sum, learning and using students\\u0026rsquo; names in the classroom can and should be a part of any inclusive instructors\\u0026rsquo; classroom practices.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Correlations between all Study Variables\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1. URM\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2. Financial Aid\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.14*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3. Transfer Status\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.08\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.07\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4. Known Name\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.21**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.02\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.03\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5. Belonging\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.19**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.06\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.09\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.28**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e6. Participation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.14*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.02*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.08\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.36**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.30**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7. Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.06\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.09\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.06\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.19**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.37**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDescriptive Statistics\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMinimum/Maximum\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0/1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0/1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0/1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0/4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.9/4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0/4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2/4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eM (SD)\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.63 (0.48)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.39 (0.48)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.39 (0.48)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.60 (1.14)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.98 (0.46)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.65 (0.95)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.99 (0.78)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eStandardized Direct and Indirect Effects for Belonging, Class Rating, and Participation (significant paths bolded.)\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOutcome: Belonging\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eParameter Estimate (SE)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep-value\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.13 (.06)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.038\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTransfer Status \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.08 (.07)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.255\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFin Aid Recipient \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.04 (.07)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.520\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eKnown Name \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.26 (.07)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;.001\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Known Name \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.06 (.02)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.005\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTransfer Status\\u0026rarr; Known Name \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFin Aid Recipient\\u0026rarr; Known Name \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eTotal Effect on Belonging\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.18 (.06)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.003\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOutcome: Class Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eParameter Estimate (SE)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep-value\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.04 (.06)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.465\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTransfer Status \\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.06 (.06)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.273\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFin Aid Recipient \\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.04 (.06)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.485\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eKnown Name \\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.09 (.07)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.192\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eKnown Name \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.10 (.03)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.002\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.05 (.02)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.048\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTransfer Status\\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.03 (.03)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.268\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFin Aid Recipient\\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.02 (.02)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.527\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Known Name \\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.02 (.02)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.238\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Known Name \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Class Rating\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.02 (.01)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.019\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eTotal Effect on Class Rating\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.09 (.03)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.005\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOutcome: Participation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eParameter Estimate (SE)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep-value\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.04 (.06)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.497\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eTransfer Status \\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.12 (.06)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.041\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFin Aid Recipient \\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.02 (.05)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.710\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eKnown Name \\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.30 (.06)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;.001\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eKnown Name \\u0026rarr; Belonging \\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.06 (.03)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.015\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.03 (.02)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.094\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTransfer Status\\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.02 (.02)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.296\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFin Aid Recipient\\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.01 (.02)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e.550\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Known Name \\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.06 (.02)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.001\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eURM Status\\u0026rarr; Known Name \\u0026rarr; Belonging\\u0026rarr; Participation\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.01 (.01)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.043\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eTotal Effect on Participation\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;.15 (.06)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e.019\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003ch2\\u003eFunding:\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis research was conducted without funding assistance.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAll authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEthics\\u003c/b\\u003e: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003eData Availability\\u003c/b\\u003e: The datasets generated by the survey research during and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the Open Science Framework repository, DOI \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003e10.17605/OSF.IO/4Z723\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.17605/OSF.IO/4Z723\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eC.R.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation and descriptive statistics, Data Visualization for Table 1, Writing- Original draft preparationA.F.: Data Analyses for the SEM models, Data Visualization for Table 2 and Figures 1 and 2, Writing- Significant contributions to draftBoth authors reviewed the manuscript.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eData Availability\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe datasets generated by this research study are available in the Open Science Framework repository:doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/4Z723.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eBurke, E. K., \\u0026amp; Park, T. J. (2022). In search of self, belonging, and a degree: The lived experience of historically marginalized racial minority college commuter students.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Multicultural Counseling \\u0026amp; Development\\u003c/em\\u003e, 50(3), 128\\u0026ndash;139. https://doi-org.byu.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/jmcd.12250\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCooper, K. M., Haney, B., Krieg, A., \\u0026amp; Brownell, S. E. (2017). What\\u0026rsquo;s in a name? The importance of students perceiving that an instructor knows their names in a high-enrollment biology classroom. \\u003cem\\u003eCBE\\u0026mdash;Life Sciences Education\\u003c/em\\u003e,\\u003cem\\u003e 16\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), ar8. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eGarcia-Coll, C. G., Crnic, K., Lamberty, G., Wasik, B. H., Jenkins, R., Garcia, H. V., \\u0026amp;\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eMcAdoo, H. P. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. \\u003cem\\u003eChild development, 67\\u003c/em\\u003e(5), 1891-1914.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eGopalan, M., \\u0026amp; Brady, S. T. (2020). College students\\u0026rsquo; sense of belonging: A national perspective. \\u003cem\\u003eEducational Researcher\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e49\\u003c/em\\u003e(2), 134-137.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eGorham, J. (1988). The relationship between verbal teacher immediacy behaviors and student learning. \\u003cem\\u003eCommunication education\\u003c/em\\u003e,\\u003cem\\u003e 37\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 40-53. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHilton, M., \\u0026amp; Herman, J. (Eds.). (2017). \\u003cem\\u003eSupporting students\\u0026apos; college success: The role of assessment of intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies\\u003c/em\\u003e. National Academies Press.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHoffman, M., Richmond, J., Morrow, J., \\u0026amp; Salomone, K. (2002). Investigating \\u0026ldquo;sense of belonging\\u0026rdquo; in first-year college students. \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory \\u0026amp; Practice\\u003c/em\\u003e,\\u003cem\\u003e 4\\u003c/em\\u003e(3), 227-256. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eLipson, S. K., Zhou, S., Abelson, S., Heinze, J., Jirsa, M., Morigney, J., ... \\u0026amp; Eisenberg, D. (2022). Trends in college student mental health and help-seeking by race/ethnicity: Findings from the national healthy minds study, 2013\\u0026ndash;2021. \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Affective Disorders\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e306\\u003c/em\\u003e, 138-147. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eMuth\\u0026eacute;n, L. K., \\u0026amp; Muth\\u0026eacute;n, B. O. (1998-2024). Mplus User\\u0026apos;s Guide. Eighth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muth\\u0026eacute;n \\u0026amp; Muth\\u0026eacute;n\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eO\\u0026apos;Keeffe, P. (2013). A sense of belonging: Improving student retention. \\u003cem\\u003eCollege Student Journal\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e47\\u003c/em\\u003e(4), 605-613. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSmith, K. M., Chesin, M. S., \\u0026amp; Jeglic, E. L. (2014). Minority College Student Mental Health: Does Majority Status Matter? Implications for College Counseling Services. \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Multicultural Counseling \\u0026amp; Development\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e42\\u003c/em\\u003e(2), 77\\u0026ndash;92. https://doi-org.byu.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2014.00046.x\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eTanner, K. D. (2011). Moving theory into practice: a reflection on teaching a large, introductory biology course for majors. \\u003cem\\u003eCBE\\u0026mdash;Life Sciences Education\\u003c/em\\u003e,\\u003cem\\u003e 10\\u003c/em\\u003e(2), 113-122. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eUlbig, S. G. (2020). \\u003cem\\u003eAngry politics: Partisan hatred and political polarization among college students\\u003c/em\\u003e. University Press of Kansas.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eVaccaro, A., \\u0026amp; Newman, B. (2022). Theoretical foundations for sense of belonging in college. In \\u003cem\\u003eThe impact of a sense of belonging in college\\u003c/em\\u003e (pp. 3-20). Routledge. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eWang, J., \\u0026amp; Wang, X. (2019). \\u003cem\\u003eStructural equation modeling: Applications using Mplus\\u003c/em\\u003e. John Wiley \\u0026amp; Sons. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eZakrajsek, T. (2007). Effective teaching when class size grows. \\u003cem\\u003eAPS Observer\\u003c/em\\u003e,\\u003cem\\u003e 20\\u003c/em\\u003e(5). \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"discover-education\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"diedu\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)\",\"snPcode\":\"44217\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3\",\"title\":\"Discover Education\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Discover Series\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6231103/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6231103/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003ePositive college classroom experiences are essential to educational success, particularly for students in underrepresented groups, including transfer students, financial aid recipients, and underrepresented racial minority (URM) students. The present study investigated relations between these three student characteristics with class participation and class rating both directly, and indirectly through perceptions that the instructor knew the student’s name and belongingness. Participants included 271 students at a major U.S. Westcoast university (70% URM; 39% transfer students; 39% financial aid recipients) across multiple course sections. First, a confirmatory factor analysis for the classroom belongingness measure was performed with adequate results. Next, a structural equation model tested effects of transfer, financial aid, URM status on perceptions of known name, which then predicted student participation, class rating, and belongingness. Results showed positive direct and indirect effects of student perceptions that their instructor knew their name on belongingness, class rating and class participation. However, URM status was negatively related to all classroom outcomes via negative relations with known name and belongingness. Transfer and financial aid status were not significantly related to the outcomes. Findings reveal that URM students’ perceptions that their instructor does not know their name can greatly influence their classroom experience on college campuses. This is a relatively easy point of intervention for college instructors that could go a long way toward equitable education.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Student Perceptions that their Instructor Knows their Name Predicts College Classroom Belonging: Additional Concerns for Underrepresented Students\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-05-09 11:16:48\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6231103/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2025-06-10T16:34:47+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-06-04T14:43:23+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"279088565891383621609792688715108473583\",\"date\":\"2025-06-03T21:49:50+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-05-14T09:15:45+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"229428095279958222183824303798726755933\",\"date\":\"2025-05-05T15:49:32+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-05-05T15:03:33+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-04-28T06:48:49+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-04-22T01:59:30+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Discover Education\",\"date\":\"2025-04-22T01:58:26+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"discover-education\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"diedu\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)\",\"snPcode\":\"44217\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3\",\"title\":\"Discover Education\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Discover Series\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"2514d6d4-aabd-416d-909c-dd741e73fd8c\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"May 9th, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"under-review\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-09-22T12:25:35+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-05-09 11:16:48\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-6231103\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-6231103\",\"identity\":\"rs-6231103\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}