{"paper_id":"2abe0db4-cef5-4d9c-9bec-c732bfad5625","body_text":"High-resolution non-invasive mapping of vertical heterogeneity in sandy soils of the Oak Openings Region using electromagnetic imaging and ground penetrating radar | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article High-resolution non-invasive mapping of vertical heterogeneity in sandy soils of the Oak Openings Region using electromagnetic imaging and ground penetrating radar Ahzegbobor Philips Aizebeokhai, Obinna Urom, Kennedy O. Doro This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7294433/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Traditional soil investigation methods involve laboratory analysis on soil cores or direct measurements of soil properties with in-situ sensors. These methods are, however, destructive, labour-intensive, and ineffective in capturing the spatial variation of soil properties. Geophysical methods provide a non-invasive approach to rapidly characterize soil properties distribution. Gaps, however, exist in the use of non-contact-based geophysical methods such as ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electromagnetic imaging (EMI) for characterizing the vertical variation of soil properties. This study assesses the use of EMI and GPR for quantifying the vertical variation of soil moisture content (SMC), soil organic matter (SOM), and soil texture. Co-located EMI and GPR surveys were conducted along 12 transects at the Stranahan Arboretum research site in Toledo, Ohio. Soil samples collected from nine locations along the transects were segmented into 63 subsamples and analysed for SMC, SOM, and soil texture. Apparent electrical conductivities (EC a ) from EMI were inverted to obtain lateral and vertical variations of soil electrical conductivity (EC), which captures three major lithostratigraphic units (sand, silty loam, and silt) found in soil cores within the top 2.0 m. Soil EC correlates with SMC, SOM and soil texture, with coefficient of determination (R 2 ) ranging from 59–91%. The GPR radargrams show reflectors consistent in delineating sandy and silty clay soils but unable to distinguish between sand and silt. These results validate the effectiveness of using EMI and GPR to delineate vertical variation of soil properties and characterize stratigraphic heterogeneity, expanding the possibilities for non-invasive three-dimensional (3D) soil properties mapping. Electromagnetic induction (EMI) Ground penetrating radar (GPR) Soil properties mapping Vertical variation Oak Openings Region Full Text Supplementary Files SupplementaryFile.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Aug, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 21 Aug, 2025 Editor invited by journal 12 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 06 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 04 Aug, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-7294433\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":503675294,\"identity\":\"6f07cd20-e2d2-40af-ae61-d858010164a9\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Ahzegbobor Philips Aizebeokhai\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,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\",\"orcid\":\"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4243-5622\",\"institution\":\"The University of Toledo\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Ahzegbobor\",\"middleName\":\"Philips\",\"lastName\":\"Aizebeokhai\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":503675295,\"identity\":\"f028c19c-1917-40b4-b31b-43d913fee8c9\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Obinna Urom\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Auburn University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Obinna\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Urom\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":503675296,\"identity\":\"2b1848d8-a382-4808-884d-cc3eb72e256a\",\"order_by\":2,\"name\":\"Kennedy O. 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