{"paper_id":"293918cf-4b89-446c-8ee7-46d42b7b24b5","body_text":"Enhancing Sustainable Control of Meloidogyne javanica in Tomato Plants: Leveraging Gamma Radiation-Induced Mutants of Trichoderma harzianum and Bacillus velezensis, with Optimal Combination Strategies | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Enhancing Sustainable Control of Meloidogyne javanica in Tomato Plants: Leveraging Gamma Radiation-Induced Mutants of Trichoderma harzianum and Bacillus velezensis, with Optimal Combination Strategies Mahsa Rostami, Samira Shahbazi, Reihaneh Soleimani, Abozar Ghorbani This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4191816/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Aug, 2024 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the efficacy of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp., as well as their gamma radiation-induced mutants, as potential biological control agents against Meloidogyne javanica in tomato plants. The research encompasses in vitro assays, greenhouse trials, and molecular identification methodologies to comprehensively evaluate the biocontrol potential of these agents. In vitro assessments reveal significant nematicidal activity, with Bacillus spp. demonstrating notable effectiveness in inhibiting nematode egg hatching (16-45%) and inducing second-stage juvenile mortality (30-46%). Greenhouse trials further confirm the efficacy of mutant isolates, particularly when combined with chitosan, in reducing nematode-induced damage to tomato plants. The combination of mutant isolates with chitosan reduces the proliferation rate (RF) of root-knot nematodes by 94%. By optimizing soil infection conditions with nematodes and modifying the application of the effective compound, the RF of nematodes decreases by 65-76%. Molecular identification identifies Bacillus velezensis and Trichoderma harzianum as promising candidates, exhibiting significant nematicidal activity. Overall, the study underscores the potential of combined biocontrol approaches for nematode management in agricultural settings. However, further research is essential to evaluate practical applications and long-term efficacy. These findings contribute to the development of sustainable alternatives to chemical nematicides, with potential implications for agricultural practices and crop protection strategies. Biological sciences/Microbiology Biological sciences/Plant sciences Biological sciences/Zoology Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Bacillus velezensis biocontrol potential combined biocontrol approaches gamma radiation-induced mutants Meloidogyne javanica Trichoderma harzianum Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction Root-knot nematodes ( Meloidogyne spp.) are a type of plant parasite that cause considerable damage to crops worldwide. Among them, Meloidogyne javanica is a particularly widespread threat that can infest a wide range of host plants and cause significant yield losses. Conventional methods of nematode control, often based on chemical nematicides, pose environmental risks and raise concerns about their long-term efficacy and safety. Alternative approaches are therefore increasingly being explored, with biological control emerging as a promising avenue. Utilizing the antagonistic properties of beneficial microorganisms offers a sustainable and environmentally friendly solution to reduce nematode damage while maintaining soil health and ecosystem integrity (Subedi, Thapa, & Shrestha, 2020). Microorganisms are integral to soil vitality, fostering plant growth, and development, and aiding in disease prevention. Leveraging their inherent mechanisms, these microorganisms can serve as effective biocontrol agents against various soil-borne pathogens. Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. are well-documented biocontrol agents known for their antagonistic activity against various plant pathogens, including nematodes. These microorganisms exert their effects through various mechanisms, such as competition for nutrients and space, production of antimicrobial compounds and stimulation of plant defense responses. In addition, their ability to colonize the rhizosphere and engage in mutualistic interactions with host plants further enhances their effectiveness in suppressing nematode populations (Bhat, Shakeel, Waqar, Handoo, & Khan, 2023). Past research has illustrated the considerable efficacy of fungal spores, hyphae, and metabolites from various strains of Trichoderma in combating root-knot nematodes, showing significant promise (TariqJaveed, Farooq, Al-Hazmi, Hussain, & Rehman, 2021). Also, Bacillus spp. has been shown to enhance plant growth parameters and reduce root-knot nematode damage(El-Nagdi & Abd-El-Khair, 2019). In recent years, advances in genetic manipulation have enabled the development of mutant strains of microorganisms with improved biocontrol capabilities. Through targeted genetic modification, these mutants exhibit improved traits tailored to control specific plant pathogens, including nematodes. By exploiting this genetic diversity, the researchers aim to optimize the efficacy and sustainability of biological control strategies to combat plant parasites (Youssef & Hassabo, 2020). As a mutagenic agent, gamma radiation provides a powerful tool for generating genetic variability and new microbial variants with desired traits. By exposing mutant strains of Trichoderma and Bacillus to gamma radiation, researchers seek to improve their biocontrol effect against plant pathogens while ensuring the stability and safety of these modified organisms in agricultural ecosystems (Manikandan et al., 2022; Soufi, Safaie, Shahbazi, & Mojerlou, 2021). This project offers a thorough investigation into the efficacy of mutant strains of Trichoderma harzianum and Bacillus velezensis , which have been subjected to gamma radiation, for the biological control of M. javanica in tomato plants. It aims to propose optimal application methods to effectively mitigate root-knot nematode damage. Utilizing a combination of in vitro assays, greenhouse trials, and molecular identification methodologies, we seek to demonstrate and assess their potential as sustainable alternatives to chemical nematicides. Materials And Methods Preparation of nematode and microorganisms Roots infected with Meloidogyne sp. were harvested from the greenhouse in Alborz province. Employing the single egg mass technique, the nematodes were cultured on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Early Urbana) roots. The perineal pattern of mature females served as the basis for identifying the root-knot nematode species (Eisenback, 1985). Nematode eggs were extracted from the galled roots using sodium hypochlorite (Hussey & Barker, 1973). After rinsing with tap water, the infected roots were sliced into 2–3 cm-long segments and blended with 0.5% NaOCl solution. The blending process lasted for 30 seconds at low speed, after which the mixture was sieved successively through 20-, 200-, and 500-mesh/in. sieves. Eggs retained on the 500-mesh sieve were gently rinsed with water to remove NaOCl residue and collected in a Petri dish. Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp., including both wild-type strains and gamma radiation-induced mutants, were obtained from the Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute of Iran. The antagonistic ability of isolates against some plant pathogens has been proven (Sahampoor, Zaker Tavallaie, Fani, & Shahbazi, 2020, Afsharmanesh et al., 2013). Identification was carried out through a combination of biochemical assays and morphological examinations (Miranda, Martins, & Clementino, 2008; Rifai, 1969). Purified cultures of Trichoderma were cultivated on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium and preserved at 4ºC for future applications. As for the Bacillus strain, long-term storage was facilitated at -70°C in Nutrient Broth supplemented with 30% glycerol. Screening of microorganism's activity against nematode In vitro evaluation of the nematicidal ability of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. Two isolates, Trichoderma NAS120 and NAS120-M44, were cultured in Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB) in 250 ml flasks for one week at a temperature of 28°C±2 in a shaker-incubator. Subsequently, 100 ml of each culture was centrifuged for 20 minutes at 1500 rpm and filtered through 0.45 μm filters (Whatman™). The resulting filtered cultures were then assessed on a Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium to ensure they were free from cells (Saharan, Patil, Yadav, Kumar, & Goyal, 2023). Filtered and cell-free cultures were used for in vitro evaluation. To investigate the impact of bacteria (NAS-B1, NAS-B419, and NAS-B600), fungi (NAS120 and NAS120-M44), and filtered cultures of fungi on nematode egg hatching and larval mortality, 100 eggs and 100 second-stage juveniles (J2) were individually placed in one milliliter of sterile water in separate 6 cm Petri dishes. Subsequently, 5 ml of suspension containing bacteria (10 8 CFU/ml) and fungi (10 7 CFU/ml), along with other treatment solutions, were added. Distilled water and Abamectin 1.8% emulsifying liquid (Aria Chemical Company) served as the control in both experiments, and the number of dead larvae was recorded after 48 hours, while unhatched eggs were counted after 72 hours (Cayrol, Djian, & Pijarowski, 1989). The experiments were conducted using a completely randomized design with four replications. Evaluation effect of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. against nematode in greenhouse condition Greenhouse test 1 Tomato seeds (Early Urbana) were sown in 3 kg plastic pots filled with a mixture of soil (field soil and river sand, 1:2 ratio). The experiment followed a completely randomized design with four replications. When the tomato seedlings reached the four-leaf stage, they were inoculated by applying 20 ml of bacterial suspension (108 CFU/ml) and fungal suspension (107 CFU/ml), along with other treatments, to the soil of each pot. Three days later, the roots of the plants were inoculated with 6000 seeds of M. javanica . Pots containing nematodes but no treatment served as controls. Additionally, to assess the treatments' impact on plant growth, all treatments were applied without nematodes. The application of biocontrol agents was repeated every 20 days (Feyisa, Lencho, Selvaraj, & Getaneh, 2019). Throughout the experiment, pots were monitored daily and watered as needed. After sixty days following nematode inoculation, plant growth and nematode parameters were assessed (Rostami, Karegar, & Taghavi, 2021). Greenhouse test 2 The experimental conditions and methodology mirrored those of the preceding study, albeit with distinct treatments. In this segment, a combination of potent bacteria, effective fungus, and chitosan was employed. Chitosan solution (0.1%) was prepared using the commercial chitosan formulation obtained from Sigma Aldrich. The chitosan solution was dissolved in water overnight using a stirrer until achieving a homogeneous mixture. Subsequently, after 24 hours of incubation, fungal suspension (107 CFU/ml) and potent bacterial suspension (108 CFU/ml) were introduced into the solution for further utilization (Palazzini et al., 2022). Additionally, a commercial biological nematocide (Tisan BT) from Royan Tisan Sam Company was included in the treatments to assess the efficacy of the effective microorganisms (0.1 mL/L). Greenhouse test 3 The conditions and methodology of this experiment closely paralleled those of the previous study, albeit with distinct treatments. Two methods of plant infection with nematodes were implemented: (1) Cultivating plants in nematode-infested soil, and (2) Cultivating plants in healthy soil and subsequently inoculating them at the four-leaf stage. To prepare pots containing contaminated soil, soil from previous cultivations was assessed and nematode counts were determined. Each three-kilogram pot was then filled with soil containing 6000 nematode eggs and larvae. Pots without nematodes were filled with three kilograms of healthy soil, and upon planting, at the four-leaf stage, they were inoculated with 6000 nematode eggs and larvae. Subsequently, three-leaf plants were cultivated in all pots . For treatments involving the application of effective bacteria, fungus, and chitosan, where plant roots needed to be immersed in the compound, roots were submerged in 50 ml of the combined solution for 30 seconds before planting. Treatments requiring the mixture to be poured at the base of the plant were administered post-inoculation. These treatments were repeated every 20 days by applying the mixture at the plant base. Pots were monitored daily and watered as necessary. After sixty days post-nematode inoculation, plant growth and nematode parameters were assessed. Figure 1 visualizes these methods. To assess the reproducibility of results, the treatments pertaining to nematode-infested soil were replicated in the subsequent greenhouse investigation. Given that plant cultivation in contaminated soil closely mirrors natural conditions, this step was crucial. The experimental setup remained identical to previous tests, and the plants were harvested 60 days post-planting and treatment application. Statistical analysis The SAS statistical software (version 9.1) was employed for data analysis. Parametric indices (plant indices) were analyzed using the Proc ANOVA method, while non-parametric indices (nematode indices) were assessed using the Friedman rank test. Mean values were compared using a posthoc Tukey HSD (Honestly Significant Difference) test (P < 0.05). Identification of effective microorganisms Bacterial DNA extraction was carried out using the Expin™ Combo GP DNA extraction kit from GeneAll® (Tic Tech Centre, Singapore), following the manufacturer's protocol. For fungal DNA extraction, the method described by Ghasemi et al. (2020) was employed. The quality and quantity of the extracted DNAs were assessed spectrophotometrically and adjusted to a concentration of 50 ng/μL using the Nanodrop ND-100 (Nanodrop Technologies, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) . The universal bacterial primers 27F (5′-AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3′) and 1492R (5′-GGTTACCTTGTTACGACTT-3′) were used for the amplification of the complete 16S rDNA. In addition, for fungal samples, the primers 5'-CGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3' and 5'-TCCTCCGCTTATTGA TATGC-3' were used to amplify the ITS rDNA region, and the primers 5'-CATCGAGAAGTTCGAGAAGG-3' and 5'-TACTTGAAGGAACCCTTACC-3' were used to amplify the TEF-1α region. For bacterial samples, the PCR reaction mixture comprised 1 μL of DNA (50 ng/μL), 1 μL each of forward and reverse primers (10 μM), 10 μL of Ampliqon® Taq DNA Polymerase Master Mix Red (Ampliqon A/S, Odense, Denmark), and 7 μL of double-distilled water. For fungal samples, PCR reactions were conducted in a 20 µL volume consisting of 10 µL of Master Mix, 0.2 µM of each primer for amplification of the TEF-1α and ITS regions, and 10 ng of DNA from each isolate (Abbasi, Safaie, Shams-Bakhsh, & Shahbazi, 2016). Subsequently, PCR products were sequenced by Microsynth Company, Switzerland . The obtained sequences were analyzed using BLASTn (NCBI: http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). Sequences of related species and genera were retrieved from the GenBank database, and phylogenetic analysis was conducted using MEGA version 7 (S. Kumar, Stecher, & Tamura, 2016). Sequence alignment was performed using Clustal W (Larkin et al., 2007), and the Maximum Likelihood Method was employed to construct a phylogenetic tree depicting the relationships among isolates, with percentage bootstrap values derived from 1000 replicates (Saitou, 1988). Results In vitro Assessment of Nematicidal Efficacy of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. The findings from the in vitro investigation revealed significant differences among treatments in terms of their efficacy in inhibiting nematode egg hatching and J2 mortality. Abamectin, Bacillus NAS-B1, and Bacillus NAS-B600 treatments exhibited notable effectiveness in both preventing egg hatching and reducing J2 mortality. Particularly, Bacillus NAS-B600 demonstrated the highest efficacy, reducing nematode egg hatching by 45% compared to the control. Abamectin treatment, Bacillus NAS-B419, Trichoderma NAS120, and Bacillus NAS-B1 also displayed considerable efficacy, reducing egg hatching by 34%, 31%, 24%, and 16%, respectively (Figure 2). Also, Abamectin treatment, Bacillus NAS-B1, Bacillus NAS-B600, and the filtered, cell-free culture of Trichoderma NAS120-M44 exhibited mortality rates of 59%, 46%, 30%, and 19%, respectively, among the J2 of nematode (Figure 2). These percentages were determined by subtracting the number of eggs or J2 in the respective treatment from those in the control. Figure 3 provides a visual representation of the J2 treated with bacteria and fungi. Efficacy of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. against Nematode in Greenhouse Conditions Greenhouse test 1 Plant Growth Parameters: Among the growth indices assessed in this experiment, only the dry weight of tomato shoots exhibited a notable difference across treatments. Notably, treatment with mutant bacteria Bacillus NAS-B419 significantly enhanced the shoot dry weight of infected plants compared to the infected control plants. Conversely, the remaining treatments yielded similar effects on the shoot dry weight of infected plants, showing no significant deviation from the control (Table 1 and Figure 4). Nematode Parameters: Abamectin, Bacillus NAS-B419, and Trichoderma NAS120-M44 treatments elicited a substantial decrease in the number of galls, egg masses, and eggs within the root system, as well as in the presence of J2 in the soil, ultimately leading to a reduction in the overall nematode population. These treatments notably reduced the nematode reproduction factor by 77% to 82%. Additionally, Trichoderma NAS120 and Bacillus NAS-B1 treatments demonstrated efficacy in diminishing the number of J2 in the soil and the occurrence of galls within the root system, respectively (Table 1). Greenhouse test 2 Plant Growth Parameters: Analysis of both the dry and fresh weight of tomato shoots in this experiment did not reveal any significant differences across treatments. However, a notable distinction was observed between the group infected with nematodes and the group without nematode inoculation, reaching significance at the 5% level (Figure 4). Nematode Parameters: Abamectin, Trichoderma NAS120-M44, and Bacillus NAS-B419 treatments, along with their combinations, notably reduced the number of egg masses, eggs within the root system, and J2 in the soil, leading to a significant decrease in the overall nematode population. These treatments achieved a remarkable reduction in the nematode reproduction factor, ranging from 92% to 94%. Particularly, the combination of Bacillus NAS-B419, Trichoderma NAS120-M44, and chitosan exhibited the highest reduction in the reproduction factor (Table 2). Greenhouse test 3 Plant Growth Indicators: Both the dry and fresh weights of tomato shoots exhibited significant differences among treatments in this experiment. Specifically, treating the roots of plants with the combination of Bacillus NAS-B419, Trichoderma NAS120-M44, and chitosan resulted in a noteworthy improvement in both the fresh and dry weights of shoots in 'four-leaf stage of plant inoculated' specimens compared to 'nematode infected soil' plants. Furthermore, applying the combination to plants cultivated in infected soil also led to an increase in both the fresh and dry weights of shoots. Conversely, other treatments demonstrated similar effects on the fresh and dry weights of infected plant shoots, showing no significant deviation from the control (Table 3 and Figure 4). Nematode Parameters: Impregnating plant roots with the combination of Bacillus NAS-B419, Trichoderma NAS120-M44, and chitosan in nematode-infested soil, along with inoculating plants at the four-leaf stage, resulted in a significant reduction in the final nematode population. These treatments achieved a notable decrease in the nematode reproduction factor by 65% and 69%, respectively (Table 3). Given the higher rate of nematode multiplication observed in treatments related to plants grown in contaminated soil, which closely resembles natural conditions, the treatment involving the mentioned combination was repeated in contaminated soil to verify the reproducibility of the test results. Repetition of the test showed that impregnation of plant roots with the effective combination of Bacillus NAS-B419 + Trichoderma NAS120-M44 + chitosan significantly in infected nematode soil improved the fresh and dry weight of plant shoots compared to infected control plants. (Table 4 and Figure 5). Both treatments, involving impregnating plant roots in nematode-infested soil with the combination of Bacillus NAS-B419 + Trichoderma NAS120-M44 + chitosan, and applying the combination directly into the soil around the plant, resulted in a decrease in the final population of nematodes. Notably, dipping the roots of plants in the solution led to a higher reduction in the reproduction factor (76%), as indicated in Table 4. Molecular Identification of Effective Bacteria and Fungi Isolates were identified through a comparison of their 16S rDNA and ITS sequences with those archived in the GenBank database. The bacterial isolates were identified as B. velezensis , while the fungi were identified as T. harzianum . The sequences of their 16S rDNA, ITS-rDNA and, TEF-1α regions have been deposited in the GenBank (Table 5). The phylogenetic relationships among the identified bacterial isolates, fungi, and closely related species and genera are depicted in Figures 6 and 7. The phylogenetic tree presented in Figure 6 illustrates the evolutionary relationships among various Bacillus strains, with a particular focus on the isolates NAS-B1 and NAS-B419. These isolates are prominently marked and show a close genetic relationship with other strains within the B. velezensis clade. The tree is rooted with Clostridium butyricum as an out-group, providing context for the evolutionary divergence of the studied strains. The phylogenetic tree depicted in Figure 7 represents the evolutionary relationships among Trichoderma isolates, with a focus on ‘NAS120’ and ‘NAS120-M44’, as determined by ITS-rDNA and TEF-1α gene regions. The tree elucidates the genetic diversity within the genus, highlighting the distinct lineage of the two isolates in question. Discussion The present study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of strains of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp., and their mutants that were generated through gamma radiation, for the biological control of M. javanica in tomato plants. The investigation encompassed a comprehensive approach, integrating in vitro assays, greenhouse trials, and molecular identification methodologies, to elucidate the potential of these biocontrol agents as sustainable alternatives to chemical nematicides. The in vitro evaluation of the nematicidal activity of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. gave promising results. Filtered cultures of Trichoderma NAS120-M44 showed significant antagonistic activity against second-stage juveniles, while bacterial strains NAS-B1, NAS-B419 and NAS-B600 showed considerable efficacy in suppressing nematode populations. These results are in agreement with previous studies emphasizing the biocontrol potential of Trichoderma and Bacillus strains against various plant pathogens, including nematodes (Basumatary, Das, Choudhury, Dutta, & Bhattacharyya, 2021; Saharan et al., 2023). The antagonistic effect of Bacillus was demonstrated in an in vitro test, that significantly inhibited the hatching of nematode eggs (Rostami et al., 2021). In addition, T. asperellum showed considerable nematicidal activity under laboratory conditions, causing high egg-hatching suppression (96.6%) and high juvenile mortality (90.3%) in M. incognita (Saharan et al., 2023). Previous studies have also highlighted the efficacy of Trichoderma spp. metabolites in reducing root-knot nematode damage (Khan et al., 2020). In particular, the cell-free culture of Trichoderma NAS120-M44 resulted in J2 mortality, suggesting that the metabolites produced by this mutant strain are effective against nematodes. Greenhouse trials provided valuable insights into the effectiveness of biological control agents under realistic conditions. The application of mutant isolates of bacterial (B419) and fungal (NAS120-M44) suspensions significantly reduced the damage caused by nematodes to tomato plants compared to the control, resulting in a remarkable 77-92 reduction in the nematode's reproductive factor (RF). Notably, the inclusion of treatments without nematodes allowed for the assessment of the agents' impact on plant growth parameters, revealing their potential as growth-promoting agents. In subsequent greenhouse tests, these results were further elaborated and the synergistic effects of a combination of strong bacteria, effective fungi and chitosan were investigated. This combined approach resulted in a remarkable 94 reduction in nematode RF, a rate comparable to that of abamectin and higher than that of RTS, a commercial biological formulation for nematode control. Sohrabi et al. (2020) reported that the combined use of Glomus mosseae , B. subtilis , and T. harzianum has a better effect compared to their individual use. Also, other researchers have emphasized the compatibility and biocontrol potential of T. harzianum , B. subtilis , and P. fluorescens , which makes them appear as a promising tool for soilborne pathogen control (Singh, Balodi, Meena, & Singhal, 2021). In addition, chitosan, a natural biopolymer, and its derivatives have shown effective control over plant root-knot nematodes and enhancement of plant defense mechanisms against pathogens (Bibi, Ibrar, Shalmani, & Rehan, 2021; Z. Fan et al., 2020). Furthermore, the combination of chitosan with effective bacteria has been shown to reduce root-knot nematode damage (Rostami, Karegar, Taghavi, Ghasemi-Fasaei, & Ghorbani, 2023). Therefore, the combination of Bacillus NAS-B419 + Trichoderma NAS120-M44 + chitosan appears to be compatible and highly effective against nematode damage. The exploration of effective control combinations for pathogens is crucial, but equally significant is determining how to maximize their efficacy. Various methods of utilizing these microorganisms have been documented, including seed treatment, soil treatment, and seedling plant treatment (Chinheya, 2015; El-Nagdi & Abd-El-Khair, 2019; H. Fan et al., 2020). Greenhouse Test 3 introduced variations in nematode inoculation methods, simulating different scenarios of nematode infestation in agricultural settings. These variations allowed for a more comprehensive evaluation of the biocontrol agents' adaptability and efficacy across diverse conditions. In this study, comparison between impregnation of plant roots with the evaluated combination and application of the combination onto the plant revealed that impregnation of plant roots was more effective in reducing the reproduction factor (RF) of nematodes. Additionally, as these methods simulate natural infection conditions more closely when applied in infected soil, the test was repeated in the infected soil. Impregnation of plant roots with the combination resulted in a 76% decrease in RF. The molecular identification of effective microorganisms has significantly advanced the understanding of their taxonomic diversity and phylogenetic relationships. In this study, the identified fungi have been classified under the species T. harzianum , while the bacteria have been assigned to B. velezensis . These taxonomic classifications provide crucial information about the identities and genetic relatedness of the microorganisms under investigation. B. velezensis is a type of gram-positive bacteria renowned for its ability to enhance plant growth. It has been documented that various strains of this species possess the capacity to inhibit the growth of microbial pathogens, spanning bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. Through genomic analysis, it has been elucidated that B. velezensis harbors strain-specific gene clusters responsible for the synthesis of secondary metabolites. These metabolites play pivotal roles in both suppressing pathogens and promoting plant growth. Specifically, B. velezensis demonstrates a robust genetic capability for producing cyclic lipopeptides (such as surfactin, bacillomycin-D, fengycin, and bacillibactin) as well as polyketides (including macrolactin, bacillaene, and difficidin). Furthermore, the secondary metabolites generated by B. velezensis have the potential to induce systemic resistance in plants. This mechanism enables plants to defend themselves against repeated assaults by harmful microorganisms, contributing to enhanced plant health and resilience (Rabbee et al., 2019). A study has presented compelling evidence regarding the effectiveness of B. velezensis VB7 as both a potent nematicide and an inducer of immune responses against root-knot nematode infestation in tomato plants. Laboratory experiments demonstrated that B. velezensis VB7 significantly impeded the hatching of RKN eggs and notably reduced the mortality of M. incognita juveniles by 87.95% and 96.66%, respectively. Additionally, when applied in nematode-infested conditions, B. velezensis VB7 triggered an immune response by inducing microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP)-triggered immunity, leading to the upregulation of transcription factors and defense genes. Furthermore, the study revealed the coordinated expression of various defense genes associated with immune response pathways(Kamalanathan, Sevugapperumal, & Nallusamy, 2023). Furthermore, six volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by B. velezensis GJ-7 demonstrated diverse modes of action against M. hapla, encompassing direct-contact nematicidal activity, fumigant activity, and repellent activity. As a result, these compounds show potential as promising biocontrol agents against root-knot nematodes (Wu et al., 2023). Numerous research findings indicate that most Trichoderma species can produce bioactive compounds and display antagonistic properties against plant-pathogenic nematodes. Furthermore, Trichoderma is employed to enhance plant growth, optimize nutrient utilization, fortify plant resistance, and mitigate pollution from agrochemicals. The mechanisms involved in the biological control of nematode diseases comprise competitive exclusion, antibiosis, antagonistic activity, and mycoparasitism, along with the promotion of plant growth and the induction of systemic resistance in symbiosis with plants (Yao et al., 2023). The use of T. harzianum not only diminishes nematode populations and penetration rates but also improves plant growth, increases the content of nutritional elements and triggers systemic resistance in the plants. In addition, T. harzianum shows promising capabilities in the production of indoleacetic acid (IAA), exhibits remarkable ammonification activity, and shows enzymatic activities such as protease and lipase (Nafady et al., 2022). Yan et al. (2021) demonstrated that T. harzianum effectively suppressed M. incognita infestation in tomato plants, achieving a notable nematode reduction percentage of 61.88%. Their findings underscore T. harzianum's beneficial role in bolstering resistance against root-knot nematodes by stimulating secondary metabolism and enhancing the activity and transcripts of defense-related enzymes in tomato roots. Nematode infections were observed to elevate levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation in tomato roots; however, colonization with T. harzianum led to a significant reduction in ROS, malondialdehyde, and electrolyte leakage. This reduction was correlated with the heightened accumulation of various secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, phenols, lignin, and cellulose. Gamma rays serve as a means to bolster the advantageous traits of biological agents against plant pathogens. This agricultural technique has proven beneficial over the years (Feldmann, Shupert, Haddock, Twardoski, & Feldmann, 2019; Piri, Babayan, Tavassoli, & Javaheri, 2011), contributing to the enhancement of biological agent properties (Mirmajlessi, Mostafavi, Loit, Najdabbasi, & Mänd, 2018). The gamma mutants of B. subtilis UTB1, M419, and M464 have better antifungal properties against Aspergillus flavus than the wild type. Production of iturin-like lipopeptides and swarm motility were increased, allowing them to colonize surfaces and reduce aflatoxin to a greater extent (Afsharmanesh, Ahmadzadeh, Javan-Nikkhah, & Behboudi, 2014). Induced gamma irradiation also resulted in increased production of biosurfactants and biofilms in mutants of B. subtilis UTB1 (Afsharmanesh et al., 2013). Furthermore, the enhancement of volatile production by gamma radiation in Lactobacillus plantarum had a promising result in controlling sapstain fungi in wood stores and infected trees (El-Fouly, Shahin, & El-Bialy, 2011). The antifungal metabolites of Trichoderma harzianum , T. viride , and T. koningii mutants were assayed by HPLC. They produced highly active exo-enzymes and had the highest isozyme band number and quantity of chitinase and beta-1,3 glucanase (Haggag & Mohamed, 2002). Moreover, the efficacy of Trichoderma against Alternaria solani , Fusarium oxysporium , and Rhizoctonia solani was improved by the use of gamma rays, and the antagonistic activity of the second-generation variants was higher than that of the first-generation (El-Bialy et al., 2019). Based on our knowledge and research, this study marks the first exploration into the biological inhibitory potential of two irradiated isolates, T. harzianum NAS120-M44 and B. subtilis NAS-B419, against root-knot nematodes. In essence, these biocontrol agents demonstrate the ability to alleviate damage caused by root-knot nematodes through irradiation-induced modifications. It appears that the fungi and bacteria investigated in this study could complement each other by activating diverse resistance pathways and targeting distinct points of effect. Consequently, the concurrent application of these biocontrol agents holds significant promise for potentially substituting fertilizers and pesticides. Conclusion In conclusion, this study investigated the efficacy of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp., along with their gamma radiation-induced mutants, as potential biological control agents against Meloidogyne javanica in tomato plants. The results demonstrated promising nematicidal activity of Trichoderma and Bacillus strains in vitro, leading to significant reductions in nematode populations. Greenhouse trials further confirmed the effectiveness of mutant isolates in reducing nematode-induced damage to tomato plants, especially when combined with chitosan. Molecular identification provided valuable taxonomic insights into the effective microorganisms. Specifically, B. velezensis and T. harzianum emerged as promising candidates, exhibiting significant nematicidal activity. Overall, the study underscores the potential of combined biocontrol approaches for nematode management in agricultural settings, although further research is essential to evaluate practical applications and long-term efficacy. Future research efforts may concentrate on optimizing application methods, exploring additional synergistic combinations, and assessing long-term sustainability in agricultural ecosystems. Additionally, conducting field trials under diverse environmental conditions would validate the practical utility of these biocontrol agents, facilitating their adoption as sustainable alternatives to chemical nematicides. Declarations Data availability Sequence data supporting this manuscript are deposited in NCBI GenBank under accession numbers: Bacillus velezensis NAS-B1 (PP320414), Bacillus velezensis NAS-B419 (PP320416), Trichoderma harzianum NAS120 (PP316639, PP321302), and Trichoderma harzianum NAS120-M44 (PP316640, PP321301). Ethics approval and consent to participate The research reported here did not involve experimentation with human participants or animals. In conducting the experimental research and greenhouse studies outlined in this manuscript, we confirm that there were no specific institutional, national, or international guidelines or legislation directly applicable to the collection and use of plant materials for our study. However, it is important to note that our research was conducted under the supervision of the Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute (NSTRI) and the Iran National Science Foundation (INSF), ensuring adherence to ethical standards and best practices in scientific research. Additionally, it's important to mention that this project did not involve the use of mutant plants for experiments.. Consent for publication All data from this manuscript was provided by ourselves and we agree to publish these data. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Funding This work is based upon research funded by Iran National Science Foundation (INSF) under project No. 4012799 Authors' contributions: MR wrote the first draft and participated in the lab experiment and did data analysis. SS, RS and AG revised the final manuscript. References Abbasi, S., Safaie, N., Shams-Bakhsh, M., & Shahbazi, S. (2016). Biocontrol activities of gamma induced mutants of Trichoderma harzianum against some soilborne fungal pathogens and their DNA fingerprinting. Iranian Journal of Biotechnology, 14 (4), 260. Afsharmanesh, H., Ahmadzadeh, M., Javan-Nikkhah, M., & Behboudi, K. (2014). Improvement in biocontrol activity of Bacillus subtilis UTB1 against Aspergillus flavus using gamma-irradiation. Crop Protection, 60 , 83-92. Afsharmanesh, H., Ahmadzadeh, M., Majdabadi, A., Motamedi, F., Behboudi, K., & Javan-Nikkhah, M. (2013). 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The role of genetic engineering in management of plant parasitic nematodes with emphasis on root-knot nematodes: A review. Pakistan Journal of Nematology, 38 (2), 179-185. Tables Table 1- Effects of microorganisms on tomato plant growth parameters and nematode indices of Meloidogyne javanica under glasshouse conditions. Treatments Shoot dry weight (g) Eggs/root J2/pot soil Galls/ root Egg mass/root Final population (Pf) Reproduction factor (Rf) Rf reduction (%) * With nematode Without nematode Trichoderma NAS120 1 cd 1.62 a-d 6655 ab 750 b 329 ab 211 ab 7734 ab 1.28 73 Trichoderma NAS120-M44 1.92 a-d 2.52 ab 5399 b 900 b 222 bc 112 bc 6521 b 1.08 77 Bacillus NAS-B1 1.80 a-d 1.92 a-d 6661 ab 1950 ab 229 bc 152 abc 8840 ab 1.47 70 Bacillus NAS-B419 2.24 ab 2.75 a 4020 b 900 b 251 bc 120 bc 5171 b 0.86 82 Bacillus NAS-B600 1.67 a-d 2.10 a-c 8260 ab 1650 ab 492 ab 235 ab 10402 ab 1.73 64 Abamectin 1.9 a-d 1.52 b-d 4741 b 750 b 127 c 80 c 5618 b 0.93 81 Water (control) 0.87 d 2.07 a-c 24345 a 4350 a 628 a 306 a 29323 a 4.88 - *: Reduction percent of nematode reproduction factor compared to the control. Data are means of four replicates. Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05) Table 2- Effects of Bacillus NAS-B419 and Trichoderma NAS120-M44 and their combination with chitosan on nematode indices of Meloidogyne javanica in the roots of tomato plants under glasshouse conditions. Treatments Eggs/root J2/pot soil Galls/ root Egg mass/root Final population (Pf) Reproduction factor (Rf) Rf reduction (%) * Bacillus NAS-B419 5220 ab 4050 ab 129 ab 98 ab 9399 ab 1.56 80 Trichoderma NAS120-M44 2207 bc 1200 bc 77 abc 56 bcd 3484 bc 0.58 92 Bacillus NAS-B419 + Trichoderma NAS120-M44 1853 c 1350 bc 87 abc 66 bc 3290 bc 0.54 93 Bacillus NAS-B419+ Trichoderma NAS120-M44 +chitosan 1615 c 900 c 53 bc 32 de 2568 c 0.42 94 RTS 2 3656 ab 750 c 51 c 43 cde 4457 ab 0.74 90 Abamectin 2294 bc 900 c 55 bc 22 e 3249 bc 0.54 93 Water (control) 21035 a 28200 a 234 a 234 a 49469 a 8.20 - RTS - Commercial Biological Nematicide (Tisan BT) by Royan Tisan Sam Company *: Reduction percent of nematode reproduction factor compared to the control. Data are means of four replicates. Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05) Table 3. Effect of The most effective combination of microorganisms ( Bacillus NAS-B419+ Trichoderma NAS120-M44 +chitosan) on tomato Plant Growth Indicators and nematode indices of Meloidogyne javanica under glasshouse conditions. Plant Growth Indicators Treatments Shoot fresh weight (g) Shoot dry weight (g) NIS NI4L NIS NI4L Impregnation of plant roots with Bacillus NAS-B419+ Trichoderma NAS120-M44 +chitosan 12.10 bc 15.62 a 2.10 abc 2.80 a Application of Bacillus NAS-B419+ Trichoderma NAS120-M44 +chitosan onto the Plant 14.30 ab 12.87 abc 2.25 ab 2.32 ab Water (control) 11.55 c 10.50 c 1.37 c 1.55 bc Nematode Parameters Treatments Eggs/root J2/pot soil Galls/ root Egg mass/root Final population (Pf) Reproduction factor (Rf) Rf reduction (%) * NIS NI4L NIS NI4L NIS NI4L NIS NI4L NIS NI4L NIS NI4L NIS NI4L Impregnation of plant roots with Bacillus NAS-B419+ Trichoderma NAS120-M44 +chitosan 767 bc 318 cd 1950 c 2100 c 100 abc 70 bc 27 c 35 ab 2750 c 2434 c 0.45 0.40 65 69 Application of Bacillus NAS-B419+ Trichoderma NAS120-M44 +chitosan onto the Plant 628 bc 219 d 2550 c 3300 bc 113 ab 52 c 57 ab 34 ab 3219 bc 3538 bc 0.53 0.58 59 55 Water (control) 1980 a 1100 ab 6750 a 6150 ab 142 a 155 abc 106 a 105 a 8784 a 7284 ab 1.46 1.25 - - Data are presented as the mean of four replicates. Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05) *: Reduction percent of nematode reproduction factor compared to the control. NIS: Nematode-infested soil NI4L: Nematode inoculation to a 4-leaf plant Table 4. Effect of the most effective combination of microorganisms ( Bacillus NAS-B419 + Trichoderma NAS120-M44 + chitosan) on tomato plant growth indicators and nematode indices of Meloidogyne javanica in nematode-infected soil under glasshouse conditions. Treatments Shoot fresh weight (g) Shoot dry weight (g) Eggs/root J2/pot soil Gall/ root Egg mass/root Final population (Pf) Reproduction factor (Rf) Rf reduction (%) * Impregnation of plant roots with Bacillus NAS-B419+ Trichoderma NAS120-M44 +chitosan 15.62 a 2.80 a 696 b 1350 b 78 b 29 b 2125 b 0.35 76 Application of Bacillus NAS-B419+ Trichoderma NAS120-M44 +chitosan onto the Plant 12.87 abc 2.32 ab 432 b 2100 b 79 b 33 b 2610 b 0.43 70 Water (control) 10.50 c 1.55 bc 3240 a 5550 a 167 a 97 a 8957 a 1.49 - Data are presented as the mean of four replicates. Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05) *: Reduction percent of nematode reproduction factor compared to the control. Table 5. Accession numbers of sequence data for bacteria and fungi for 16S rDNA, ITS rDNA and TEF-1α regions Regions sequence Bacteria and Fungi Accession no. 16S rDNA Bacillus velezensis NAS-B1 PP320414 Bacillus velezensis NAS-B419 PP320416 ITS-rDNA Trichoderma harzianum NAS120 PP316639 Trichoderma harzianum NAS120-M44 PP316640 TEF-1α Trichoderma harzianum NAS120 PP321302 Trichoderma harzianum NAS120-M44 PP321301 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Aug, 2024 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 23 May, 2024 Reviews received at journal 13 May, 2024 Reviews received at journal 06 May, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 May, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 Apr, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 30 Apr, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 23 Apr, 2024 Editor invited by journal 08 Apr, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 08 Apr, 2024 First submitted to journal 30 Mar, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-4191816\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":290240071,\"identity\":\"6514a854-627e-4022-b99f-327a9147223e\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Mahsa Rostami\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute (NSTRI)\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Mahsa\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Rostami\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":290240073,\"identity\":\"987ee918-b9af-41ee-aebb-5f13c696e48a\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Samira 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3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":2553307,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe effect of microorganisms on the J2 mortality of \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003ejavanica\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"3.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4191816/v1/3db49e7e73e453029511655d.png\"},{\"id\":54572478,\"identity\":\"e3c35d28-f53f-4e3d-a08b-278abc980191\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-04-12 13:03:46\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"Figure 4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":2239461,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe effect of microorganisms on tomato plants infected by \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eI: Impregnation of plant roots with \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eA: Application of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003eNAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan on the soil of the plant\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eC: control (water)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSI: soil infected with nematodes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNI: nematode inoculation to a 4-leaf plant\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"4.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4191816/v1/dde073157d919e406bb66428.png\"},{\"id\":54572471,\"identity\":\"a9f67412-b3a6-49e1-b4be-45af35f2df0d\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-04-12 13:03:44\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":2186548,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe effect of \\u003cstrong\\u003eI\\u003c/strong\\u003empregnation of plant roots with \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan and \\u003cstrong\\u003eA\\u003c/strong\\u003epplication of that combination onto tomato plants in infected soil by \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eI: Impregnation of plant roots with \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eA: Application of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003eNAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan on the soil of the plant\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eC: control (water)\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"5.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4191816/v1/fe21d540ab5b18e2c4a00c1c.png\"},{\"id\":54572946,\"identity\":\"1babc04d-4717-43a9-a4c2-b77d8d5322e2\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-04-12 13:11:45\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":18335,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003ePhylogenic relationships of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003espp. (\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B1 and NAS-B419) based on 16S rDNA sequences (maximum likelihood method). Numbers on the branches indicate bootstrap values. \\u003cem\\u003eClostridium butyricum\\u003c/em\\u003e was used as a root\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"6.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4191816/v1/908a8547c7ee56d07636804e.png\"},{\"id\":54572475,\"identity\":\"e69ac4ab-1dd9-4f86-922b-fd9762450e9f\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-04-12 13:03:45\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":37119,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003ePhylogenic relationships of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003espp. (\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120 and NAS120-M44) based on ITS-rDNA and TEF-1α region sequence (maximum likelihood method). Numbers on the branches indicate bootstrap values. Protocrea farinosa was used as a root.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"7.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4191816/v1/6a7b990366afb0d7373fbf67.png\"},{\"id\":61793475,\"identity\":\"e053e231-0dfc-4c48-a6f3-8ddf26b70710\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2024-08-05 16:13:01\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":15182333,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4191816/v1/604ef973-0973-42a1-864d-5f6d37d73b97.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Enhancing Sustainable Control of Meloidogyne javanica in Tomato Plants: Leveraging Gamma Radiation-Induced Mutants of Trichoderma harzianum and Bacillus velezensis, with Optimal Combination Strategies\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eRoot-knot nematodes (\\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne\\u003c/em\\u003e spp.) are a type of plant parasite that cause considerable damage to crops worldwide. Among them, \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e is a particularly widespread threat that can infest a wide range of host plants and cause significant yield losses. Conventional methods of nematode control, often based on chemical nematicides, pose environmental risks and raise concerns about their long-term efficacy and safety. Alternative approaches are therefore increasingly being explored, with biological control emerging as a promising avenue. Utilizing the antagonistic properties of beneficial microorganisms offers a sustainable and environmentally friendly solution to reduce nematode damage while maintaining soil health and ecosystem integrity\\u0026nbsp;(Subedi, Thapa, \\u0026amp; Shrestha, 2020).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;Microorganisms are integral to soil vitality, fostering plant growth, and development, and aiding in disease prevention. Leveraging their inherent mechanisms, these microorganisms can serve as effective biocontrol agents against various soil-borne pathogens. \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. are well-documented biocontrol agents known for their antagonistic activity against various plant pathogens, including nematodes. These microorganisms exert their effects through various mechanisms, such as competition for nutrients and space, production of antimicrobial compounds and stimulation of plant defense responses. In addition, their ability to colonize the rhizosphere and engage in mutualistic interactions with host plants further enhances their effectiveness in suppressing nematode populations\\u0026nbsp;(Bhat, Shakeel, Waqar, Handoo, \\u0026amp; Khan, 2023). Past research has illustrated the considerable efficacy of fungal spores, hyphae, and metabolites from various strains of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e in combating root-knot nematodes, showing significant promise\\u0026nbsp;(TariqJaveed, Farooq, Al-Hazmi, Hussain, \\u0026amp; Rehman, 2021). Also, \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. has been shown to enhance plant growth parameters and reduce root-knot nematode damage(El-Nagdi \\u0026amp; Abd-El-Khair, 2019).\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn recent years, advances in genetic manipulation have enabled the development of mutant strains of microorganisms with improved biocontrol capabilities. Through targeted genetic modification, these mutants exhibit improved traits tailored to control specific plant pathogens, including nematodes. By exploiting this genetic diversity, the researchers aim to optimize the efficacy and sustainability of biological control strategies to combat plant parasites (Youssef \\u0026amp; Hassabo, 2020). As a mutagenic agent, gamma radiation provides a powerful tool for generating genetic variability and new microbial variants with desired traits. By exposing mutant strains of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e to gamma radiation, researchers seek to improve their biocontrol effect against plant pathogens while ensuring the stability and safety of these modified organisms in agricultural ecosystems (Manikandan et al., 2022; Soufi, Safaie, Shahbazi, \\u0026amp; Mojerlou, 2021).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThis project offers a thorough investigation into the efficacy of mutant strains of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003eharzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e, which have been subjected to gamma radiation, for the biological control \\u003cem\\u003eof M. javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e in tomato plants. It aims to propose optimal application methods to effectively mitigate root-knot nematode damage. Utilizing a combination of in vitro assays, greenhouse trials, and molecular identification methodologies, we seek to demonstrate and assess their potential as sustainable alternatives to chemical nematicides.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Materials And Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ePreparation of nematode and microorganisms\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eRoots infected with \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne\\u003c/em\\u003e sp. were harvested from the greenhouse in Alborz province. Employing the single egg mass technique, the nematodes were cultured on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Early Urbana) roots. The perineal pattern of mature females served as the basis for identifying the root-knot nematode species\\u0026nbsp;(Eisenback, 1985). Nematode eggs were extracted from the galled roots using sodium hypochlorite\\u0026nbsp;(Hussey \\u0026amp; Barker, 1973). After rinsing with tap water, the infected roots were sliced into 2\\u0026ndash;3 cm-long segments and blended with 0.5% NaOCl solution. The blending process lasted for 30 seconds at low speed, after which the mixture was sieved successively through 20-, 200-, and 500-mesh/in. sieves. Eggs retained on the 500-mesh sieve were gently rinsed with water to remove NaOCl residue and collected in a Petri dish.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e spp., including both wild-type strains and gamma radiation-induced mutants, were obtained from the Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute of Iran.\\u0026nbsp;The antagonistic ability of isolates against some plant pathogens has been proven\\u0026nbsp;(Sahampoor, Zaker Tavallaie, Fani, \\u0026amp; Shahbazi, 2020, Afsharmanesh et al., 2013). Identification was carried out through a combination of biochemical assays and morphological examinations\\u0026nbsp;(Miranda, Martins, \\u0026amp; Clementino, 2008; Rifai, 1969). Purified cultures of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e were cultivated on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium and preserved at 4\\u0026ordm;C for future applications. As for the \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e strain, long-term storage was facilitated at -70\\u0026deg;C in Nutrient Broth supplemented with 30% glycerol.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eScreening of microorganism\\u0026apos;s activity against nematode\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn vitro evaluation of the nematicidal ability of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e spp.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTwo isolates, \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120 and NAS120-M44, were cultured in Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB) in 250 ml flasks for one week at a temperature of 28\\u0026deg;C\\u0026plusmn;2 in a shaker-incubator. Subsequently, 100 ml of each culture was centrifuged for 20 minutes at 1500 rpm and filtered through 0.45 \\u0026mu;m filters (Whatman\\u0026trade;). The resulting filtered cultures were then assessed on a Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium to ensure they were free from cells\\u0026nbsp;(Saharan, Patil, Yadav, Kumar, \\u0026amp; Goyal, 2023). Filtered and cell-free cultures were used for in vitro evaluation.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTo investigate the impact of bacteria (NAS-B1, NAS-B419, and NAS-B600), fungi (NAS120 and NAS120-M44), and filtered cultures of fungi on nematode egg hatching and larval mortality, 100 eggs and 100 second-stage juveniles (J2) were individually placed in one milliliter of sterile water in separate 6 cm Petri dishes. Subsequently, 5 ml of suspension containing bacteria (10\\u003csup\\u003e8\\u003c/sup\\u003e CFU/ml) and fungi (10\\u003csup\\u003e7\\u003c/sup\\u003e CFU/ml), along with other treatment solutions, were added. Distilled water and Abamectin 1.8% emulsifying liquid (Aria Chemical Company) served as the control in both experiments, and the number of dead larvae was recorded after 48 hours, while unhatched eggs were counted after 72 hours\\u0026nbsp;(Cayrol, Djian, \\u0026amp; Pijarowski, 1989). The experiments were conducted using a completely randomized design with four replications.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eEvaluation effect of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. against nematode in greenhouse condition\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eGreenhouse test 1\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTomato seeds (Early Urbana) were sown in 3 kg plastic pots filled with a mixture of soil (field soil and river sand, 1:2 ratio). The experiment followed a completely randomized design with four replications. When the tomato seedlings reached the four-leaf stage, they were inoculated by applying 20 ml of bacterial suspension (108 CFU/ml) and fungal suspension (107 CFU/ml), along with other treatments, to the soil of each pot. Three days later, the roots of the plants were inoculated with 6000 seeds of \\u003cem\\u003eM. javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e. Pots containing nematodes but no treatment served as controls. Additionally, to assess the treatments\\u0026apos; impact on plant growth, all treatments were applied without nematodes. The application of biocontrol agents was repeated every 20 days\\u0026nbsp;(Feyisa, Lencho, Selvaraj, \\u0026amp; Getaneh, 2019). Throughout the experiment, pots were monitored daily and watered as needed. After sixty days following nematode inoculation, plant growth and nematode parameters were assessed\\u0026nbsp;(Rostami, Karegar, \\u0026amp; Taghavi, 2021).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eGreenhouse test 2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe experimental conditions and methodology mirrored those of the preceding study, albeit with distinct treatments. In this segment, a combination of potent bacteria, effective fungus, and chitosan was employed. Chitosan solution (0.1%) was prepared using the commercial chitosan formulation obtained from Sigma Aldrich. The chitosan solution was dissolved in water overnight using a stirrer until achieving a homogeneous mixture. Subsequently, after 24 hours of incubation, fungal suspension (107 CFU/ml) and potent bacterial suspension (108 CFU/ml) were introduced into the solution for further utilization\\u0026nbsp;(Palazzini et al., 2022). Additionally, a commercial biological nematocide (Tisan BT) from Royan Tisan Sam Company was included in the treatments to assess the efficacy of the effective microorganisms (0.1 mL/L).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eGreenhouse test 3\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe conditions and methodology of this experiment closely paralleled those of the previous study, albeit with distinct treatments. Two methods of plant infection with nematodes were implemented: (1) Cultivating plants in nematode-infested soil, and (2) Cultivating plants in healthy soil and subsequently inoculating them at the four-leaf stage. To prepare pots containing contaminated soil, soil from previous cultivations was assessed and nematode counts were determined. Each three-kilogram pot was then filled with soil containing 6000 nematode eggs and larvae. Pots without nematodes were filled with three kilograms of healthy soil, and upon planting, at the four-leaf stage, they were inoculated with 6000 nematode eggs and larvae. Subsequently, three-leaf plants were cultivated in all pots\\u003cspan dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e.\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFor treatments involving the application of effective bacteria, fungus, and chitosan, where plant roots needed to be immersed in the compound, roots were submerged in 50 ml of the combined solution for 30 seconds before planting. Treatments requiring the mixture to be poured at the base of the plant were administered post-inoculation. These treatments were repeated every 20 days by applying the mixture at the plant base. Pots were monitored daily and watered as necessary. After sixty days post-nematode inoculation, plant growth and nematode parameters were assessed. Figure 1 visualizes these methods.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTo assess the reproducibility of results, the treatments pertaining to nematode-infested soil were replicated in the subsequent greenhouse investigation. Given that plant cultivation in contaminated soil closely mirrors natural conditions, this step was crucial. The experimental setup remained identical to previous tests, and the plants were harvested 60 days post-planting and treatment application.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eStatistical analysis\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe SAS statistical software (version 9.1) was employed for data analysis. Parametric indices (plant indices) were analyzed using the Proc ANOVA method, while non-parametric indices (nematode indices) were assessed using the Friedman rank test. Mean values were compared using a posthoc Tukey HSD (Honestly Significant Difference) test (P \\u0026lt; 0.05).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eIdentification of effective microorganisms\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eBacterial DNA extraction was carried out using the Expin\\u0026trade; Combo GP DNA extraction kit from GeneAll\\u0026reg; (Tic Tech Centre, Singapore), following the manufacturer\\u0026apos;s protocol. For fungal DNA extraction, the method described by Ghasemi et al.\\u0026nbsp;(2020)\\u0026nbsp;was employed. The quality and quantity of the extracted DNAs were assessed spectrophotometrically and adjusted to a concentration of 50 ng/\\u0026mu;L using the Nanodrop ND-100 (Nanodrop Technologies, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA)\\u003cspan dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e.\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe universal bacterial primers 27F (5\\u0026prime;-AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3\\u0026prime;) and 1492R (5\\u0026prime;-GGTTACCTTGTTACGACTT-3\\u0026prime;) were used for the amplification of the complete 16S rDNA. In addition, for fungal samples, the primers 5\\u0026apos;-CGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3\\u0026apos; and 5\\u0026apos;-TCCTCCGCTTATTGA TATGC-3\\u0026apos; were used to amplify the ITS rDNA region, and the primers 5\\u0026apos;-CATCGAGAAGTTCGAGAAGG-3\\u0026apos; and 5\\u0026apos;-TACTTGAAGGAACCCTTACC-3\\u0026apos; were used to amplify the TEF-1\\u0026alpha; region.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFor bacterial samples, the PCR reaction mixture comprised 1 \\u0026mu;L of DNA (50 ng/\\u0026mu;L), 1 \\u0026mu;L each of forward and reverse primers (10 \\u0026mu;M), 10 \\u0026mu;L of Ampliqon\\u0026reg; Taq DNA Polymerase Master Mix Red (Ampliqon A/S, Odense, Denmark), and 7 \\u0026mu;L of double-distilled water. For fungal samples, PCR reactions were conducted in a 20 \\u0026micro;L volume consisting of 10 \\u0026micro;L of Master Mix, 0.2 \\u0026micro;M of each primer for amplification of the TEF-1\\u0026alpha; and ITS regions, and 10 ng of DNA from each isolate\\u0026nbsp;(Abbasi, Safaie, Shams-Bakhsh, \\u0026amp; Shahbazi, 2016). Subsequently, PCR products were sequenced by Microsynth Company, Switzerland\\u003cspan dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e.\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe obtained sequences were analyzed using BLASTn (NCBI: http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). Sequences of related species and genera were retrieved from the GenBank database, and phylogenetic analysis was conducted using MEGA version 7\\u0026nbsp;(S. Kumar, Stecher, \\u0026amp; Tamura, 2016). Sequence alignment was performed using Clustal W\\u0026nbsp;(Larkin et al., 2007), and the Maximum Likelihood Method was employed to construct a phylogenetic tree depicting the relationships among isolates, with percentage bootstrap values derived from 1000 replicates\\u0026nbsp;(Saitou, 1988).\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eIn vitro Assessment of Nematicidal Efficacy of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;spp.\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe findings from the in vitro investigation revealed significant differences among treatments in terms of their efficacy in inhibiting nematode egg hatching and J2 mortality. Abamectin, \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B1, and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B600 treatments exhibited notable effectiveness in both preventing egg hatching and reducing J2 mortality. Particularly, \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B600 demonstrated the highest efficacy, reducing nematode egg hatching by 45% compared to the control. Abamectin treatment, \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419, \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120, and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B1 also displayed considerable efficacy, reducing egg hatching by 34%, 31%, 24%, and 16%, respectively (Figure 2). Also, Abamectin treatment, \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B1, \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B600, and the filtered, cell-free culture of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 exhibited mortality rates of 59%, 46%, 30%, and 19%, respectively, among the J2 of nematode (Figure 2). These percentages were determined by subtracting the number of eggs or J2 in the respective treatment from those in the control. Figure 3 provides a visual representation of the J2 treated with bacteria and fungi.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eEfficacy of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;spp. against Nematode in Greenhouse Conditions\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eGreenhouse test 1\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003ePlant Growth Parameters: Among the growth indices assessed in this experiment, only the dry weight of tomato shoots exhibited a notable difference across treatments. Notably, treatment with mutant bacteria \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419 significantly enhanced the shoot dry weight of infected plants compared to the infected control plants. Conversely, the remaining treatments yielded similar effects on the shoot dry weight of infected plants, showing no significant deviation from the control (Table 1 and Figure 4).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNematode Parameters: Abamectin, \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419, and \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 treatments elicited a substantial decrease in the number of galls, egg masses, and eggs within the root system, as well as in the presence of J2 in the soil, ultimately leading to a reduction in the overall nematode population. These treatments notably reduced the nematode reproduction factor by 77% to 82%. Additionally, \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120 and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B1 treatments demonstrated efficacy in diminishing the number of J2 in the soil and the occurrence of galls within the root system, respectively (Table 1).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eGreenhouse test 2\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003ePlant Growth Parameters: Analysis of both the dry and fresh weight of tomato shoots in this experiment did not reveal any significant differences across treatments. However, a notable distinction was observed between the group infected with nematodes and the group without nematode inoculation, reaching significance at the 5% level (Figure 4).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNematode Parameters: Abamectin, \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44, and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419 treatments, along with their combinations, notably reduced the number of egg masses, eggs within the root system, and J2 in the soil, leading to a significant decrease in the overall nematode population. These treatments achieved a remarkable reduction in the nematode reproduction factor, ranging from 92% to 94%. Particularly, the combination of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419, \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44, and chitosan exhibited the highest reduction in the reproduction factor (Table 2).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eGreenhouse test 3\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003ePlant Growth Indicators: Both the dry and fresh weights of tomato shoots exhibited significant differences among treatments in this experiment. Specifically, treating the roots of plants with the combination of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419, \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44, and chitosan resulted in a noteworthy improvement in both the fresh and dry weights of shoots in \\u0026apos;four-leaf stage of plant inoculated\\u0026apos; specimens compared to \\u0026apos;nematode infected soil\\u0026apos; plants. Furthermore, applying the combination to plants cultivated in infected soil also led to an increase in both the fresh and dry weights of shoots. Conversely, other treatments demonstrated similar effects on the fresh and dry weights of infected plant shoots, showing no significant deviation from the control (Table 3 and Figure 4).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNematode Parameters: Impregnating plant roots with the combination of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419, \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44, and chitosan in nematode-infested soil, along with inoculating plants at the four-leaf stage, resulted in a significant reduction in the final nematode population. These treatments achieved a notable decrease in the nematode reproduction factor by 65% and 69%, respectively (Table 3). Given the higher rate of nematode multiplication observed in treatments related to plants grown in contaminated soil, which closely resembles natural conditions, the treatment involving the mentioned combination was repeated in contaminated soil to verify the reproducibility of the test results.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eRepetition of the test showed that impregnation of plant roots with the effective combination of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419 + \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 + chitosan significantly in infected nematode soil improved the fresh and dry weight of plant shoots compared to infected control plants. (Table 4 and Figure 5).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eBoth treatments, involving impregnating plant roots in nematode-infested soil with the combination of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419 + \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 + chitosan, and applying the combination directly into the soil around the plant, resulted in a decrease in the final population of nematodes. Notably, dipping the roots of plants in the solution led to a higher reduction in the reproduction factor (76%), as indicated in Table 4.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eMolecular Identification of Effective Bacteria and Fungi\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIsolates were identified through a comparison of their 16S rDNA and ITS sequences with those archived in the GenBank database. The bacterial isolates were identified as \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e, while the fungi were identified as \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e. The sequences of their 16S rDNA, ITS-rDNA and, TEF-1\\u0026alpha; regions have been deposited in the GenBank (Table 5). The phylogenetic relationships among the identified bacterial isolates, fungi, and closely related species and genera are depicted in Figures 6 and 7.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe phylogenetic tree presented in Figure 6 illustrates the evolutionary relationships among various \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e strains, with a particular focus on the isolates NAS-B1 and NAS-B419. These isolates are prominently marked and show a close genetic relationship with other strains within the \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eclade. The tree is rooted with \\u003cem\\u003eClostridium butyricum\\u003c/em\\u003e as an out-group, providing context for the evolutionary divergence of the studied strains.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe phylogenetic tree depicted in Figure 7 represents the evolutionary relationships among \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e isolates, with a focus on \\u0026lsquo;NAS120\\u0026rsquo; and \\u0026lsquo;NAS120-M44\\u0026rsquo;, as determined by ITS-rDNA and TEF-1\\u0026alpha; gene regions. The tree elucidates the genetic diversity within the genus, highlighting the distinct lineage of the two isolates in question.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe present study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of strains of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e spp., and their mutants that were generated through gamma radiation, for the biological control of \\u003cem\\u003eM. javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e in tomato plants. The investigation encompassed a comprehensive approach, integrating in vitro assays, greenhouse trials, and molecular identification methodologies, to elucidate the potential of these biocontrol agents as sustainable alternatives to chemical nematicides.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe in vitro evaluation of the nematicidal activity of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. gave promising results. Filtered cultures of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 showed significant antagonistic activity against second-stage juveniles, while bacterial strains NAS-B1, NAS-B419 and NAS-B600 showed considerable efficacy in suppressing nematode populations. These results are in agreement with previous studies emphasizing the biocontrol potential of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e strains against various plant pathogens, including nematodes\\u0026nbsp;(Basumatary, Das, Choudhury, Dutta, \\u0026amp; Bhattacharyya, 2021; Saharan et al., 2023). The antagonistic effect of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e was demonstrated in an in vitro test, that significantly inhibited the hatching of nematode eggs\\u0026nbsp;(Rostami et al., 2021). In addition, \\u003cem\\u003eT. asperellum\\u003c/em\\u003e showed considerable nematicidal activity under laboratory conditions, causing high egg-hatching suppression (96.6%) and high juvenile mortality (90.3%) in \\u003cem\\u003eM. incognita\\u003c/em\\u003e (Saharan et al., 2023). Previous studies have also highlighted the efficacy of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. metabolites in reducing root-knot nematode damage\\u0026nbsp;(Khan et al., 2020). In particular, the cell-free culture of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 resulted in J2 mortality, suggesting that the metabolites produced by this mutant strain are effective against nematodes.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eGreenhouse trials provided valuable insights into the effectiveness of biological control agents under realistic conditions. The application of mutant isolates of bacterial (B419) and fungal (NAS120-M44) suspensions significantly reduced the damage caused by nematodes to tomato plants compared to the control, resulting in a remarkable 77-92 reduction in the nematode\\u0026apos;s reproductive factor (RF). Notably, the inclusion of treatments without nematodes allowed for the assessment of the agents\\u0026apos; impact on plant growth parameters, revealing their potential as growth-promoting agents. In subsequent greenhouse tests, these results were further elaborated and the synergistic effects of a combination of strong bacteria, effective fungi and chitosan were investigated. This combined approach resulted in a remarkable 94 reduction in nematode RF, a rate comparable to that of abamectin and higher than that of RTS, a commercial biological formulation for nematode control. \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp;Sohrabi et al.\\u0026nbsp;(2020)\\u0026nbsp;reported that the combined use of \\u003cem\\u003eGlomus mosseae\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eB. subtilis\\u003c/em\\u003e, and \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e has a better effect compared to their individual use. Also, other researchers have emphasized the compatibility and biocontrol potential of \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eB. subtilis\\u003c/em\\u003e, and \\u003cem\\u003eP. fluorescens\\u003c/em\\u003e, which makes them appear as a promising tool for soilborne pathogen control\\u0026nbsp;(Singh, Balodi, Meena, \\u0026amp; Singhal, 2021). In addition, chitosan, a natural biopolymer, and its derivatives have shown effective control over plant root-knot nematodes and enhancement of plant defense mechanisms against pathogens\\u0026nbsp;(Bibi, Ibrar, Shalmani, \\u0026amp; Rehan, 2021; Z. Fan et al., 2020). Furthermore, the combination of chitosan with effective bacteria has been shown to reduce root-knot nematode damage\\u0026nbsp;(Rostami, Karegar, Taghavi, Ghasemi-Fasaei, \\u0026amp; Ghorbani, 2023). Therefore, the combination of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419 + \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 + chitosan appears to be compatible and highly effective against nematode damage.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe exploration of effective control combinations for pathogens is crucial, but equally significant is determining how to maximize their efficacy. Various methods of utilizing these microorganisms have been documented, including seed treatment, soil treatment, and seedling plant treatment\\u0026nbsp;(Chinheya, 2015; El-Nagdi \\u0026amp; Abd-El-Khair, 2019; H. Fan et al., 2020). Greenhouse Test 3 introduced variations in nematode inoculation methods, simulating different scenarios of nematode infestation in agricultural settings. These variations allowed for a more comprehensive evaluation of the biocontrol agents\\u0026apos; adaptability and efficacy across diverse conditions. In this study, comparison between impregnation of plant roots with the evaluated combination and application of the combination onto the plant revealed that impregnation of plant roots was more effective in reducing the reproduction factor (RF) of nematodes. Additionally, as these methods simulate natural infection conditions more closely when applied in infected soil, the test was repeated in the infected soil. Impregnation of plant roots with the combination resulted in a 76% decrease in RF.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe molecular identification of effective microorganisms has significantly advanced the understanding of their taxonomic diversity and phylogenetic relationships. In this study, the identified fungi have been classified under the species \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e, while the bacteria have been assigned to \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e. These taxonomic classifications provide crucial information about the identities and genetic relatedness of the microorganisms under investigation.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e is a type of gram-positive bacteria renowned for its ability to enhance plant growth. It has been documented that various strains of this species possess the capacity to inhibit the growth of microbial pathogens, spanning bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. Through genomic analysis, it has been elucidated that \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e harbors strain-specific gene clusters responsible for the synthesis of secondary metabolites. These metabolites play pivotal roles in both suppressing pathogens and promoting plant growth. Specifically, \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e demonstrates a robust genetic capability for producing cyclic lipopeptides (such as surfactin, bacillomycin-D, fengycin, and bacillibactin) as well as polyketides (including macrolactin, bacillaene, and difficidin). Furthermore, the secondary metabolites generated by \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e have the potential to induce systemic resistance in plants. This mechanism enables plants to defend themselves against repeated assaults by harmful microorganisms, contributing to enhanced plant health and resilience\\u0026nbsp;(Rabbee et al., 2019).\\u0026nbsp;A study has presented compelling evidence regarding the effectiveness of \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e VB7 as both a potent nematicide and an inducer of immune responses against root-knot nematode infestation in tomato plants. Laboratory experiments demonstrated that \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e VB7 significantly impeded the hatching of RKN eggs and notably reduced the mortality of M. incognita juveniles by 87.95% and 96.66%, respectively. Additionally, when applied in nematode-infested conditions, \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e VB7 triggered an immune response by inducing microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP)-triggered immunity, leading to the upregulation of transcription factors and defense genes. Furthermore, the study revealed the coordinated expression of various defense genes associated with immune response pathways(Kamalanathan, Sevugapperumal, \\u0026amp; Nallusamy, 2023). Furthermore, six volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by \\u003cem\\u003eB. velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e GJ-7 demonstrated diverse modes of action against M. hapla, encompassing direct-contact nematicidal activity, fumigant activity, and repellent activity. As a result, these compounds show potential as promising biocontrol agents against root-knot nematodes \\u0026nbsp;(Wu et al., 2023).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNumerous research findings indicate that most \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e species can produce bioactive compounds and display antagonistic properties against plant-pathogenic nematodes. Furthermore, \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e is employed to enhance plant growth, optimize nutrient utilization, fortify plant resistance, and mitigate pollution from agrochemicals. The mechanisms involved in the biological control of nematode diseases comprise competitive exclusion, antibiosis, antagonistic activity, and mycoparasitism, along with the promotion of plant growth and the induction of systemic resistance in symbiosis with plants\\u0026nbsp;(Yao et al., 2023). The use of \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e not only diminishes nematode populations and penetration rates but also improves plant growth, increases the content of nutritional elements and triggers systemic resistance in the plants. In addition, \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e shows promising capabilities in the production of indoleacetic acid (IAA), exhibits remarkable ammonification activity, and shows enzymatic activities such as protease and lipase\\u0026nbsp;(Nafady et al., 2022).\\u0026nbsp;Yan et al. (2021)\\u0026nbsp;demonstrated that \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e effectively suppressed M. incognita infestation in tomato plants, achieving a notable nematode reduction percentage of 61.88%. Their findings underscore T. harzianum\\u0026apos;s beneficial role in bolstering resistance against root-knot nematodes by stimulating secondary metabolism and enhancing the activity and transcripts of defense-related enzymes in tomato roots. Nematode infections were observed to elevate levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation in tomato roots; however, colonization with \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e led to a significant reduction in ROS, malondialdehyde, and electrolyte leakage. This reduction was correlated with the heightened accumulation of various secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, phenols, lignin, and cellulose.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eGamma rays serve as a means to bolster the advantageous traits of biological agents against plant pathogens. This agricultural technique has proven beneficial over the years\\u0026nbsp;(Feldmann, Shupert, Haddock, Twardoski, \\u0026amp; Feldmann, 2019; Piri, Babayan, Tavassoli, \\u0026amp; Javaheri, 2011), contributing to the enhancement of biological agent properties\\u0026nbsp;(Mirmajlessi, Mostafavi, Loit, Najdabbasi, \\u0026amp; M\\u0026auml;nd, 2018). The gamma mutants of \\u003cem\\u003eB. subtilis\\u003c/em\\u003e UTB1, M419, and M464 have better antifungal properties against \\u003cem\\u003eAspergillus flavus\\u003c/em\\u003e than the wild type. Production of iturin-like lipopeptides and swarm motility were increased, allowing them to colonize surfaces and reduce aflatoxin to a greater extent\\u0026nbsp;(Afsharmanesh, Ahmadzadeh, Javan-Nikkhah, \\u0026amp; Behboudi, 2014). Induced gamma irradiation also resulted in increased production of biosurfactants and biofilms in mutants of \\u003cem\\u003eB. subtilis\\u003c/em\\u003e UTB1\\u0026nbsp;(Afsharmanesh et al., 2013).\\u0026nbsp;Furthermore, the enhancement of volatile production by gamma radiation in \\u003cem\\u003eLactobacillus plantarum\\u003c/em\\u003e had a promising result in controlling sapstain fungi in wood stores and infected trees\\u0026nbsp;(El-Fouly, Shahin, \\u0026amp; El-Bialy, 2011). The antifungal metabolites of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eT. viride\\u003c/em\\u003e, and \\u003cem\\u003eT. koningii\\u003c/em\\u003e mutants were assayed by HPLC. They produced highly active exo-enzymes and had the highest isozyme band number and quantity of chitinase and beta-1,3 glucanase\\u0026nbsp;(Haggag \\u0026amp; Mohamed, 2002). Moreover, the efficacy of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e against \\u003cem\\u003eAlternaria solani\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eFusarium oxysporium\\u003c/em\\u003e, and \\u003cem\\u003eRhizoctonia solani\\u003c/em\\u003e was improved by the use of gamma rays, and the antagonistic activity of the second-generation variants was higher than that of the first-generation\\u0026nbsp;(El-Bialy et al., 2019). \\u0026nbsp;Based on our knowledge and research, this study marks the first exploration into the biological inhibitory potential of two irradiated isolates, \\u003cem\\u003eT. harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 and \\u003cem\\u003eB. subtilis\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419, against root-knot nematodes. In essence, these biocontrol agents demonstrate the ability to alleviate damage caused by root-knot nematodes through irradiation-induced modifications. It appears that the fungi and bacteria investigated in this study could complement each other by activating diverse resistance pathways and targeting distinct points of effect. Consequently, the concurrent application of these biocontrol agents holds significant promise for potentially substituting fertilizers and pesticides.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eIn conclusion, this study investigated the efficacy of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e spp. and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e spp., along with their gamma radiation-induced mutants, as potential biological control agents against \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e in tomato plants. The results demonstrated promising nematicidal activity of \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e strains in vitro, leading to significant reductions in nematode populations. Greenhouse trials further confirmed the effectiveness of mutant isolates in reducing nematode-induced damage to tomato plants, especially when combined with chitosan. Molecular identification provided valuable taxonomic insights into the effective microorganisms. Specifically, \\u003cem\\u003eB.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003evelezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eT.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eharzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e emerged as promising candidates, exhibiting significant nematicidal activity. Overall, the study underscores the potential of combined biocontrol approaches for nematode management in agricultural settings, although further research is essential to evaluate practical applications and long-term efficacy. Future research efforts may concentrate on optimizing application methods, exploring additional synergistic combinations, and assessing long-term sustainability in agricultural ecosystems. Additionally, conducting field trials under diverse environmental conditions would validate the practical utility of these biocontrol agents, facilitating their adoption as sustainable alternatives to chemical nematicides.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eData availability\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSequence data supporting this manuscript are deposited in NCBI GenBank under accession numbers: Bacillus velezensis NAS-B1 (PP320414), Bacillus velezensis NAS-B419 (PP320416), Trichoderma harzianum NAS120 (PP316639, PP321302), and Trichoderma harzianum NAS120-M44 (PP316640, PP321301).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe research reported here did not involve experimentation with human participants or animals. In conducting the experimental research and greenhouse studies outlined in this manuscript, we confirm that there were no specific institutional, national, or international guidelines or legislation directly applicable to the collection and use of plant materials for our study. However, it is important to note that our research was conducted under the supervision of the Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute (NSTRI) and the Iran National Science Foundation (INSF), ensuring adherence to ethical standards and best practices in scientific research. Additionally, it\\u0026apos;s important to mention that this project did not involve the use of mutant plants for experiments..\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eConsent for publication\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAll data from this manuscript was provided by ourselves and we agree to publish these data.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCompeting interests\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eFunding\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThis work is based upon research funded by Iran National Science Foundation (INSF) under project No. 4012799\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAuthors\\u0026apos; contributions:\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eMR wrote the first draft and participated in the lab experiment and did data analysis. SS, RS and AG revised the final manuscript.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAbbasi, S., Safaie, N., Shams-Bakhsh, M., \\u0026amp; Shahbazi, S. (2016). Biocontrol activities of gamma induced mutants of Trichoderma harzianum against some soilborne fungal pathogens and their DNA fingerprinting. \\u003cem\\u003eIranian Journal of Biotechnology, 14\\u003c/em\\u003e(4), 260.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAfsharmanesh, H., Ahmadzadeh, M., Javan-Nikkhah, M., \\u0026amp; Behboudi, K. (2014). Improvement in biocontrol activity of Bacillus subtilis UTB1 against Aspergillus flavus using gamma-irradiation. \\u003cem\\u003eCrop Protection, 60\\u003c/em\\u003e, 83-92.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAfsharmanesh, H., Ahmadzadeh, M., Majdabadi, A., Motamedi, F., Behboudi, K., \\u0026amp; Javan-Nikkhah, M. (2013). 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A., Khalifa, E.-S. Z., \\u0026amp; Fahmy, S. M. (2019). Volatiles and functional peptides compositions of Trichoderma variants induced by a new strategy of irradiation. \\u003cem\\u003eBiocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 20\\u003c/em\\u003e, 101261.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eEl-Fouly, M. Z., Shahin, A. A.-F. M., \\u0026amp; El-Bialy, H. A.-A. (2011). Biological control of sapstain fungi in Egyptian wood stores and infected trees. \\u003cem\\u003eAnnals of microbiology, 61\\u003c/em\\u003e(4), 789-799.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eEl-Nagdi, W. M., \\u0026amp; Abd-El-Khair, H. (2019). Application of Bacillus species for controlling root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita in eggplant. \\u003cem\\u003eBulletin of the National Research Centre, 43\\u003c/em\\u003e, 1-10.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eFan, H., Yao, M., Wang, H., Zhao, D., Zhu, X., Wang, Y., . . . Chen, L. (2020). 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The role of genetic engineering in management of plant parasitic nematodes with emphasis on root-knot nematodes: A review. \\u003cem\\u003ePakistan Journal of Nematology, 38\\u003c/em\\u003e(2), 179-185.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Tables\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTable 1- Effects of microorganisms on tomato plant growth parameters and nematode indices of \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e under glasshouse conditions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"0\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"529\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.068052930056712%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eTreatments\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"17.958412098298677%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" valign=\\\"top\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eShoot dry weight (g)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.88468809073724%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEggs/root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.88468809073724%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eJ2/pot soil\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.183364839319471%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGalls/\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.88468809073724%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEgg mass/root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.775047258979207%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFinal population (Pf)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.476370510396976%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReproduction factor (Rf)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.88468809073724%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eRf reduction (%)\\u003csup\\u003e*\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"50%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eWith nematode\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"50%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eWithout nematode\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.098484848484848%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1 cd\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.62 a-d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e6655 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e750 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.196969696969697%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e329 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e211 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.795454545454545%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e7734 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.5%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.28\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e73\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.098484848484848%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.92 a-d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.52 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e5399 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e900 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.196969696969697%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e222 bc\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e112 bc\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.795454545454545%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e6521 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.5%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.08\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e77\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.098484848484848%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.80 a-d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.92 a-d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e6661 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1950 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.196969696969697%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e229 bc\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e152 abc\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.795454545454545%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e8840 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.5%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.47\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e70\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.098484848484848%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.24 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.75 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e4020 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e900 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.196969696969697%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e251 bc\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e120 bc\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.795454545454545%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e5171 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.5%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.86\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e82\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.098484848484848%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B600\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.67 a-d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.10 a-c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e8260 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1650 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.196969696969697%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e492 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e235 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.795454545454545%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e10402 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.5%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.73\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e64\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.098484848484848%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAbamectin\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.9 a-d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.52 b-d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e4741 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e750 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.196969696969697%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e127 c\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e80 c\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.795454545454545%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e5618 b\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.5%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.93\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e81\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.098484848484848%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eWater (control)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.87 d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.07 a-c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e24345 a\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e4350 a\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.196969696969697%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e628 a\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e306 a\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.795454545454545%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e29323 a\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.5%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e4.88\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.901515151515152%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e*: Reduction percent of nematode reproduction factor compared to the control.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eData are means of four replicates. Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different (P \\u0026lt; 0.05)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTable 2- Effects of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419 and \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 and their combination with chitosan on nematode indices of \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e in the roots of tomato plants under glasshouse conditions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"0\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"567\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"38.33922261484099%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eTreatments\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEggs/root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eJ2/pot soil\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.713780918727915%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGalls/\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEgg mass/root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.070671378091873%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFinal population (Pf)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.66077738515901%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReproduction factor (Rf)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eRf reduction (%)\\u003csup\\u003e*\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"38.33922261484099%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e5220 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e4050 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.713780918727915%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e129 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e98 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.070671378091873%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e9399 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.66077738515901%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.56\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e80\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"38.33922261484099%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2207 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1200 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.713780918727915%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e77 abc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e56 bcd\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.070671378091873%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e3484 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.66077738515901%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.58\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e92\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"38.33922261484099%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419 +\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1853 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1350 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.713780918727915%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e87 abc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e66 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.070671378091873%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e3290 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.66077738515901%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.54\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e93\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"38.33922261484099%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1615 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e900 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.713780918727915%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e53 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e32 de\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.070671378091873%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2568 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.66077738515901%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.42\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e94\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"38.33922261484099%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eRTS\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e3656 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e750 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.713780918727915%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e51 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e43 cde\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.070671378091873%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e4457 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.66077738515901%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.74\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e90\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"38.33922261484099%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAbamectin\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2294 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e900 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.713780918727915%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e55 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e22 e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.070671378091873%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e3249 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.66077738515901%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.54\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e93\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"38.33922261484099%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eWater (control)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e21035 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e28200 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.713780918727915%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e234 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e234 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.070671378091873%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e49469 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.66077738515901%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e8.20\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.303886925795053%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e-\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eRTS - Commercial Biological Nematicide (Tisan BT) by Royan Tisan Sam Company\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e*: Reduction percent of nematode reproduction factor compared to the control.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eData are means of four replicates. Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different (P \\u0026lt; 0.05)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTable 3. Effect of The most effective combination of microorganisms (\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan) on tomato Plant Growth Indicators and nematode indices of \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e under glasshouse conditions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"0\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"586\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"100%\\\" colspan=\\\"19\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ePlant Growth Indicators\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"37.03071672354949%\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eTreatments\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"30.716723549488055%\\\" colspan=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eShoot fresh weight (g)\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"32.25255972696246%\\\" colspan=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eShoot dry weight (g)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"28.18428184281843%\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"20.59620596205962%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"20.59620596205962%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"30.62330623306233%\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"37.03071672354949%\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eImpregnation of plant roots with \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"17.747440273037544%\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e12.10 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.969283276450511%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e15.62 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.969283276450511%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.10 abc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"19.283276450511945%\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.80 a\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"37.03071672354949%\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eApplication of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan onto the Plant\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"17.747440273037544%\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e14.30 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.969283276450511%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e12.87 abc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.969283276450511%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.25 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"19.283276450511945%\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.32 ab\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"37.03071672354949%\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eWater (control)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"17.747440273037544%\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e11.55 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.969283276450511%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e10.50 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.969283276450511%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.37 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"19.283276450511945%\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.55 bc\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"100%\\\" colspan=\\\"19\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eNematode Parameters\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.262798634812286%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eTreatments\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"14.505119453924914%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEggs/root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"14.505119453924914%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eJ2/pot soil\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"12.969283276450511%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGalls/\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"9.726962457337883%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEgg mass/root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"16.040955631399317%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFinal population (Pf)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.262798634812286%\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReproduction factor (Rf)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"9.726962457337883%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eRf reduction (%)\\u003csup\\u003e*\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.335907335907336%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"9.073359073359073%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.335907335907336%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"9.073359073359073%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.335907335907336%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.335907335907336%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.405405405405405%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.405405405405405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"9.073359073359073%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"9.073359073359073%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.405405405405405%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"7.335907335907336%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.405405405405405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNIS\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.405405405405405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eNI4L\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.301369863013699%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eImpregnation of plant roots with \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e767 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e318 cd\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1950 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2100 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e100 abc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e70 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e27 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e35 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2750 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2434 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.45\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.40\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e65\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e69\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.301369863013699%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eApplication of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan onto the Plant\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e628 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e219 d\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2550 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e3300 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e113 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e52 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e57 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e34 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e3219 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e3538 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.53\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.58\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e59\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e55\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.301369863013699%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eWater (control)\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1980 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1100 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e6750 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e6150 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e142 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e155 abc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e106 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e105 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e8784 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"8.047945205479452%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e7284 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.46\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.506849315068493%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.25\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e-\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"4.794520547945205%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e-\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eData are presented as the mean of four replicates. Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different (P\\u0026nbsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026nbsp;0.05)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e*: Reduction percent of nematode reproduction factor compared to the control.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNIS:\\u0026nbsp;Nematode-infested soil\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNI4L: Nematode inoculation to a 4-leaf plant\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTable 4. Effect of the most effective combination of microorganisms (\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419 + \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 + chitosan) on tomato plant growth indicators and nematode indices of \\u003cem\\u003eMeloidogyne javanica\\u003c/em\\u003e in nematode-infected soil under glasshouse conditions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"0\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"558\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"23.655913978494624%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eTreatments\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eShoot fresh weight (g)\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eShoot dry weight (g)\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.810035842293907%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEggs/root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.810035842293907%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eJ2/pot soil\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.017921146953405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGall/\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.017921146953405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eEgg mass/root\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFinal population (Pf)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.827956989247312%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReproduction factor (Rf)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eRf reduction (%)\\u003csup\\u003e*\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"23.655913978494624%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eImpregnation of plant roots with \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e15.62 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.80 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.810035842293907%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e696 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.810035842293907%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1350 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.017921146953405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e78 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.017921146953405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e29 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2125 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.827956989247312%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.35\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e76\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"23.655913978494624%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eApplication of \\u003cem\\u003eBacillus\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419+ \\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44 +chitosan onto the Plant\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e12.87 abc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2.32 ab\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.810035842293907%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e432 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.810035842293907%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2100 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.017921146953405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e79 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.017921146953405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e33 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e2610 b\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.827956989247312%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.43\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e70\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"23.655913978494624%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eWater (control)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e10.50 c\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.55 bc\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.810035842293907%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e3240 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"6.810035842293907%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e5550 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.017921146953405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e167 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"5.017921146953405%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e97 a\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e8957 a\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"11.827956989247312%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e1.49\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"10.21505376344086%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e-\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eData are presented as the mean of four replicates. Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different (P\\u0026nbsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026nbsp;0.05)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e*: Reduction percent of nematode reproduction factor compared to the control.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTable 5. Accession numbers of sequence data for bacteria and fungi for 16S rDNA, ITS rDNA and TEF-1\\u0026alpha; regions\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"1\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"330\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"19.939577039274923%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eRegions \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; sequence\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"57.09969788519638%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eBacteria and Fungi\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"22.9607250755287%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAccession no.\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"19.939577039274923%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e16S rDNA\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"57.09969788519638%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"22.9607250755287%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ePP320414\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"71.32075471698113%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eBacillus velezensis\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS-B419\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"28.67924528301887%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ePP320416\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"19.939577039274923%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eITS-rDNA\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"57.09969788519638%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"22.9607250755287%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ePP316639\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"71.32075471698113%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026nbsp; NAS120-M44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"28.67924528301887%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ePP316640\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"19.939577039274923%\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003eTEF-1\\u0026alpha;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"57.09969788519638%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"22.9607250755287%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ePP321302\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"71.32075471698113%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\\u003c/em\\u003e NAS120-M44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd width=\\\"28.67924528301887%\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ePP321301\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"scirep\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"\",\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Bacillus velezensis, biocontrol potential, combined biocontrol approaches, gamma radiation-induced mutants, Meloidogyne javanica, Trichoderma harzianum\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4191816/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4191816/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"This study investigates the efficacy of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp., as well as their gamma radiation-induced mutants, as potential biological control agents against Meloidogyne javanica in tomato plants. The research encompasses in vitro assays, greenhouse trials, and molecular identification methodologies to comprehensively evaluate the biocontrol potential of these agents. In vitro assessments reveal significant nematicidal activity, with Bacillus spp. demonstrating notable effectiveness in inhibiting nematode egg hatching (16-45%) and inducing second-stage juvenile mortality (30-46%). Greenhouse trials further confirm the efficacy of mutant isolates, particularly when combined with chitosan, in reducing nematode-induced damage to tomato plants. The combination of mutant isolates with chitosan reduces the proliferation rate (RF) of root-knot nematodes by 94%. By optimizing soil infection conditions with nematodes and modifying the application of the effective compound, the RF of nematodes decreases by 65-76%. Molecular identification identifies Bacillus velezensis and Trichoderma harzianum as promising candidates, exhibiting significant nematicidal activity. Overall, the study underscores the potential of combined biocontrol approaches for nematode management in agricultural settings. However, further research is essential to evaluate practical applications and long-term efficacy. These findings contribute to the development of sustainable alternatives to chemical nematicides, with potential implications for agricultural practices and crop protection strategies.\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Enhancing Sustainable Control of Meloidogyne javanica in Tomato Plants: Leveraging Gamma Radiation-Induced Mutants of Trichoderma harzianum and Bacillus velezensis, with Optimal Combination Strategies\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2024-04-12 13:03:39\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4191816/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2024-05-23T06:15:18+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-05-13T11:07:28+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-05-06T20:32:08+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"4505879a-8266-4a43-994b-82c3e9c5f2ee\",\"date\":\"2024-05-03T06:29:39+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"9c18c640-17f1-4117-b43f-3c749954aa5a_SNPRID\",\"date\":\"2024-04-30T17:13:27+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-04-30T16:01:17+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-04-23T04:58:10+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-04-08T18:21:43+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2024-04-08T18:02:40+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"date\":\"2024-03-30T10:28:34+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"scirep\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"\",\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"ce329b7f-ae74-4e37-beae-d04069419c8c\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"April 12th, 2024\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"published-in-journal\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":30571992,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Microbiology\"},{\"id\":30571993,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Plant sciences\"},{\"id\":30571994,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Zoology\"},{\"id\":30571995,\"name\":\"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2024-08-05T16:01:36+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":{\"articleIdentity\":\"rs-4191816\",\"link\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68365-z\",\"journal\":{\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isVorOnly\":false,\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\"},\"publishedOn\":\"2024-08-01 15:57:21\",\"publishedOnDateReadable\":\"August 1st, 2024\"},\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2024-04-12 13:03:39\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"10.1038/s41598-024-68365-z\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68365-z\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-4191816\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-4191816\",\"identity\":\"rs-4191816\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}