{"paper_id":"2739b19a-b3db-4b82-ac67-ea3afd02a70f","body_text":"Analyses on distribution and origin of mud volcanoes and sill complexes in the VLB of the Ross Sea, Antarctica | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Analyses on distribution and origin of mud volcanoes and sill complexes in the VLB of the Ross Sea, Antarctica Mei Yue, Jieqiao Xie, Jinyao Gao, Peng Ye, Gang Feng, Dengjiang Pu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688755/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Recent discoveries of abundant mud volcanoes in the Victoria Land Basin (VLB) of Ross Sea, Antarctica, highlight its significant hydrocarbon potential, yet their formation mechanisms and relationship to tectonic-magmatic processes remain poorly understood. This study integrates Chinese multi-channel seismic data with international geophysical datasets to reveal that mud volcanoes and domes exhibit distinct spatial distributions controlled by glacial erosion and tectonic activities. The western VLB tectonically active zone is characterised well-developed mud volcanoes along high-angle faults of the Terror Rift system, while the eastern basin with thick sediment hosts buried domes formed through magmatic sill-induced folding. Geophysical analyses demonstrate that these features correlate with high free-air gravity anomalies, shallow depths to the Curie, and distinct magnetic signatures of underlying saucer-shaped sill complexes. These igneous intrusions, linked to Cenozoic alkaline volcanism since ~ 4.6 Ma, drive mud volcano formation through sustained thermal fluid flowing upwards and local strata uplift. Based on these findings, a model is established for mud volcanoes and sill complexes that glacial unloading, rift-related faulting, and magmatic heating collectively control fluid migration pathways, providing new insights into fluid activities in magma-influenced rift basins. This research deepenes understanding of the neotectonic activities in VLB, while offering a reference for interpreting similar systems in glaciated continental margins around Antarctica. Victoria Land Basin mud volcanoes sill complexes glacial-tectonic interaction hydrocarbon system Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Mud volcanoes represent a distinctive geological phenomenon resulting from the interaction between crustal tectonic activity and surface environments (Dimitrov, 2002 ; Milkov, 2000 ). These features serve as both positive indicators for hydrocarbon potential and possible markers of reservoir destruction processes (Ben-Avraham et al., 2002 ). The prevailing formation mechanism suggests that mud volcanoes originate from the piercing of overlying strata by overpressured deep fluids (Novikov et al., 2013 ). However, emerging evidence indicates an alternative magmatic association, where waning magmatic activity may lead to the migration of residual magma along weak formations, ultimately manifesting as mud volcanic eruptions (Berndt et al., 2014 ; Wan et al., 2019 ; Zhong et al., 2021 ). High-resolution multibeam surveys have identified numerous seafloor mounds (400–4000 m in diameter, 50–250 m in height) distributed across 450–500 m water depths in the Victoria Land Basin (VLB)(Lawver et al., 2012 ; Magee, 2011 ). Reprocessed multi-channel seismic (MCS) data reveal the presence of bottom-simulating reflectors (BSRs) and mud volcanoes associated with high-angle normal faults (Geletti and Busetti, 2011 ); Fig. 1 ). While conventional models attribute mud volcanoes to the upward migration of low-density plastic shales (He et al., 2010 ), recent discoveries of large-scale sill complexes along the northern South China Sea margin suggest potential magmatic connections (Zhao et al., 2021 ). Although direct evidence remains elusive in VLB, gravity and magnetic analyses consistently detect magnetic cores beneath mud volcanoes, potentially representing buried sill complexes (Lawver et al., 2012 ). This interpretation is supported by documented sill complexes in the adjacent Adare Basin, where deep faults facilitate both magma emplacement and mud volcano formation (Zhang et al., 2017 ). A significant knowledge gap persists regarding the formation mechanisms of mud volcanoes in the VLB. The central controversy lies in the ambiguity between two potential drivers: deep-sourced, high-pressure fluid systems and subjacent magmatic activity. This study, therefore, integrates high-resolution geophysical data from China's 32nd-33rd Antarctic Scientific Expeditions with international datasets, including Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP) Leg 273 borehole data (Fig. 1 ), to investigate the spatio-temporal distribution and origin mechanisms of mud volcanoes in VLB.The research not only provides critical evidence for uncovering the deep dynamic processes behind mud volcano formation in polar environments—including the relative contributions of two competing mechanisms: fluid overpressure and magmatic activity—but also establishes new criteria for identifying the genetic types of submarine mud volcanoes through the integrated analysis of multi-source geophysical data. Geologic Background The Ross Sea Basin (RSB) represents a key component of the Gondwana-derived continental margin system, characterized by distinctive structural architecture that differentiates it from other circum-Antarctic basins (Boger, 2011 ; Davey and Santis, 2006 ). Formed during the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene breakup of Gondwana (Laird et al., 1977 ), this major sedimentary basin developed contemporaneously with a series of interconnected extensional basins along the southeast Australian margin and New Zealand's continental shelf (Chen et al., 2024 ). The shared tectonic evolution of these basins suggests similarly favorable systems, with approximately 9.15 billion tons of oil equivalent in the RSB (Du et al., 2016 ). The structural framework of the RSB consists of five major sub-basins bounded by the prominent Culman and Central Highs (Baranov et al., 2023). VLB emerges as the principal rift basin within this system, containing average 5–6 km of sedimentary fill with the thickest succession of 14 km-in the Terror Rift (Cooper et al., 1987 ; Henrys, 2007 ; Mckay et al., 2025 ). Its complex evolutionary history records multiple phases of crustal extension and magmatic activity, beginning with initial rifting around 100 Ma during the Gondwana breakup (Rossetti et al., 2003 ), which established alluvial-fluvial depositional systems in nascent extensional basins (Boger, 2011 ). A significant tectonic reorganization occurred at approximately 34 Ma (Davey and Santis, 2006 ), triggered by uplift of the Transantarctic Mountains, which created the fundamental structural framework that continues to influence later basin dynamics (Brancolini et al., 1995 ). This was followed by widespread Neogene bimodal alkaline volcanism (Yue et al., 2022 ) that introduced substantial thermal perturbations to the sedimentary system (Fioraso et al., 2025 ). The Terror Rift's deep-penetrating fault systems play a critical role as conduits for mantle-derived magmatic intrusions (Behrendt, 1999b; Yue et al., 2022 ), facilitating enhanced heat flux that accelerates hydrocarbon generation while creating secondary porosity through contact metamorphism (Giustiniani et al., 2017 ). These structures also promote the development of structural traps via forced folding (Zhang et al., 2017 ) and influence gas hydrate stability through thermal and pressure perturbations (Zhao et al., 2021 ). The combination of thick sedimentary fill, complex structural architecture, and magmatic-tectonic interaction makes the VLB an exceptional natural laboratory for studying sediment-magma interactions (Planke et al., 2000 ), thermogenic hydrocarbon systems (Giustiniani et al., 2017 ), and fluid migration processes in rift basin settings (Geletti and Busetti, 2011 ). These characteristics not only illuminate the Antarctic tectonic history but also provide crucial insights for oil and gas evaluation in analogous magma-influenced rift systems worldwide (Fioraso et al., 2025 ). Data and Methods This study utilizes an integrated geophysical approach combining multibeam bathymetry, multi-channel seismic reflection profiles, and gravity and magnetic data collected during the Chinese 32nd–33rd Antarctic Scientific Expeditions (CHINARE 32–33), supplemented by seismic profiles from the Antarctic Seismic Database System (SDLS, https://sdls.ogs.trieste.it/ ) and the well location DSDP273. The synergistic application of gravity, magnetic, and seismic exploration methods constitutes a suitable approach for addressing complex geological questions (Behrendt, 1999a ; McClay and White, 1995). Each method contributes a unique view that, when integrated, makes out comprehensive subsurface characterization. Seismic reflection data, with their exceptional vertical resolution, enable detailed structural mapping and precise delineation of mud volcano morphology and magmatic intrusions (Magee, 2011 ). The strong acoustic impedance contrast between magmatic bodies and host rocks typically generates prominent seismic reflections. However, this technique exhibits limitations in imaging certain features, particularly dome-structures and steeply dipping faults, which often produce seismic blind zones (Planke et al., 2000 ). Gravity and magnetic exploration can rapidly conduct regional geophysical surveys, helping to understand the distribution characteristics of strata and faults, improve the resolution of inclined strata, and roughly delineate the range of magmatic intrusion, at the same time, it can distinguish whether the seismic blind zone is a mud volcano or a magmatic volcano (Hinze et al., 2013 ). Therefore, through the comprehensive interpretation of gravity, magnetism, and seismic data, the relationship between sedimentary strata and magma intrusions can be analyzed more efficiently and finely, and the causes of chaotic reflections on seismic profiles can be distinguished, such as whether they are magma volcanoes or mud volcanoes. The borehole (DSDP273) reached a total depth of 332.5 meters with a core recovery rate of 25%. The drilling data enabled precise calibration of stratigraphic ages and provided chronological constraints for tectonic activity. Methane gas was detected at a depth of 150 meters, occurring within the RSU2 horizon and deeper strata, while the deepest identifiable interface in the borehole is RSU4a. Analysis 1) Distribution of mud volcanoes in the research area Bathymetric Analyses We integrates multibeam bathymetry data from 36 research cruises with GEBCO_2014 grid data to construct a high-resolution (50 m grid) digital elevation model of the Ross Sea, revealing distinct seafloor geomorphology associated with mud volcanism (Fig. 1 ; Xu et al., 2018 ). Near Franklin Island volcano, the seafloor exhibits two characteristic features: (1) mounds appearing as circular to irregularly shaped edifices with smooth surfaces and clear boundary, may be formed by rapid accumulation of extruded mudflows; and (2) pockmarks predominantly displaying circular morphologies (with elliptical and crescentic variants) that reflect homogeneous stress fields and stable sedimentary environments (Fig. 1 C, D). The spatial distribution and morphological variations of these features provide critical insights into fluid migration pathways, regional stress regimes, and the dynamic interplay between sedimentary processes and mud volcanism (Chen et al., 2015 ). Pockmarks and mounds are primarily distributed along the slopes of Crary Bank, demonstrating a close relationship with magmatic activity from Franklin and Beaufort volcanoes (Fig. 1 B). Crary Bank forms a distinct topographic high within the Ross Sea, sitting on the broader Coulman High structure where sedimentary sequences exhibit gentle dips and progressive thickening toward the flanks (Kooyman et al., 2020 ). The southern sector of Crary Bank hosts Franklin and Beaufort volcanoes, both indicating recent activity and belonging to the Cenozoic McMurdo Volcanic Group. This extensive volcanic province encompasses the Hallett Volcanic Province in northern VLB, the Erebus Volcanic Province on Ross Island, and the Melbourne Volcanic Province at the northern end of Terror Rift (Jihyuk et al., 2025 ). Since 4.6 Ma, dispersed magmatic activities throughout VLB has generated an approximately linear volcanic chain, potentially reflecting sustained thermal activities within the basin (Yue et al., 2022 ). The development of mud volcanoes in the VLB is fundamentally controlled by thick sedimentary accumulations and favorable thermodynamic conditions, with their distinct morphological characteristics and formation mechanisms clearly revealed through seismic reflection profiles. To fully understand these features and their regional distribution patterns, we implement an integrated geophysical interpretation approach that systematically examines the relationship between mud volcano occurrences and larger-scale tectonic processes. Analyses of gravity and magnetic anomalies The distribution of mud volcanoes and pockmarks in VLB exhibits a strong correlation with prominent geophysical anomalies, consistently occurring in areas characterized by both elevated free-air gravity anomalies and shallow depths to the Curie (Fig. 2 ). These features predominantly concentrate within transitional zones between structural highs and basin depressions, where marked gradients in free-air and Bouguer gravity anomalies reflect significant sediment accumulation and complex subsurface density variations. The distinctive geophysical signature of these zones, particularly the unusually shallow depths to the Curie, suggests an active thermal regime that likely influences fluid migration pathways and sediment deformation processes, creating favorable conditions for mud volcano formation through a combination of thick sedimentary deposits, thermal fluid circulation, and crustal thermal perturbations. Depths to the Curie, marking the depth at which ferromagnetic minerals transition to paramagnetic behavior due to increasing temperature (Mayhew, 1985), serves as a key indicator of subsurface thermal conditions. In VLB, the unusually shallow depths to the Curie (~ 18 km) indicate significant thermal anomalies and enhanced geothermal activities. This thermal structure creates steep geothermal gradients that bring heat sources closer to the surface, potentially stimulating magmatic and volcanic processes. The elevated heat flow may disrupt conventional petroleum systems by inhibiting trap formation and altering fluid migration pathways. However, the northern South China Sea presents an intriguing contrast - despite similarly shallow depths to the Curie(~ 16 km), the Yinggehai, Qiongdongnan and Pearl River Mouth basins have yielded over 1 trillion cubic meters of natural gas reserves, including the pioneering ultra-deep-water Ling Shui 36 − 1 field (Ma et al., 2018 ). The study area hosts numerous mud volcanoes whose formation is controlled by several interconnected geophysical factors. Three primary geological conditions facilitate mud volcano development in this region: First, elevated free-air gravity anomalies adjacent to Crary Bank reveal substantial sediment accumulation, providing both material sources and overburden pressure for mud volcanism. Second, active magnetic anomalies combined with shallow depths to the Curie (~ 18 km) indicate enhanced thermal and tectonic activity, creating favorable conditions for fluid generation and migration. Third, extensive boundary fault systems serve dual functions - they not only channel magmatic intrusions that thermally mature organic matter, but also provide conduits for hydrocarbon-bearing fluids to reach the surface. The dynamic instructions between these factors creates an optimal environment for mud volcano formation: thicker sedimentary sequences under moderate geothermal gradients promote the development of abnormal pore pressures, which reduces effective stress within the strata. This pressure imbalance facilitates fracturing and fluidization of sediments, while the fault networks provide continuous pathways for methane-rich fluids to migrate upward. When these over-pressured fluids breach the seafloor, they form the characteristic mud volcanoes observed throughout the study area. In summary, the genesis of mud volcanoes is fundamentally controlled by the dynamic interplay between geothermal gradients and sediment thickness, which collectively govern fluid pressure regimes and sediment rheology. A complete understanding of mud volcano systems therefore requires an integrated analysis that accounts for the synergistic effects of these interdependent factors within the geodynamic context of basin's evolution. Analyses of MCS The study area contains limited seismic coverage with clear imaging of mature mud volcanoes, but several key profiles across the Terror Rift along the western margin of Crary Bank provide exceptional examples. Seismic lines L284AN-407, L284AN-408, and IT90AR-65S (Fig. 3 ) reveal distinct morphological and structural characteristics of these features. The mud volcanoes exhibit characteristic seismic signatures, including disrupted and chaotic reflections at their summits caused by seismic wave attenuation through gas-charged muddy sediments. In contrast, their flanks display sharp reflection boundaries resulting from strong acoustic impedance contrasts with surrounding strata (Fig. 4 ). Internally, the mud volcanoes are transected by normal fault systems associated with Terror Rift extension, which appear to facilitate fluid migration and sediment mobilization through these structures. The morphological expression of mud volcanoes exhibits two distinct end-members - buried dome structures and seafloor pockmarks - that record the complex interplay between sedimentary and glacial processes (Liu et al., 2024 ). Seismic profiles (NBP0401-110, NBP0401-112, IT89RS-AR19, TH82-16, and BGR80-004; Fig. 4 ) reveal how Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles have modulated these features through alternating erosional and depositional regimes (Mckay et al., 2025 ). Through the integrated interpretation of seismic profiles and borehole data from the study area, we have identified two distinct types of special structures closely associated with the regional glacial erosion surface RSU2 (circa 4.6 Ma): baerial mud volcanoes and deep-seated domes buried by overlying strata. The spatial configuration of these structures with the RSU2 surface provides critical evidence for the coupling processes among regional tectonism, glacial erosion, and fluid migration. Seismic profiles clearly reveal three typical spatial contact relationships between the RSU2 surface and the underlying dome structures, each implying a specific relative timing and dynamic history. In the eastern sector with thick sediment of VLB, the RSU2 surface is observed to continuously and smoothly overlie the dome structures, indicating that these domes formed prior to the glacial erosion event represented by RSU2. They are classified as pre-RSU2 domes and were preserved intact during the erosional process. A second scenario is characterized by the RSU2 surface coinciding with the crest of a dome, which likely represents the truncated and buried remnant of an older mud volcano that was beveled during the RSU2 erosional event. However, the dominant relationship across the study area is a third type, where the RSU2 surface is significantly offset or discontinuous at the location of a dome structure. These structures are concentrated near the Terror Rift, and their timing indicates that the domal uplift (forced folding) occurred after the RSU2 erosional event, with the structures subsequently buried by younger sediments. This spatial distribution of structural types exhibits a marked east-west differentiation, reflecting a differential response to the same glacial erosion event under contrasting tectonic settings. In the Terror Rift region, proximal to the Transantarctic Mountains, the sedimentary cover is relatively thin (< 1500 ms TWT), and a well-developed fault system exhibits significant truncation. This area hosts dense clusters of mud volcanoes, whose activities are clearly not constrained by the RSU2 surface. Core data from borehole DSDP273 also confirms a significant lithological break across the RSU2 interface. Together, these features indicate that this region experienced intense tectonic activity following the RSU2 event, likely driven by glacial unloading which reactivated faults, providing conduits for the ascent of deep-sourced fluids such as mud and methane. In contrast, the tectonically stable eastern VLB is characterized by a complete and thick sedimentary sequence (> 3000 ms TWT), with over 1000 ms TWT of post-RSU2 deposits. This region is dominated by buried domes, with statistical analysis suggesting that approximately 70% of these domes formed after the RSU2 erosional event. The continuous sedimentary record revealed by borehole DSDP273 further corroborates a long-term, stable depositional history in this area. Further analysis of fluid activities evidence provide strong support for the aforementioned tectonic evolution model. As the most extensive erosional surface identified in the Ross Sea, the detection of methane gas within the strata overlying RSU2 strongly suggests that major gas escape events occurred subsequent to the RSU2 erosional event. However, the post-RSU2 strata are predominantly composed of semi-consolidated to consolidated gravelly silty clays, which are lithologically dense and lack effective reservoir spaces and a regional seal-caprock combination, making the formation of large-scale conventional hydrocarbon traps unlikely. Therefore, the methane gas captured in the borehole within the Central Trough most likely represents modern or sub-modern fluid release activity, migrating along pathways associated with deep-seated faults or dome structures. This inference is corroborated by seismic profiles, which have also identified deep-seated dome structures in the vicinity of the borehole, suggesting that these features may act as local “chimneys” or focal points for the upward migration of deep-sourced hydrocarbon gases. In summary, the tectonic framework and sedimentary record of the study area collectively depict an evolutionary history controlled by glacial dynamics. During the pre-RSU2 glacial advance period (> 4.6 Ma), sediment loading was the dominant process, leading to the formation of pre-RSU2 domes that were well-preserved in the tectonically stable eastern VLB. Subsequently, during the post-RSU2 glacial retreat period (< 4.6 Ma), the regional stress field shifted. In the tectonically active Terror Rift, intense glacial erosion and unloading caused fault reactivation, triggering the intensive eruption of mud volcanoes. Concurrently, in the basin center, continuous sedimentation gradually buried the domes that formed during the post-RSU2 period, ultimately shaping the complex yet orderly structural-depositional pattern we observe today. 2) Integrated geophysical characteristics of mud volcanoes The integrated geophysical analysis reveals systematic variations between magmatic and mud volcano systems in the study area. Free-air and Bouguer gravity anomalies along profiles L284AN-407, L284AN-408 and IT89-AR19 demonstrate distinct density contrasts, with Bouguer lows precisely corresponding to mud volcano vents and flow pathways due to their lower-density mud-gas mixtures. Profile L284AN-407 showcases particularly diagnostic contrasts - the magmatic system at Franklin Island displays characteristic high-amplitude magnetic and gravity anomalies with shallow depths to Curie (averaging ~ 18 km), while the adjacent mud volcano exhibits subdued magnetic signals but comparable gravity highs with deeper depths to the (~ 22 km). These fundamental differences reflect their distinct origins: Franklin Island represents bimodal alkaline magmatism from the 4.6 Ma McMurdo Volcanic Group eruption phase, whereas the mud volcanoes derive from sedimentary remobilization processes. Seismic profiles reveal the internal architecture of mud volcanoes, showing chaotic but continuous sequences with: (1) multiple fault conduits facilitating fluid migration, (2) amplitude attenuation zones indicating gas saturation, and (3) lower-strata arching (up to 150 m relief) suggesting underlying intrusion-related uplift. The L284AN-408 and IT89-AR19 profiles further document how these fluid-escape structures disrupt stratigraphic continuity while maintaining spatial association with deeper magmatic features, illustrating the complex interplay between igneous and sedimentary processes in this glacially influenced shelf basin. The geophysical signatures of mud volcanoes reveal complex interactions between sedimentary and magmatic processes. Depth to the Curie exhibit systematic variations, showing significant shallowing beneath magmatic volcanoes while deepening in areas hosting mud volcanoes, suggesting distinct thermal regimes. The corresponding curves of geomagnetic anomaly display small-amplitude positive fluctuations (~ 50 nT) over mud volcanoes, contrasting with the stronger anomalies associated with igneous features. These subtle magnetic responses indicate that while mud volcanoes are predominantly low-density, non-magnetic structures, some contain sufficient magnetic minerals or interact with magnetic basement rocks to produce detectable anomalies. The character of these anomalies provides important constraints on subsurface geometry - linear or narrow patterns suggest tabular or linearly extended intrusions, potentially representing sill complexes. In undisturbed sedimentary sequences, mud volcanoes primarily manifest as low-density, non-magnetic features. However, the presence of short-wavelength magnetic anomalies in some instances points to embedded magnetic bodies, likely related to magmatic activity. These are interpreted as sill complexes formed by lateral intrusion of residual magma, which through forced folding and sustained thermal input (1) deform overlying strata and (2) drive the formation of eruptive mud volcanoes or gas hydrate-related bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) (Lawver et al., 2012 ). This model explains how magmatic heat can mobilize sedimentary fluids without direct volcanic eruption, creating hybrid systems where deep igneous processes enable shallow sedimentary mud volcanism. 3) Discussion on the relationship between sill complexes and mud volcanoes Sill complexes refer to groups of tabular intrusive bodies formed by magma emplaced along sedimentary bedding planes, characterized by their typical saucer-shaped or discoid geometries (Hansen et al., 2004 ). These complexes generally consist of multiple superimposed and interconnected sills, exhibiting clustered spatial distribution patterns. During magma emplacement, the overlying strata undergo dome-type forced folding deformation under vertical stress, which serves as a key indicator for identifying sill complexes. From a genetic perspective, the formation of sill complexes is closely related to regional tectonic activity and deep magmatic processes. Taking the northern margin of the South China Sea as an example, post-rift magmatism facilitated the development of typical sill complexes through complex transport systems that enabled mantle-derived materials to migrate along fault zones to shallow crustal levels (Zhao et al., 2021 ; Zhang et al., 2017 ). Similarly, studies of igneous intrusions in the western Tarim Basin have revealed characteristics of chained sill complexes (Niu et al., 2024 ; Yao et al., 2018 ). VLB also exhibits typical morphological and distributional features of sill complexes (Zhang et al., 2017 ). On seismic profiles from the Crary Bank area, we have identified sill complexes exceeding 500 meters in thickness. Integrated with regional tectonic evolution analysis, the formation of these thick intrusions may be genetically linked to the reactivation of magmatic activity in the southern part of the basin and the subsidence history of VLB. The Terror Rift, located on the western flank of VLB as an active E-W extending, plays a significant role in understanding regional sill complex formation. Initiated approximately at 32 Ma, this rift developed into a typical horst-graben system. The tectonic activitites controlled by deep-seated faults has persisted since 8 Ma, generating substantial bimodal alkaline magmas from large igneous provinces at both ends of the rift. We propose that this magmatic compression from both rift ends likely played a crucial role in the formation of sill complexes within VLB. Chronological analysis indicates that the main formation period of sill complexes dates back to approximately 4.6 Ma. These complexes exhibit distinct vertical layering: multiple small sills in shallow levels causing significant uplift of overlying strata, while larger and thicker tongue-shaped basal intrusions at deeper levels generate prominent high-impedance anomalies in host rocks. Seismic reflection characteristics show discontinuous or even absent reflections within the intrusive bodies. The well-developed fault systems between basement and sill complexes provide important pathways for magmatic activity, through which deep-derived magma continuously migrates upward, forming stacked intrusive assemblages within sedimentary sequences. From the perspective of magma emplacement dynamics, forced folds commonly develop atop large sill complexes, with typical onlap features observable on both fold limbs (Fig. 6 (2),(3)). Smaller complexes demonstrate more diverse formation mechanisms: in one common scenario, magma migrates along faults and accumulates in confined spaces to form isolated complexes; in another scenario, forced termination occurs when complexes connect to intrusions but lack sufficient tensional stress for complete penetration. Based on extensive seismic data analysis, we summarize four diagnostic seismic indicators for sill complexes: (1) intense magmatic signals, (2) distinct magma migration pathways, (3) forced folding of host rocks caused by magma intrusion, and (4) strong seismic amplitudes with deep fault channels. The saucer-shaped sill complexes documented in this study represent a significant manifestation of magma emplacement phenomena in sedimentary basin environments (Fig. 7 ). These distinctive intrusive bodies exhibit a characteristic concave geometry that provides critical insights into magma-sediment interaction processes. Seismic reflection data reveal that these complexes display a systematic three-dimensional architecture consisting of a central inner sill with subhorizontal geometry, steeply dipping peripheral inclined sheets, and in developed cases, a distal outer sill extending beyond the transition zone (Fig. 7 b). The inner sill segment maintains considerable planarity, typically paralleling major stratigraphic unconformities or mechanically weak horizons in the host sedimentary sequence. The transition to peripheral inclined sheets occurs across a relatively narrow zone, marked by noticeable changes in seismic reflection character including amplitude variations, local disruption of host rock reflectors, and development of faulting features. The outer sill shows gradually decreasing dip angles with distance from the complex center, eventually merging with regional stratigraphic horizons. The formation of these geometrically complex intrusions appears to be controlled by the interplay between magma dynamics and host rock mechanical properties. Magma overpressure likely overcomes the tensile strength of host rocks to initiate intrusion, with subsequent propagation being influenced by mechanical contrasts between sedimentary layers. As emplacement progresses, the evolving stress field may contribute to the characteristic saucer morphology through stress rotation, while concurrent deformation of host sediments facilitates lateral magma spread. Seismic interpretation suggests that these sill complexes are commonly associated with vertical feeder zones exhibiting disturbed seismic facies, fault systems in overburden strata, forced fold structures, and zones of potential hydrothermal alteration (Fig. 7 a). The feeder systems connecting to deeper magma sources typically appear as subvertical zones of disrupted reflections, often aligned with pre-existing fault networks. These conduits display complex internal architectures that may include branching geometries and evidence of multiple magma emplacement events. The surface of these magmatic systems sometimes includes mud volcano (Fig. 7 a), indicating possible fluid migration along intrusion-related fracture networks. This spatial correlation suggests that magma emplacement could create permeability pathways that remain active for extended periods. Post-solidification processes may continue to influence fluid circulation and pressure regimes within the system. The mud volcanoes distributed along the southern slope of Crary Bank constitute significant surface manifestations of deep magmatic and sedimentary processes within VLB. These features demonstrate a pronounced spatial association with the tectonic framework of basin, particularly in relation to the Terror Rift, indicating a fundamental genetic connection between mud volcanism, magmatic intrusion, and regional structural development (Fig. 8 ). The formation of these systems reflects the complex interplay between magmatic heat sources, fluid generation through sediment compaction and organic maturation, and the development of fracture networks that facilitate fluid migration. The Terror Rift emerges as a critical structural element governing fluid dynamics in this region. This active rift zone exhibits intricate deformation patterns marked by alternating graben and horst structures, with listric fault systems extending into basement rocks. These deep-penetrating fault zones serve as conduits for the upward migration of both magma and hydrocarbons, establishing an integrated network of intrusive bodies and fluid pathways. The emplacement of sill complexes within the sedimentary sequence generates substantial thermal anomalies that significantly influence the surrounding geological environment (Fig. 8 − 1). The thermal effects of magma intrusion promote widespread diagenetic alteration of host rocks while simultaneously generating overpressured fluids through pore fluid expansion. This process enhances the maturation of organic-rich intervals and establishes hydrothermal circulation systems. Concurrently, the mechanical consequences of magma emplacement profoundly impact the basin fluid systems. The density contrast between intruding magmas and host sediments creates considerable lithostatic stresses, while thermal expansion of heated pore fluids establishes localized overpressure conditions. These combined effects produce the characteristic forced folding observable in seismic data, with fold dimensions directly correlating to intrusion thickness and emplacement depth. The exceptional thickness of sedimentary sequences in the study area, exceeding 3 km in certain locations, coupled with relatively low strain rates, favors the development of broad domal structures rather than intense localized folding. This structural configuration holds particular significance for hydrocarbon systems, as intrusive-related domes may form effective structural traps. The thermal effects of intrusion can potentially enhance reservoir quality through contact metamorphism and the generation of secondary porosity, while overlying mud volcanic deposits may function as sealing units (Fig. 8 a-d). The spatial distribution of active versus dormant mud volcanoes provides valuable insights into the basin fluid dynamics. Active systems signify ongoing fluid migration along fracture networks, whereas dormant features may represent either depleted systems where pressures have equilibrated, effectively sealed traps retaining hydrocarbons, or areas where the driving forces of magmatic heat and tectonic stress have diminished. This comprehensive understanding of the relationship between mud volcanic systems, sill emplacement, and structural deformation establishes a robust framework for interpreting fluid migration processes in magma-rich sedimentary basins. The demonstrated spatial and genetic relationships between these geological elements carry important implications for hydrocarbon exploration strategies, geothermal energy potential assessment, carbon sequestration site selection, and geological hazard evaluation in comparable tectonic settings globally. Future investigations should prioritize quantitative analysis of the thermal budgets associated with intrusive systems and their long-term impacts on fluid flow regimes within the VLB. Such research would further refine our understanding of these complex geological systems and their practical applications in resource exploration and geological risk assessment. Conclusion This study provides comprehensive insights into the distribution characteristics and formation mechanisms of mud volcanoes within VLB revealing their close genetic relationship with regional tectonic activities and magmatic processes. The key findings can be summarized as follows: Spatial distribution and geophysical signatures The mud volcanoes in VLB exhibit a distinct concentration along the southern slopes of Crary Bank. Geophysical evidence, including high free-air gravity anomalies and shallow depths to the Curie, indicates that these features develop in thick sedimentary sequences within an active tectonic setting. These observations suggest that mud volcano formation is strongly influenced by deep-seated geological processes associated with sediment loading and crustal thermal anomalies. Tectonic controls and magmatic associations The spatial correlation between mud volcanoes and high-angle boundary faults, particularly the deep-rooted listric faults of the Terror Rift, highlights the critical role of structural discontinuities in fluid migration. These fault systems not only demarcate major structural domains but also serve as primary conduits for magma ascent from the large igneous provinces at the rift termini. The coexistence of mud volcanoes with intense magmatic activity suggests a coupled system where tectonic deformation facilitates both magma emplacement and fluid expulsion. Genetic model and diagnostic characteristics Magnetic data and seismic reflection patterns demonstrate that mud volcano formation follows a sequential process: (i) magma intrudes along bedding planes to form sill complexes, (ii) subsequent thermal effects induce forced folding of overlying strata, and (iii) continued heating drives fluid mobilization leading to mud volcanism. These systems are characterized by distinctive saucer-shaped seismic reflectors with folded overburden, well-defined magma conduits, and associated geophysical anomalies (smooth gravity, magnetic fluctuations, and deep depths to the Curie). Morphological variability and exploration implications The manifestation of mud volcanoes varies significantly with deformation intensity. While eruptive features dominate near the active Terror Rift, basin-interior examples mainly exist as buried domes. This dichotomy reflects differences in stress regimes and fluid overpressure conditions. The fault systems controlling their distribution provide crucial seismic indicators for identifying potential mud volcano prospects, with important implications for both geohazard assessment and hydrocarbon exploration. These findings deeper our understanding of sediment-magma interactions in rift basins, providing a conceptual framework for interpreting similar systems. Future studies should focus on quantifying the thermal budgets of intrusive complexes and their long-term impacts on fluid flow regimes to better depict mud volcano dynamics in active tectonic settings. Declarations Author Contribution Statement M.Y. conceived the study, designed the research framework, and wrote the main manuscript text. J.X. supervised the entire research project, provided critical guidance on data interpretation and manuscript structure, and was responsible for the final review. J.G. provided critical geophysical data, contributed to the interpretation of seismic profiles, and revised the manuscript. P.Y. processed and analyzed the gravity and magnetic data, and prepared Figs. 1–3. G.F. conducted the bathymetric data processing and contributed to the spatial distribution analysis. D.P. assisted with literature review, data integration, and manuscript formatting. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare no conflicts of interest related to this study. Acknowledgments This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation (Project No.: 42176067, 41576069). I would also like to thank the Gao Jinyao Laboratory for their technical support and assistance in data collection. Finally, I would like to thank all the individuals and teams that provided support and help for this study. Data Availability Statement All data used in this study are presented in the manuscript or have been deposited in a public repository. The seismic data can be accessed via the Seismological Data and Long-period Seismographs (SDLS, https://sdls.ogs.trieste.it/ ). The other geophysical data that support the findings of this study are available from the National Earth System Science Data Center, National Science & Technology Infrastructure of China ( http://www.geodata.cn ). The high-precision bathymetric data were provided by the Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, and are available upon request from researcher Jinyao Gao ( [email protected] ). References Baranov A, Morelli A (2023) The structure of sedimentary basins of Antarctica and a new three-layer sediment model. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 601:118422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2022.229662. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-7688755\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":525608910,\"identity\":\"3357d4fc-403f-4798-8986-51960b3266fd\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Mei Yue\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Civil-Military Integration Geological Survey Center, China Geological 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15:39:32\",\"extension\":\"xml\",\"order_by\":35,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":125769,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"e85e6c24d4f3411c8c6dad82c4d2bbf51structuring.xml\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/3b0ce96e3ac8010060b0df74.xml\"},{\"id\":93249916,\"identity\":\"5c108280-6d2d-409c-b754-473b3e4d9f77\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:39:32\",\"extension\":\"html\",\"order_by\":36,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":135798,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"earlyproof.html\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/62e27277015629bb9539d9dd.html\"},{\"id\":93249895,\"identity\":\"dbf5d7e6-c2e2-4ade-93a2-e5e424c685cc\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:39:31\",\"extension\":\"jpeg\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":875975,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eBathymetric map of the study area. Insets A is the bathymetry and tectonic setting of the Ross Sea. The study area (black box) is located within the VLB (VLB), bounded by major structural features including the Transantarctic Mountains (TAM), Culman High (CH), and Central High (CTH). Gray dashed lines delineate sub-basin boundaries (Salvini et al., 1997). Three prominent volcanic provinces of the McMurdo Volcanic Group are highlighted (red dashed ellipses): Erebus (EVP), Melbourne (MVP), and Hallett (HVP). Other notable features include the Northern Basin (NB), Central Trough (CT), Eastern Basin (EB), and Terror Rift (TR).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eInsets B is the detailed bathymetry of VLB (50 m grid resolution) showing key geological features: Mud volcano clusters (orange triangles) and domes (purple triangles) identified from seismic profiles; Pockmark/mounds region (white rectangle; Lawver et al., 2007, 2012); DSDP Leg 273 well location (red star; McIver, 1972); Seismic survey lines (yellow curves).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eInsets C-G provide detailed views of mud volcano topography, with C showing an enlarged section of the boxed area in B (modified from Lawver et al., 2012). This multi-scale presentation highlights the relationship between basin-scale structures and local mud volcano occurrences.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image1.jpeg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/1c26e989551f082a5dbd6020.jpeg\"},{\"id\":93249886,\"identity\":\"0656ebe2-672c-4b56-ae16-1c8ac88fc2b3\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:39:31\",\"extension\":\"jpeg\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":880415,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003epresents an updated stratigraphic-geochronological framework developed by correlating borehole ANT32-L10 with the VLB seismic profile. The NBP9407-51 line (Henrys et al., 2008) displays a relatively intact seismic stratigraphy, while the IT90AR-63 profile (Sauli et al., 2020) identifies the presence of mud volcanoes. The activity of these mud volcanoes has weakened stratigraphic continuity, leading to forced folding of multiple layers and extensive development of vertical faults.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image2.jpeg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/70cb8ce52dc94f493da227f5.jpeg\"},{\"id\":93251356,\"identity\":\"8a7b68de-268d-4a72-9bb2-ff1d8d35ceb7\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:47:31\",\"extension\":\"jpeg\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":978409,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eGravity and magnetic anomaly map of the Ross Sea Basin. The map includes free-air gravity anomalies, Bouguer gravity anomalies, total magnetic field anomalies, and depths to the Curie, with the same information as in Fig. 1.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image3.jpeg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/c703be5dd70415b6b2e8e5c0.jpeg\"},{\"id\":93252449,\"identity\":\"4b0424b8-f709-4616-91a5-0e8f4d09b14b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:55:31\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"Figure 4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":1347370,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSeismic characteristics analyses of mud volcanoes and buried domes.TWT is the two-way travel time (same as below). The yellow line demarcates the RSU2 unconformity surface.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image4.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/f11ea8227fb2d3015f74f8b6.png\"},{\"id\":93249887,\"identity\":\"d8d7014f-e753-4712-add4-f49c6f4380b2\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:39:31\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":739521,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eGravity and magnetic anomalies. (a) profile L284AN-407, (b) profile L284AN-408, (c) profile IT89-AR19.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image5.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/410625696838b0daf514211b.png\"},{\"id\":93249894,\"identity\":\"30768f10-7970-4cf0-a0b5-0e4406aa8de3\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:39:31\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":1072143,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSeismic interpretation for sills. The green block represents the magma basement, the yellow block represents the possible rock bed complex, and the green arrow represents the possible migration path of magma. (1) section L284AN-407, where (a-c) respectively represent the specific morphology of the rock bed composite; (2) profile L284AN-408; (3) profile TH82-16; (4) profile IT90AR-65S.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image6.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/6059f977e6e428915ef9a3b4.png\"},{\"id\":93251358,\"identity\":\"a36ced23-47d7-4f1d-a2b4-7db78519f7da\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:47:31\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":1324997,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe occurrence characteristics of disc-shaped rock bed composite on seismic profiles.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image7.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/aff4e3964469896cab2bee3b.png\"},{\"id\":93249892,\"identity\":\"9d03814a-da25-4ec2-b4f4-78db86c208a5\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-10-10 15:39:31\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":8,\"title\":\"Figure 8\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":180737,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eGeological model of mud volcanoes and other fluid escape structures in the study area. (1) uses the profile NBP0401-407, which crosses mud volcanoes and the Franklin magmatic volcano, as an example. (2), adapted from Geng (2020), illustrates the process by which sill complexes evolve into dome structures within stratigraphic layers. It shows that the basement is directly related to magmatic-type volcanoes and indirectly connected to the bedrock complex through weak structural channels such as faults. Overpressure fluids are the driving force behind mud volcano eruptions, which are produced by a combination of factors including under-compaction, hydrocarbon generation, hydrothermal over-pressuring, and tectonic compression.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image8.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/6807c13820015b2759529251.png\"},{\"id\":96252584,\"identity\":\"cb1da174-e04c-42c9-b745-6beed1054815\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-19 07:41:14\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":7818456,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688755/v1/59824b24-fe1a-4e0b-bc46-3c732a7d29a9.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Analyses on distribution and origin of mud volcanoes and sill complexes in the VLB of the Ross Sea, Antarctica\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMud volcanoes represent a distinctive geological phenomenon resulting from the interaction between crustal tectonic activity and surface environments (Dimitrov, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR11\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2002\\u003c/span\\u003e; Milkov, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR33\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e). These features serve as both positive indicators for hydrocarbon potential and possible markers of reservoir destruction processes (Ben-Avraham et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2002\\u003c/span\\u003e). The prevailing formation mechanism suggests that mud volcanoes originate from the piercing of overlying strata by overpressured deep fluids (Novikov et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR35\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2013\\u003c/span\\u003e). However, emerging evidence indicates an alternative magmatic association, where waning magmatic activity may lead to the migration of residual magma along weak formations, ultimately manifesting as mud volcanic eruptions (Berndt et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2014\\u003c/span\\u003e; Wan et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR38\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2019\\u003c/span\\u003e; Zhong et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR44\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHigh-resolution multibeam surveys have identified numerous seafloor mounds (400\\u0026ndash;4000 m in diameter, 50\\u0026ndash;250 m in height) distributed across 450\\u0026ndash;500 m water depths in the Victoria Land Basin (VLB)(Lawver et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003e; Magee, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR31\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2011\\u003c/span\\u003e). Reprocessed multi-channel seismic (MCS) data reveal the presence of bottom-simulating reflectors (BSRs) and mud volcanoes associated with high-angle normal faults (Geletti and Busetti, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2011\\u003c/span\\u003e); Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e). While conventional models attribute mud volcanoes to the upward migration of low-density plastic shales (He et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2010\\u003c/span\\u003e), recent discoveries of large-scale sill complexes along the northern South China Sea margin suggest potential magmatic connections (Zhao et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR43\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e). Although direct evidence remains elusive in VLB, gravity and magnetic analyses consistently detect magnetic cores beneath mud volcanoes, potentially representing buried sill complexes (Lawver et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003e). This interpretation is supported by documented sill complexes in the adjacent Adare Basin, where deep faults facilitate both magma emplacement and mud volcano formation (Zhang et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR42\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e). A significant knowledge gap persists regarding the formation mechanisms of mud volcanoes in the VLB. The central controversy lies in the ambiguity between two potential drivers: deep-sourced, high-pressure fluid systems and subjacent magmatic activity.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study, therefore, integrates high-resolution geophysical data from China's 32nd-33rd Antarctic Scientific Expeditions with international datasets, including Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP) Leg 273 borehole data (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e), to investigate the spatio-temporal distribution and origin mechanisms of mud volcanoes in VLB.The research not only provides critical evidence for uncovering the deep dynamic processes behind mud volcano formation in polar environments\\u0026mdash;including the relative contributions of two competing mechanisms: fluid overpressure and magmatic activity\\u0026mdash;but also establishes new criteria for identifying the genetic types of submarine mud volcanoes through the integrated analysis of multi-source geophysical data.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Geologic Background\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe Ross Sea Basin (RSB) represents a key component of the Gondwana-derived continental margin system, characterized by distinctive structural architecture that differentiates it from other circum-Antarctic basins (Boger, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2011\\u003c/span\\u003e; Davey and Santis, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003e). Formed during the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene breakup of Gondwana (Laird et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR27\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1977\\u003c/span\\u003e), this major sedimentary basin developed contemporaneously with a series of interconnected extensional basins along the southeast Australian margin and New Zealand's continental shelf (Chen et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e). The shared tectonic evolution of these basins suggests similarly favorable systems, with approximately 9.15\\u0026nbsp;billion tons of oil equivalent in the RSB (Du et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2016\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe structural framework of the RSB consists of five major sub-basins bounded by the prominent Culman and Central Highs (Baranov et al., 2023). VLB emerges as the principal rift basin within this system, containing average 5\\u0026ndash;6 km of sedimentary fill with the thickest succession of 14 km-in the Terror Rift (Cooper et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR9\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1987\\u003c/span\\u003e; Henrys, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR21\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2007\\u003c/span\\u003e; Mckay et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR32\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e). Its complex evolutionary history records multiple phases of crustal extension and magmatic activity, beginning with initial rifting around 100 Ma during the Gondwana breakup (Rossetti et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR37\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2003\\u003c/span\\u003e), which established alluvial-fluvial depositional systems in nascent extensional basins (Boger, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2011\\u003c/span\\u003e). A significant tectonic reorganization occurred at approximately 34 Ma (Davey and Santis, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003e), triggered by uplift of the Transantarctic Mountains, which created the fundamental structural framework that continues to influence later basin dynamics (Brancolini et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR6\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1995\\u003c/span\\u003e). This was followed by widespread Neogene bimodal alkaline volcanism (Yue et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR41\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) that introduced substantial thermal perturbations to the sedimentary system (Fioraso et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe Terror Rift's deep-penetrating fault systems play a critical role as conduits for mantle-derived magmatic intrusions (Behrendt, 1999b; Yue et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR41\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), facilitating enhanced heat flux that accelerates hydrocarbon generation while creating secondary porosity through contact metamorphism (Giustiniani et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e). These structures also promote the development of structural traps via forced folding (Zhang et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR42\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e) and influence gas hydrate stability through thermal and pressure perturbations (Zhao et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR43\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e). The combination of thick sedimentary fill, complex structural architecture, and magmatic-tectonic interaction makes the VLB an exceptional natural laboratory for studying sediment-magma interactions (Planke et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR36\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e), thermogenic hydrocarbon systems (Giustiniani et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e), and fluid migration processes in rift basin settings (Geletti and Busetti, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2011\\u003c/span\\u003e). These characteristics not only illuminate the Antarctic tectonic history but also provide crucial insights for oil and gas evaluation in analogous magma-influenced rift systems worldwide (Fioraso et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Data and Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study utilizes an integrated geophysical approach combining multibeam bathymetry, multi-channel seismic reflection profiles, and gravity and magnetic data collected during the Chinese 32nd\\u0026ndash;33rd Antarctic Scientific Expeditions (CHINARE 32\\u0026ndash;33), supplemented by seismic profiles from the Antarctic Seismic Database System (SDLS, \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://sdls.ogs.trieste.it/\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"https://sdls.ogs.trieste.it/\\\" targettype=\\\"URL\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e) and the well location DSDP273. The synergistic application of gravity, magnetic, and seismic exploration methods constitutes a suitable approach for addressing complex geological questions (Behrendt, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1999a\\u003c/span\\u003e; McClay and White, 1995). Each method contributes a unique view that, when integrated, makes out comprehensive subsurface characterization. Seismic reflection data, with their exceptional vertical resolution, enable detailed structural mapping and precise delineation of mud volcano morphology and magmatic intrusions (Magee, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR31\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2011\\u003c/span\\u003e). The strong acoustic impedance contrast between magmatic bodies and host rocks typically generates prominent seismic reflections. However, this technique exhibits limitations in imaging certain features, particularly dome-structures and steeply dipping faults, which often produce seismic blind zones (Planke et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR36\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e). Gravity and magnetic exploration can rapidly conduct regional geophysical surveys, helping to understand the distribution characteristics of strata and faults, improve the resolution of inclined strata, and roughly delineate the range of magmatic intrusion, at the same time, it can distinguish whether the seismic blind zone is a mud volcano or a magmatic volcano (Hinze et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2013\\u003c/span\\u003e). Therefore, through the comprehensive interpretation of gravity, magnetism, and seismic data, the relationship between sedimentary strata and magma intrusions can be analyzed more efficiently and finely, and the causes of chaotic reflections on seismic profiles can be distinguished, such as whether they are magma volcanoes or mud volcanoes. The borehole (DSDP273) reached a total depth of 332.5 meters with a core recovery rate of 25%. The drilling data enabled precise calibration of stratigraphic ages and provided chronological constraints for tectonic activity. Methane gas was detected at a depth of 150 meters, occurring within the RSU2 horizon and deeper strata, while the deepest identifiable interface in the borehole is RSU4a.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Analysis\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003e1) Distribution of mud volcanoes in the research area\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eBathymetric Analyses\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWe integrates multibeam bathymetry data from 36 research cruises with GEBCO_2014 grid data to construct a high-resolution (50 m grid) digital elevation model of the Ross Sea, revealing distinct seafloor geomorphology associated with mud volcanism (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e; Xu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR39\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e). Near Franklin Island volcano, the seafloor exhibits two characteristic features: (1) mounds appearing as circular to irregularly shaped edifices with smooth surfaces and clear boundary, may be formed by rapid accumulation of extruded mudflows; and (2) pockmarks predominantly displaying circular morphologies (with elliptical and crescentic variants) that reflect homogeneous stress fields and stable sedimentary environments (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003eC, D). The spatial distribution and morphological variations of these features provide critical insights into fluid migration pathways, regional stress regimes, and the dynamic interplay between sedimentary processes and mud volcanism (Chen et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2015\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePockmarks and mounds are primarily distributed along the slopes of Crary Bank, demonstrating a close relationship with magmatic activity from Franklin and Beaufort volcanoes (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003eB). Crary Bank forms a distinct topographic high within the Ross Sea, sitting on the broader Coulman High structure where sedimentary sequences exhibit gentle dips and progressive thickening toward the flanks (Kooyman et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e). The southern sector of Crary Bank hosts Franklin and Beaufort volcanoes, both indicating recent activity and belonging to the Cenozoic McMurdo Volcanic Group. This extensive volcanic province encompasses the Hallett Volcanic Province in northern VLB, the Erebus Volcanic Province on Ross Island, and the Melbourne Volcanic Province at the northern end of Terror Rift (Jihyuk et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e). Since 4.6 Ma, dispersed magmatic activities throughout VLB has generated an approximately linear volcanic chain, potentially reflecting sustained thermal activities within the basin (Yue et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR41\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe development of mud volcanoes in the VLB is fundamentally controlled by thick sedimentary accumulations and favorable thermodynamic conditions, with their distinct morphological characteristics and formation mechanisms clearly revealed through seismic reflection profiles. To fully understand these features and their regional distribution patterns, we implement an integrated geophysical interpretation approach that systematically examines the relationship between mud volcano occurrences and larger-scale tectonic processes.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eAnalyses of gravity and magnetic anomalies\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe distribution of mud volcanoes and pockmarks in VLB exhibits a strong correlation with prominent geophysical anomalies, consistently occurring in areas characterized by both elevated free-air gravity anomalies and shallow depths to the Curie (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). These features predominantly concentrate within transitional zones between structural highs and basin depressions, where marked gradients in free-air and Bouguer gravity anomalies reflect significant sediment accumulation and complex subsurface density variations. The distinctive geophysical signature of these zones, particularly the unusually shallow depths to the Curie, suggests an active thermal regime that likely influences fluid migration pathways and sediment deformation processes, creating favorable conditions for mud volcano formation through a combination of thick sedimentary deposits, thermal fluid circulation, and crustal thermal perturbations. Depths to the Curie, marking the depth at which ferromagnetic minerals transition to paramagnetic behavior due to increasing temperature (Mayhew, 1985), serves as a key indicator of subsurface thermal conditions. In VLB, the unusually shallow depths to the Curie (~\\u0026thinsp;18 km) indicate significant thermal anomalies and enhanced geothermal activities. This thermal structure creates steep geothermal gradients that bring heat sources closer to the surface, potentially stimulating magmatic and volcanic processes. The elevated heat flow may disrupt conventional petroleum systems by inhibiting trap formation and altering fluid migration pathways. However, the northern South China Sea presents an intriguing contrast - despite similarly shallow depths to the Curie(~\\u0026thinsp;16 km), the Yinggehai, Qiongdongnan and Pearl River Mouth basins have yielded over 1 trillion cubic meters of natural gas reserves, including the pioneering ultra-deep-water Ling Shui 36\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1 field (Ma et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR30\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe study area hosts numerous mud volcanoes whose formation is controlled by several interconnected geophysical factors. Three primary geological conditions facilitate mud volcano development in this region: First, elevated free-air gravity anomalies adjacent to Crary Bank reveal substantial sediment accumulation, providing both material sources and overburden pressure for mud volcanism. Second, active magnetic anomalies combined with shallow depths to the Curie (~\\u0026thinsp;18 km) indicate enhanced thermal and tectonic activity, creating favorable conditions for fluid generation and migration. Third, extensive boundary fault systems serve dual functions - they not only channel magmatic intrusions that thermally mature organic matter, but also provide conduits for hydrocarbon-bearing fluids to reach the surface.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe dynamic instructions between these factors creates an optimal environment for mud volcano formation: thicker sedimentary sequences under moderate geothermal gradients promote the development of abnormal pore pressures, which reduces effective stress within the strata. This pressure imbalance facilitates fracturing and fluidization of sediments, while the fault networks provide continuous pathways for methane-rich fluids to migrate upward. When these over-pressured fluids breach the seafloor, they form the characteristic mud volcanoes observed throughout the study area.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn summary, the genesis of mud volcanoes is fundamentally controlled by the dynamic interplay between geothermal gradients and sediment thickness, which collectively govern fluid pressure regimes and sediment rheology. A complete understanding of mud volcano systems therefore requires an integrated analysis that accounts for the synergistic effects of these interdependent factors within the geodynamic context of basin's evolution.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eAnalyses of MCS\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe study area contains limited seismic coverage with clear imaging of mature mud volcanoes, but several key profiles across the Terror Rift along the western margin of Crary Bank provide exceptional examples. Seismic lines L284AN-407, L284AN-408, and IT90AR-65S (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e) reveal distinct morphological and structural characteristics of these features. The mud volcanoes exhibit characteristic seismic signatures, including disrupted and chaotic reflections at their summits caused by seismic wave attenuation through gas-charged muddy sediments. In contrast, their flanks display sharp reflection boundaries resulting from strong acoustic impedance contrasts with surrounding strata (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e). Internally, the mud volcanoes are transected by normal fault systems associated with Terror Rift extension, which appear to facilitate fluid migration and sediment mobilization through these structures.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe morphological expression of mud volcanoes exhibits two distinct end-members - buried dome structures and seafloor pockmarks - that record the complex interplay between sedimentary and glacial processes (Liu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e). Seismic profiles (NBP0401-110, NBP0401-112, IT89RS-AR19, TH82-16, and BGR80-004; Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e) reveal how Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles have modulated these features through alternating erosional and depositional regimes (Mckay et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR32\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThrough the integrated interpretation of seismic profiles and borehole data from the study area, we have identified two distinct types of special structures closely associated with the regional glacial erosion surface RSU2 (circa 4.6 Ma): baerial mud volcanoes and deep-seated domes buried by overlying strata. The spatial configuration of these structures with the RSU2 surface provides critical evidence for the coupling processes among regional tectonism, glacial erosion, and fluid migration. Seismic profiles clearly reveal three typical spatial contact relationships between the RSU2 surface and the underlying dome structures, each implying a specific relative timing and dynamic history. In the eastern sector with thick sediment of VLB, the RSU2 surface is observed to continuously and smoothly overlie the dome structures, indicating that these domes formed prior to the glacial erosion event represented by RSU2. They are classified as pre-RSU2 domes and were preserved intact during the erosional process. A second scenario is characterized by the RSU2 surface coinciding with the crest of a dome, which likely represents the truncated and buried remnant of an older mud volcano that was beveled during the RSU2 erosional event. However, the dominant relationship across the study area is a third type, where the RSU2 surface is significantly offset or discontinuous at the location of a dome structure. These structures are concentrated near the Terror Rift, and their timing indicates that the domal uplift (forced folding) occurred after the RSU2 erosional event, with the structures subsequently buried by younger sediments.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis spatial distribution of structural types exhibits a marked east-west differentiation, reflecting a differential response to the same glacial erosion event under contrasting tectonic settings. In the Terror Rift region, proximal to the Transantarctic Mountains, the sedimentary cover is relatively thin (\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;1500 ms TWT), and a well-developed fault system exhibits significant truncation. This area hosts dense clusters of mud volcanoes, whose activities are clearly not constrained by the RSU2 surface. Core data from borehole DSDP273 also confirms a significant lithological break across the RSU2 interface. Together, these features indicate that this region experienced intense tectonic activity following the RSU2 event, likely driven by glacial unloading which reactivated faults, providing conduits for the ascent of deep-sourced fluids such as mud and methane. In contrast, the tectonically stable eastern VLB is characterized by a complete and thick sedimentary sequence (\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;3000 ms TWT), with over 1000 ms TWT of post-RSU2 deposits. This region is dominated by buried domes, with statistical analysis suggesting that approximately 70% of these domes formed after the RSU2 erosional event. The continuous sedimentary record revealed by borehole DSDP273 further corroborates a long-term, stable depositional history in this area.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFurther analysis of fluid activities evidence provide strong support for the aforementioned tectonic evolution model. As the most extensive erosional surface identified in the Ross Sea, the detection of methane gas within the strata overlying RSU2 strongly suggests that major gas escape events occurred subsequent to the RSU2 erosional event. However, the post-RSU2 strata are predominantly composed of semi-consolidated to consolidated gravelly silty clays, which are lithologically dense and lack effective reservoir spaces and a regional seal-caprock combination, making the formation of large-scale conventional hydrocarbon traps unlikely. Therefore, the methane gas captured in the borehole within the Central Trough most likely represents modern or sub-modern fluid release activity, migrating along pathways associated with deep-seated faults or dome structures. This inference is corroborated by seismic profiles, which have also identified deep-seated dome structures in the vicinity of the borehole, suggesting that these features may act as local \\u0026ldquo;chimneys\\u0026rdquo; or focal points for the upward migration of deep-sourced hydrocarbon gases.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn summary, the tectonic framework and sedimentary record of the study area collectively depict an evolutionary history controlled by glacial dynamics. During the pre-RSU2 glacial advance period (\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;4.6 Ma), sediment loading was the dominant process, leading to the formation of pre-RSU2 domes that were well-preserved in the tectonically stable eastern VLB. Subsequently, during the post-RSU2 glacial retreat period (\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;4.6 Ma), the regional stress field shifted. In the tectonically active Terror Rift, intense glacial erosion and unloading caused fault reactivation, triggering the intensive eruption of mud volcanoes. Concurrently, in the basin center, continuous sedimentation gradually buried the domes that formed during the post-RSU2 period, ultimately shaping the complex yet orderly structural-depositional pattern we observe today.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2) Integrated geophysical characteristics of mud volcanoes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe integrated geophysical analysis reveals systematic variations between magmatic and mud volcano systems in the study area. Free-air and Bouguer gravity anomalies along profiles L284AN-407, L284AN-408 and IT89-AR19 demonstrate distinct density contrasts, with Bouguer lows precisely corresponding to mud volcano vents and flow pathways due to their lower-density mud-gas mixtures. Profile L284AN-407 showcases particularly diagnostic contrasts - the magmatic system at Franklin Island displays characteristic high-amplitude magnetic and gravity anomalies with shallow depths to Curie (averaging\\u0026thinsp;~\\u0026thinsp;18 km), while the adjacent mud volcano exhibits subdued magnetic signals but comparable gravity highs with deeper depths to the (~\\u0026thinsp;22 km). These fundamental differences reflect their distinct origins: Franklin Island represents bimodal alkaline magmatism from the 4.6 Ma McMurdo Volcanic Group eruption phase, whereas the mud volcanoes derive from sedimentary remobilization processes. Seismic profiles reveal the internal architecture of mud volcanoes, showing chaotic but continuous sequences with: (1) multiple fault conduits facilitating fluid migration, (2) amplitude attenuation zones indicating gas saturation, and (3) lower-strata arching (up to 150 m relief) suggesting underlying intrusion-related uplift. The L284AN-408 and IT89-AR19 profiles further document how these fluid-escape structures disrupt stratigraphic continuity while maintaining spatial association with deeper magmatic features, illustrating the complex interplay between igneous and sedimentary processes in this glacially influenced shelf basin.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe geophysical signatures of mud volcanoes reveal complex interactions between sedimentary and magmatic processes. Depth to the Curie exhibit systematic variations, showing significant shallowing beneath magmatic volcanoes while deepening in areas hosting mud volcanoes, suggesting distinct thermal regimes. The corresponding curves of geomagnetic anomaly display small-amplitude positive fluctuations (~\\u0026thinsp;50 nT) over mud volcanoes, contrasting with the stronger anomalies associated with igneous features. These subtle magnetic responses indicate that while mud volcanoes are predominantly low-density, non-magnetic structures, some contain sufficient magnetic minerals or interact with magnetic basement rocks to produce detectable anomalies. The character of these anomalies provides important constraints on subsurface geometry - linear or narrow patterns suggest tabular or linearly extended intrusions, potentially representing sill complexes.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn undisturbed sedimentary sequences, mud volcanoes primarily manifest as low-density, non-magnetic features. However, the presence of short-wavelength magnetic anomalies in some instances points to embedded magnetic bodies, likely related to magmatic activity. These are interpreted as sill complexes formed by lateral intrusion of residual magma, which through forced folding and sustained thermal input (1) deform overlying strata and (2) drive the formation of eruptive mud volcanoes or gas hydrate-related bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) (Lawver et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003e). This model explains how magmatic heat can mobilize sedimentary fluids without direct volcanic eruption, creating hybrid systems where deep igneous processes enable shallow sedimentary mud volcanism.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3) Discussion on the relationship between sill complexes and mud volcanoes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSill complexes refer to groups of tabular intrusive bodies formed by magma emplaced along sedimentary bedding planes, characterized by their typical saucer-shaped or discoid geometries (Hansen et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2004\\u003c/span\\u003e). These complexes generally consist of multiple superimposed and interconnected sills, exhibiting clustered spatial distribution patterns. During magma emplacement, the overlying strata undergo dome-type forced folding deformation under vertical stress, which serves as a key indicator for identifying sill complexes.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFrom a genetic perspective, the formation of sill complexes is closely related to regional tectonic activity and deep magmatic processes. Taking the northern margin of the South China Sea as an example, post-rift magmatism facilitated the development of typical sill complexes through complex transport systems that enabled mantle-derived materials to migrate along fault zones to shallow crustal levels (Zhao et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR43\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e; Zhang et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR42\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e). Similarly, studies of igneous intrusions in the western Tarim Basin have revealed characteristics of chained sill complexes (Niu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR34\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e; Yao et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR40\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e). VLB also exhibits typical morphological and distributional features of sill complexes (Zhang et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR42\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOn seismic profiles from the Crary Bank area, we have identified sill complexes exceeding 500 meters in thickness. Integrated with regional tectonic evolution analysis, the formation of these thick intrusions may be genetically linked to the reactivation of magmatic activity in the southern part of the basin and the subsidence history of VLB. The Terror Rift, located on the western flank of VLB as an active E-W extending, plays a significant role in understanding regional sill complex formation. Initiated approximately at 32 Ma, this rift developed into a typical horst-graben system. The tectonic activitites controlled by deep-seated faults has persisted since 8 Ma, generating substantial bimodal alkaline magmas from large igneous provinces at both ends of the rift. We propose that this magmatic compression from both rift ends likely played a crucial role in the formation of sill complexes within VLB.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eChronological analysis indicates that the main formation period of sill complexes dates back to approximately 4.6 Ma. These complexes exhibit distinct vertical layering: multiple small sills in shallow levels causing significant uplift of overlying strata, while larger and thicker tongue-shaped basal intrusions at deeper levels generate prominent high-impedance anomalies in host rocks. Seismic reflection characteristics show discontinuous or even absent reflections within the intrusive bodies. The well-developed fault systems between basement and sill complexes provide important pathways for magmatic activity, through which deep-derived magma continuously migrates upward, forming stacked intrusive assemblages within sedimentary sequences.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFrom the perspective of magma emplacement dynamics, forced folds commonly develop atop large sill complexes, with typical onlap features observable on both fold limbs (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e(2),(3)). Smaller complexes demonstrate more diverse formation mechanisms: in one common scenario, magma migrates along faults and accumulates in confined spaces to form isolated complexes; in another scenario, forced termination occurs when complexes connect to intrusions but lack sufficient tensional stress for complete penetration. Based on extensive seismic data analysis, we summarize four diagnostic seismic indicators for sill complexes: (1) intense magmatic signals, (2) distinct magma migration pathways, (3) forced folding of host rocks caused by magma intrusion, and (4) strong seismic amplitudes with deep fault channels.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe saucer-shaped sill complexes documented in this study represent a significant manifestation of magma emplacement phenomena in sedimentary basin environments (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e). These distinctive intrusive bodies exhibit a characteristic concave geometry that provides critical insights into magma-sediment interaction processes. Seismic reflection data reveal that these complexes display a systematic three-dimensional architecture consisting of a central inner sill with subhorizontal geometry, steeply dipping peripheral inclined sheets, and in developed cases, a distal outer sill extending beyond the transition zone (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003eb).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe inner sill segment maintains considerable planarity, typically paralleling major stratigraphic unconformities or mechanically weak horizons in the host sedimentary sequence. The transition to peripheral inclined sheets occurs across a relatively narrow zone, marked by noticeable changes in seismic reflection character including amplitude variations, local disruption of host rock reflectors, and development of faulting features. The outer sill shows gradually decreasing dip angles with distance from the complex center, eventually merging with regional stratigraphic horizons. The formation of these geometrically complex intrusions appears to be controlled by the interplay between magma dynamics and host rock mechanical properties. Magma overpressure likely overcomes the tensile strength of host rocks to initiate intrusion, with subsequent propagation being influenced by mechanical contrasts between sedimentary layers. As emplacement progresses, the evolving stress field may contribute to the characteristic saucer morphology through stress rotation, while concurrent deformation of host sediments facilitates lateral magma spread.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSeismic interpretation suggests that these sill complexes are commonly associated with vertical feeder zones exhibiting disturbed seismic facies, fault systems in overburden strata, forced fold structures, and zones of potential hydrothermal alteration (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003ea). The feeder systems connecting to deeper magma sources typically appear as subvertical zones of disrupted reflections, often aligned with pre-existing fault networks. These conduits display complex internal architectures that may include branching geometries and evidence of multiple magma emplacement events. The surface of these magmatic systems sometimes includes mud volcano (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003ea), indicating possible fluid migration along intrusion-related fracture networks. This spatial correlation suggests that magma emplacement could create permeability pathways that remain active for extended periods. Post-solidification processes may continue to influence fluid circulation and pressure regimes within the system.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe mud volcanoes distributed along the southern slope of Crary Bank constitute significant surface manifestations of deep magmatic and sedimentary processes within VLB. These features demonstrate a pronounced spatial association with the tectonic framework of basin, particularly in relation to the Terror Rift, indicating a fundamental genetic connection between mud volcanism, magmatic intrusion, and regional structural development (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e). The formation of these systems reflects the complex interplay between magmatic heat sources, fluid generation through sediment compaction and organic maturation, and the development of fracture networks that facilitate fluid migration. The Terror Rift emerges as a critical structural element governing fluid dynamics in this region. This active rift zone exhibits intricate deformation patterns marked by alternating graben and horst structures, with listric fault systems extending into basement rocks. These deep-penetrating fault zones serve as conduits for the upward migration of both magma and hydrocarbons, establishing an integrated network of intrusive bodies and fluid pathways. The emplacement of sill complexes within the sedimentary sequence generates substantial thermal anomalies that significantly influence the surrounding geological environment (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe thermal effects of magma intrusion promote widespread diagenetic alteration of host rocks while simultaneously generating overpressured fluids through pore fluid expansion. This process enhances the maturation of organic-rich intervals and establishes hydrothermal circulation systems. Concurrently, the mechanical consequences of magma emplacement profoundly impact the basin fluid systems. The density contrast between intruding magmas and host sediments creates considerable lithostatic stresses, while thermal expansion of heated pore fluids establishes localized overpressure conditions. These combined effects produce the characteristic forced folding observable in seismic data, with fold dimensions directly correlating to intrusion thickness and emplacement depth. The exceptional thickness of sedimentary sequences in the study area, exceeding 3 km in certain locations, coupled with relatively low strain rates, favors the development of broad domal structures rather than intense localized folding. This structural configuration holds particular significance for hydrocarbon systems, as intrusive-related domes may form effective structural traps. The thermal effects of intrusion can potentially enhance reservoir quality through contact metamorphism and the generation of secondary porosity, while overlying mud volcanic deposits may function as sealing units (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003ea-d).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe spatial distribution of active versus dormant mud volcanoes provides valuable insights into the basin fluid dynamics. Active systems signify ongoing fluid migration along fracture networks, whereas dormant features may represent either depleted systems where pressures have equilibrated, effectively sealed traps retaining hydrocarbons, or areas where the driving forces of magmatic heat and tectonic stress have diminished. This comprehensive understanding of the relationship between mud volcanic systems, sill emplacement, and structural deformation establishes a robust framework for interpreting fluid migration processes in magma-rich sedimentary basins. The demonstrated spatial and genetic relationships between these geological elements carry important implications for hydrocarbon exploration strategies, geothermal energy potential assessment, carbon sequestration site selection, and geological hazard evaluation in comparable tectonic settings globally. Future investigations should prioritize quantitative analysis of the thermal budgets associated with intrusive systems and their long-term impacts on fluid flow regimes within the VLB. Such research would further refine our understanding of these complex geological systems and their practical applications in resource exploration and geological risk assessment.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis study provides comprehensive insights into the distribution characteristics and formation mechanisms of mud volcanoes within VLB revealing their close genetic relationship with regional tectonic activities and magmatic processes. The key findings can be summarized as follows:\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003col\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eSpatial distribution and geophysical signatures\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe mud volcanoes in VLB exhibit a distinct concentration along the southern slopes of Crary Bank. Geophysical evidence, including high free-air gravity anomalies and shallow depths to the Curie, indicates that these features develop in thick sedimentary sequences within an active tectonic setting. These observations suggest that mud volcano formation is strongly influenced by deep-seated geological processes associated with sediment loading and crustal thermal anomalies.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003col start=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eTectonic controls and magmatic associations\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe spatial correlation between mud volcanoes and high-angle boundary faults, particularly the deep-rooted listric faults of the Terror Rift, highlights the critical role of structural discontinuities in fluid migration. These fault systems not only demarcate major structural domains but also serve as primary conduits for magma ascent from the large igneous provinces at the rift termini. The coexistence of mud volcanoes with intense magmatic activity suggests a coupled system where tectonic deformation facilitates both magma emplacement and fluid expulsion.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003col start=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eGenetic model and diagnostic characteristics\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eMagnetic data and seismic reflection patterns demonstrate that mud volcano formation follows a sequential process: (i) magma intrudes along bedding planes to form sill complexes, (ii) subsequent thermal effects induce forced folding of overlying strata, and (iii) continued heating drives fluid mobilization leading to mud volcanism. These systems are characterized by distinctive saucer-shaped seismic reflectors with folded overburden, well-defined magma conduits, and associated geophysical anomalies (smooth gravity, magnetic fluctuations, and deep depths to the Curie).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003col start=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eMorphological variability and exploration implications\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe manifestation of mud volcanoes varies significantly with deformation intensity. While eruptive features dominate near the active Terror Rift, basin-interior examples mainly exist as buried domes. This dichotomy reflects differences in stress regimes and fluid overpressure conditions. The fault systems controlling their distribution provide crucial seismic indicators for identifying potential mud volcano prospects, with important implications for both geohazard assessment and hydrocarbon exploration.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThese findings deeper our understanding of sediment-magma interactions in rift basins, providing a conceptual framework for interpreting similar systems. Future studies should focus on quantifying the thermal budgets of intrusive complexes and their long-term impacts on fluid flow regimes to better depict mud volcano dynamics in active tectonic settings.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution Statement\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eM.Y. conceived the study, designed the research framework, and wrote the main manuscript text. J.X. supervised the entire research project, provided critical guidance on data interpretation and manuscript structure, and was responsible for the final review. J.G. provided critical geophysical data, contributed to the interpretation of seismic profiles, and revised the manuscript. P.Y. processed and analyzed the gravity and magnetic data, and prepared Figs. 1\\u0026ndash;3. G.F. conducted the bathymetric data processing and contributed to the spatial distribution analysis. D.P. assisted with literature review, data integration, and manuscript formatting. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eConflict of Interest Statement\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest related to this study.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eAcknowledgments\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThis research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation (Project No.: 42176067, 41576069). I would also like to thank the Gao Jinyao Laboratory for their technical support and assistance in data collection. Finally, I would like to thank all the individuals and teams that provided support and help for this study.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch2\\u003eData Availability Statement\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAll data used in this study are presented in the manuscript or have been deposited in a public repository. The seismic data can be accessed via the Seismological Data and Long-period Seismographs (SDLS, \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://sdls.ogs.trieste.it/\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e). The other geophysical data that support the findings of this study are available from the National Earth System Science Data Center, National Science \\u0026amp; Technology Infrastructure of China (\\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttp://www.geodata.cn\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e). The high-precision bathymetric data were provided by the Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, and are available upon request from researcher Jinyao Gao (gaojy@sio.org.cn).\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eBaranov A, Morelli A (2023) The structure of sedimentary basins of Antarctica and a new three-layer sediment model. 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Earth Science-Journal of China University of Geosciences 35:1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5894-9\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHenrys SA (2007) Tectonic History of Mid-Miocene to Present Southern Victoria Land Basin, Inferred from Seismic Stratigraphy in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1047, Short Research Paper 049:1-4. https://doi.org/10.3133/of2007-1047.srp049\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHinze WJ, Von Frese RRB, Saad AH (2013) Gravity and Magnetic Exploration: Magnetic potential theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 235-251. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511843129.010.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eJi F, Gao J, Li F, Shen Z, Zhang Q, Li Y (2017) Variations of the effective elastic thickness over the Ross Sea and Transantarctic Mountains and implications for their structure and tectonics. 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Geotectonica et Metallogenia 41:1087-1103. https://doi.org/10.16539/j.ddzy.2017.06.004\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eZhao F, Berndt C, Alves TM, Xia S, Li L, Mi L, Fan C (2021) Widespread hydrothermal vents and associated volcanism record prolonged Cenozoic magmatism in the South China Sea. Geol Soc Am Bull 133:2645-2660. https://doi.org/ 10.1130/B35897.1.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eZhong S, Zhang J, Luo J, Yuan Y, Su P (2021) Geological characteristics of mud volcanoes and diapirs in the Northern Continental Margin of the South China Sea: Implications for the mechanisms controlling the genesis of fluid leakage structures. Geofluids 2021:5519264. https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2021/5519264.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Victoria Land Basin, mud volcanoes, sill complexes, glacial-tectonic interaction, hydrocarbon system\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688755/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688755/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eRecent discoveries of abundant mud volcanoes in the Victoria Land Basin (VLB) of Ross Sea, Antarctica, highlight its significant hydrocarbon potential, yet their formation mechanisms and relationship to tectonic-magmatic processes remain poorly understood. This study integrates Chinese multi-channel seismic data with international geophysical datasets to reveal that mud volcanoes and domes exhibit distinct spatial distributions controlled by glacial erosion and tectonic activities. The western VLB tectonically active zone is characterised well-developed mud volcanoes along high-angle faults of the Terror Rift system, while the eastern basin with thick sediment hosts buried domes formed through magmatic sill-induced folding. Geophysical analyses demonstrate that these features correlate with high free-air gravity anomalies, shallow depths to the Curie, and distinct magnetic signatures of underlying saucer-shaped sill complexes. These igneous intrusions, linked to Cenozoic alkaline volcanism since ~\\u0026thinsp;4.6 Ma, drive mud volcano formation through sustained thermal fluid flowing upwards and local strata uplift. Based on these findings, a model is established for mud volcanoes and sill complexes that glacial unloading, rift-related faulting, and magmatic heating collectively control fluid migration pathways, providing new insights into fluid activities in magma-influenced rift basins. This research deepenes understanding of the neotectonic activities in VLB, while offering a reference for interpreting similar systems in glaciated continental margins around Antarctica.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Analyses on distribution and origin of mud volcanoes and sill complexes in the VLB of the Ross Sea, Antarctica\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-10-10 15:39:26\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688755/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"19755ba1-d0b9-4922-bb2a-e1f759af221f\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"October 10th, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-11-18T11:53:46+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-10-10 15:39:26\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-7688755\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-7688755\",\"identity\":\"rs-7688755\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}