{"paper_id":"1fb7433a-037a-403f-8e0a-99b2ec4d5cc6","body_text":"Development and Performance Evaluation of a Low-Cost Sensor-Based Automated Drip Irrigation System for Small-Scale Farming | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Development and Performance Evaluation of a Low-Cost Sensor-Based Automated Drip Irrigation System for Small-Scale Farming Wisdom Eyram Kwame Agbesi, Justin Chepete, Thembeka Mpuisang, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8678944/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Irrigation Science → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Small-scale farmers operating in water-scarce areas are frequently deprived of access to affordable and dependable irrigation scheduling technologies. To overcome this obstacle, a sensor-based automated drip irrigation system employing inexpensive components was developed and tested for small-scale farming purposes. The system features a microcontroller connected to in-house-developed NE555- based soil moisture and water-level sensors to enable irrigation as per the preset soil moisture limits without the need for internet connectivity. The system was evaluated in a laboratory setting using clay, sandy, loam, and sandy soils that were compacted in PVC columns and irrigated through drip emitters. Volumetric soil moisture content, irrigation duration, and water application volumes were recorded and compared with those from a commercial reference sensor (MPM160). The results revealed that the newly developed system and the reference sensor were in strong agreement in clay soils, with no significant differences at irrigation start or termination. The performance in sandy loam soil was good at irrigation termination, but there was unreliability at low-moisture levels, and there were significant differences in sandy soils due to the limitations of compaction and probe-soil contact. The irrigation durations were 18.9, 25.8, and 19.4 minutes on average, and the corresponding water volumes were 1280, 1073, and 896 mL for clay, sandy loam, and sandy soils, respectively. In general, the system was capable of performing tasks reliably in fine-textured soils and is an inexpensive sensor-based technology that can be used to help the water sector. Sensor-based irrigation Automated drip irrigation Soil moisture sensing Low-cost irrigation technology Water-scare agriculture Small-scale farming systems Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Irrigation Science → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 23 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 22 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 18 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 04 Feb, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 28 Jan, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 23 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-8678944\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":587129536,\"identity\":\"6b424c9b-b157-4e73-89d5-8d60e9fef55f\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Wisdom Eyram Kwame Agbesi\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABCElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZgYGCTADRCZUQEV5gNiAOC1nIKrxa2FA1sLYRoQWg+PsD298zGGQl49uPvzh4Tw7eXuJBMYHb9sY7Lbj0nKYx9hy5jYGw413jqVJJG5LNuyRSGA2nNvGkLyzAbsWs8M8bNK82xgYN87IMWNI3HYggUciASgC1GJwAJcW9mcgLfYbZ+R//pA4B6yF/Td+LQxmIC2J8yVyGCQSGyC2MAO12OHSYg/xi0TyBpljZhIJx4B+OfOwWXLOOYkEXFok+48DQ2ybje382c2PP/6osZNnb08++OFNmY09Li1QIMGApICxASSS2IBXBxDIo6uwJ6RjFIyCUTAKRgwAAG4hWL/jlkyHAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Cape Coast Technical University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Wisdom\",\"middleName\":\"Eyram Kwame\",\"lastName\":\"Agbesi\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":587129545,\"identity\":\"6af240db-90e4-4ce7-b6c3-988896b731dc\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Justin Chepete\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Justin\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Chepete\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":587129550,\"identity\":\"1444758b-8907-4e6f-9c1d-6e3caf85add1\",\"order_by\":2,\"name\":\"Thembeka Mpuisang\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Thembeka\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Mpuisang\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":587129553,\"identity\":\"20542a88-aa3b-49df-8c28-5b268f0190da\",\"order_by\":3,\"name\":\"Dominic Aboagye\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Rovira i Virgili University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Dominic\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Aboagye\",\"suffix\":\"\"}],\"badges\":[],\"createdAt\":\"2026-01-23 11:54:44\",\"currentVersionCode\":1,\"declarations\":\"\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8678944/v1\",\"doiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8678944/v1\",\"draftVersion\":[],\"editorialEvents\":[{\"content\":\"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-026-01109-1\",\"type\":\"published\",\"date\":\"2026-03-26T16:12:38+00:00\"}],\"editorialNote\":\"\",\"failedWorkflow\":false,\"files\":[{\"id\":105756165,\"identity\":\"a7b728bb-a9de-45b5-b44f-caf7f83705b1\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-03-30 16:36:22\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":1593805,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"ManuscriptAgbesietalIrrigScv2.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8678944/v1_covered_497a0e7d-795a-42ed-b2f0-2bf75867f306.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Development and Performance Evaluation of a Low-Cost Sensor-Based Automated Drip Irrigation System for Small-Scale Farming\",\"fulltext\":[],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":false,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":true,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":true,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"irrigation-science\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"irsc\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Irrigation Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/271)\",\"snPcode\":\"271\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/271/3\",\"title\":\"Irrigation Science\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"em\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Springer Hybrid\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false},\"keywords\":\"Sensor-based irrigation, Automated drip irrigation, Soil moisture sensing, Low-cost irrigation technology, Water-scare agriculture, Small-scale farming systems\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8678944/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8678944/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSmall-scale farmers operating in water-scarce areas are frequently deprived of access to affordable and dependable irrigation scheduling technologies. To overcome this obstacle, a sensor-based automated drip irrigation system employing inexpensive components was developed and tested for small-scale farming purposes. The system features a microcontroller connected to in-house-developed NE555- based soil moisture and water-level sensors to enable irrigation as per the preset soil moisture limits without the need for internet connectivity. The system was evaluated in a laboratory setting using clay, sandy, loam, and sandy soils that were compacted in PVC columns and irrigated through drip emitters. Volumetric soil moisture content, irrigation duration, and water application volumes were recorded and compared with those from a commercial reference sensor (MPM160). The results revealed that the newly developed system and the reference sensor were in strong agreement in clay soils, with no significant differences at irrigation start or termination. The performance in sandy loam soil was good at irrigation termination, but there was unreliability at low-moisture levels, and there were significant differences in sandy soils due to the limitations of compaction and probe-soil contact. The irrigation durations were 18.9, 25.8, and 19.4 minutes on average, and the corresponding water volumes were 1280, 1073, and 896 mL for clay, sandy loam, and sandy soils, respectively. In general, the system was capable of performing tasks reliably in fine-textured soils and is an inexpensive sensor-based technology that can be used to help the water sector.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Development and Performance Evaluation of a Low-Cost Sensor-Based Automated Drip Irrigation System for Small-Scale Farming\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2026-02-09 13:37:03\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8678944/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2026-02-23T18:05:49+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-02-22T20:31:48+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-02-18T23:23:25+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"218970023753832784525789563518438342776\",\"date\":\"2026-02-11T16:13:48+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"239777832163512321081596393496975339939\",\"date\":\"2026-02-05T04:12:05+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-02-04T18:04:38+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-01-28T11:00:02+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-01-28T10:59:16+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Irrigation Science\",\"date\":\"2026-01-23T11:46:24+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"irrigation-science\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"irsc\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Irrigation Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/271)\",\"snPcode\":\"271\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/271/3\",\"title\":\"Irrigation Science\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"em\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Springer Hybrid\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"650c7355-d81c-484f-af80-30287dc07322\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"February 9th, 2026\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"published-in-journal\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-03-30T16:36:11+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":{\"articleIdentity\":\"rs-8678944\",\"link\":\"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-026-01109-1\",\"journal\":{\"identity\":\"irrigation-science\",\"isVorOnly\":false,\"title\":\"Irrigation Science\"},\"publishedOn\":\"2026-03-26 16:12:38\",\"publishedOnDateReadable\":\"March 26th, 2026\"},\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2026-02-09 13:37:03\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"10.1007/s00271-026-01109-1\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-026-01109-1\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-8678944\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-8678944\",\"identity\":\"rs-8678944\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}