{"paper_id":"1fb450db-3446-4f0b-9107-bdd3659b958f","body_text":"Transparent Land Governance Arrangements for Motivating Land Investment in Burundi | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Transparent Land Governance Arrangements for Motivating Land Investment in Burundi Prosper Turimubumwe This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7883167/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Land governance was established to oversee land use planning, land allocation, land certification/titling, and land dispute resolution. However, the high competition for land access and land scarcity has led to malicious practices such as corruption, favouritism, and nepotism. Transparency in land governance has diminished, and the land sector faces various challenges. This paper aims to assess the transparency of land governance arrangements in Burundi and suggest ways to enhance transparency to encourage investment in the land sector. Desk review, key informant interviews with land officers and investors in the land sector, and case studies were methods used to collect data in this paper. Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) and statistical descriptions were methods used for data analysis. The findings show that the process of land use planning in Burundi is dominated by bureaucracy, technocracy, and rigidity rather than being participative and flexible. Also, land allocation, land certification, and land disputes have been in favour of the powerful and political elites. These findings lead to the conclusion that land governance arrangements in Burundi are not transparent and have led to land grabbing and land speculation by powerful and political elites. Therefore, it is recommended that the government decentralise and empower local authorities in land governance arrangements to increase participation, shorten time, and minimise costs used in providing land services. Burundi Corruption Land allocation Land Disputes Land use planning land title Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction Land is a real estate property in business terms, and, from a socio-economic perspective, it is a source of wealth and power. According to Platt ( 1974 ), land is a prime resource that contributes to economic, social, environmental, and cultural development. Furthermore, it is clarified by Hicks ( 2020 ) that land is among the four factors of production in economics (Land, Labour, Capital, and Entrepreneurship), and Chigbu et al. ( 2021 ) explain how land contributes to economic growth as a resource, a site for production, and a foundation for various economic activities. Many authors have identified challenges impeding development in developing countries. They include time and cost spent on accessing and securing land (García-Morán et al., 2021 ), unclear processes (Nguyen et al., 2017 ), lack of land information (Amanifard, 2022 ), corruption and favouritism (Awuah & Abdulai, 2022 ). All the above-mentioned factors have discouraged local and international investors from directing their capital into the land sector. Consequently, the land sector in different countries has been left to elites and other speculators who keep arable and prime land idle (Moizg, 2000 ; Rafiee & Stenberg, 2018 ). Therefore, land governance arrangements should be transparent to address the problem. Conceptually, land governance covers the legal texts, processes, and structures engaged in managing land access, use, rights, and competing interests ( Udessa et al., 2023 ). Land in many developing countries is held privately and publicly. In Burundi, for example, there are three types of land tenure: private ownership, state land, and public land (Tchatchoua-Djomo & van Dijk, 2022 ). Managing land access in pluralist land tenure is not easy and requires rules and regulations to be adopted and enforced. The existing stock of literature shows that in developing countries, rules and regulations are available, such as policies and acts in the land sector (Lund et al., 2025 ; Siyum, 2022 ; Turimubumwe et al., 2022 ). However, the practice in the land sector does not portray the existence of rules. There is no transparency in all land governance arrangements; rather, we observe opacity and tricky land deal arrangements. In separate studies, Radchevskiy et al. ( 2023 ) and Teklemariam et al. ( 2015 ) found that a lack of transparency in land allocation by government authorities, fraudulent land transactions among land dealers, elitism and nepotism in land access (for public land), delays in land demarcation and surveying have caused many problems. Furthermore, problems such as a lack of fairness in land access and tenure security (Awuah & Abdulai, 2022 ), less accountability, and poor land governance (Udessa et al., 2023 ), and the existence of corruption in the land sector (Turimubumwe, 2020b ) are linked to a lack of transparent land governance arrangements. Besides, the lack of transparent land governance arrangements has affected the land production and achievement of economic growth in some developing countries (Rafiee & Stenberg, 2018 ). Also, land conflicts, fraudulent practices and delays in the land sector have demotivated internal and external investors in land for some countries (Elong et al., 2020 ; European Network for Central Africa, 2017 ). It is now worrying some developing countries' authorities that foreign investors, including diaspora, have not invested in their countries despite motivations and many promises. What is observed is that they decided to invest in the countries where they feel transparent land governance practices are guaranteed. Thus, there is a need to have transparent land governance to motivate investors in the land sector and increase land productivity in developing countries. This paper aims to document the state of transparency in land governance arrangements in Burundi and propose how to make it transparent with targets to motivate investments in the land sector. The proposals are based on the existing practices in land governance arrangements such as land use planning, land access (allocation, inheritance, and transactions), certification/titling, and conflict resolution. It is believed that if land governance arrangements operate transparently, investors (foreigners and diaspora) from different parts of the world will be motivated, then inject and repatriate capital in the country. 2. Literature review 2.1 Land and its meaning The meaning and value of land are indefinite. Land has been defined based on its components, comprising soil, vegetation, and biota that support the bio-productive system (Sommer et al., 2018). In our society, land has been attributed to be a source of wealth, power, and identity for communities. Furthermore, land has been intertwined with human development and economic function. Nevertheless, it is a limited resource with uniqueness in value, an immovable resource, and a strategic socio-economic asset to both poor and rich people (Metternicht, 2017). Likewise, its ownership has been shifted from public to private holdings, which has complicated its management and its sustainable use. The rights to hold and own land have been expanded and enforced for decades. Land started to be commoditised as other goods and people started to claim different rights on it. According to Schlager and Ostrom (1992), five rights that landholders should enjoy were identified. These lights include the right of possession, right of control, right of exclusion, right of enjoyment, and right of disposition. This bundle of rights on property harnessed and motivated landholders to increase the number and area of land units. Conversely, powerful people used their influence to acquire as many as they could. 1.1 Investments in the land sector One of the well-known investments that pays back with a good return on invested capital. Remeikienė et al. (2019) identified three motives of investing in land such as including (i) price increase in the land market, (ii) the intention to earn from the development of real estate, and (iii) as an investment object. Land has been a commodity that does not rot easily, and its degradation until its value reaches zero takes time. The most common investments in land include housing development, agricultural, tourism, and recreational (Awuah & Abdulai, 2022). Investors in land always have expectations of recouping their capital plus a high interest in a certain time, either through reselling the land (speculation), investing in it directly (housing, farming) or using it as collateral in financial institutions to access loans. In Africa and other developing countries, investments in the land sector have been linked to different malicious practices that include land grabbing and land speculation (Borras et al., 2025). The actors of these practices are foreigners and local elites, and powerful people who profit from the gaps that exist in enforcing land policies and institutions responsible for land governance. For foreign investments in the land sector, some of the pulling factors have been the trade openness, the high domestic interest rates and high growth potential for some countries, and widespread liberalisation of financial markets (Oke et al., 2020). In some other countries, the domestic inflation has been a pulling factor given that money loses its value. Yet, land value and investments on it, like housing and agriculture, increase value since they can be transferred using foreign currencies such as United States Dollars (US$) and Euro (€). This has been in use in countries that experience domestic inflation, like Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, and Somalia. Nevertheless, no government accepts this practice legally, except that they know that some transfers of properties and services in some hotels are done in US$. Generally, this is not a problem, but it is how transparent these land transfers are transfer especially for communal and individual lands. 2.2 Transparent land governance and land investment The commoditisation and importance of land in economic, social, political, and environmental development have awakened decision-makers to think of its governance. Similarly, challenges that accompanied the use of land for different ends were alarming. Therefore, to address some of the challenges, it was proposed in different conferences and meetings at international and regional levels that the way land should be accessed and used has to be guided by legal texts and known institutions (UNECE, 1996). Therefore, land policies and other regulatory texts were elaborated (Dickinson & Shahab, 2021). Still, land policies and institutions exist in some developing countries, but challenges persist (Sagashya & English, 2010). While land governance arrangements concern the rules, processes, and structures set to determine how land is accessed, used, and managed, as well as how land disputes should be resolved, the problems in land governance arise from the early stages of land use planning. Then, other problems related to land, such as allocation, land tenure security, and land disputes. The land sector becomes nonproductive and even a source of social tragedies (civil war) (Tchatchoua-Djomo & van Dijk, 2022). 2.2.1 Land use planning in developing countries The starting point of sustainable use of land is having a land use planning schemes that show how land should be utilised, managed, and developed to meet the needs of people. Globally, there is an increase in competition for land since it is demanded for multiple uses and ecosystem services (Metternicht, 2017). This competition, coupled with laissez-faire by the existing systems responsible for land management, leads to the mismanagement of land. Many authors have converged in different research and times on what land use planning has to offer, such as assessing the potential of land, considering social, economic, and environmental factors, and making informed decisions about land use (Amanifard, 2022; Semeraro et al., 2020). Practically, if well undertaken, propose Barlowe, et al. (2013), land use planning contributes largely in optimising land use, resolving land-related disputes, and promoting the well-being of communities and the environment. However, many developing countries have failed to initiate land use planning, and this has contributed to different challenges in the land sector. It is underlined by UN-Habitat (2016) and Udessa et al. (2023) that key aspects of land use planning include the strategic allocation of land, regulation and management of land, balancing competing interests in land, promoting sustainability, and acting as public policy. Furthermore, the report by UN-REDD (2022) goes further and associates the land use planning with the approach to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Other issues of concern for our daily life and basic human needs are associated with land use planning, such as food security (de Lattre-Gasquet et al., 2018), climate change (Dalupan et al., 2015), and sustainable development (Lengoiboni et al., 2021). Therefore, the failure of governments to invest in land use planning induces countries and communities into different problems. Some of them include double allocation of land units, unsustainable land use and incompatibility of uses among adjacent land units, unregulated land development, including informal settlement in urban areas and other malicious practices in the land sector. 2.2.2 Land allocation Land allocation is defined as a process of assigning land uses and property rights to individuals, groups of people, communities, private or public entities for improved land management (Moizg, 2000). Land allocation techniques are many, including land redistribution, land readjustment, and land acquisition. This paper discusses land redistribution since it concerns public land acquisition by individuals for private profit. In this process, state-owned or controlled land on behalf of the citizens is redistributed to any facto users with conditions of development. In developing countries, this process is full of obscurity, opacity, and obstacles (Adam et al., 2021). The recent stock of knowledge shows that one of the challenges in this exercise of land allocation is the lack of transparency of who acquires what, how, and where . While governments have developmental objectives in allocating state land to private holders, the process is criticised for being undertaken with trickery. The allocation has been used as a means of land grabbing and speculation both in urban and rural areas (Moizg, 2000), a source of land-based conflicts (Radchevskiy et al., 2023), inducing informal settlements (Takele et al., 2014), negatively impacting minorities and marginalised groups of people (Moizo, 2008), welcoming corruption and favouritism by ignoring conditions and criteria to access land (Udessa et al., 2023), and demotivating land-based investment (Rafiee & Stenberg, 2018). This process is very complicated and critical, especially in small countries[1] that are rapidly urbanising and with a galloping population. 2.2.3 Certification and titling While land allocation by the government is supposed to be formal with titles or certificates of ownership for the transferred properties, the process may require additional time and cost to get the formal documents in some countries. In countries where land is not registered, but only registering transactions, the certification and titling may take months and even years (Bennett et al. , 2021). It is underlined by Deininger et al (2011) that there are positive impacts of land certification on tenure security, investment, and land markets. This has also been found in other studies conducted in Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Africa (Barnes et al., 1999). Land registration accompanied by massive delivery of certificates and titles has increased a feeling of tenure security to land owners and investors (Simbizi et al., 2015). Furthermore, the eminent study by de SOTO (2000) on the mystery of capitalism showed how formalising properties facilitated the exchange of properties among land dealers. Land has been commoditised and certificates used to access loans in financial institutions. For a decade, developing partners such as the World Bank, African Development Bank, and other development organisations emphasised land registration as a means of poverty eradication and socio-political tensions (African Union, 2009; The World Bank, 2014). Land certification as the final result of the land registration process has also been attributed to improving access to land information by land dealers at a low cost and in less time. In urban areas, this has improved the feeling of tenure security for landowners and investors (Deininger et al. 2011). It is also underlined by other studies that land certification increased investment in housing (CAHF, 2024), minimised land disputes related to boundaries and double allocation (Veldman, 2020), regulated land uses and land conversion (Nguyen et al., 2017); and responded to informal settlements (Parsa et al., 2011). All these are necessary to be observed in developing countries. However, the importance of land certification in some developing countries is disregarded and deliberately ignored (García-Morán et al., 2021). The recent studies show that some governments are still using paper-based property registration in all processes (Turimubumwe et al., 2022) and, where digitalised, updating the information is still a problem (Biraro et al., 2021). All these provide the loopholes that make the land sector poorly contribute to economic, social, and environmental development in developing countries. 2.2.4 Land disputes and resolution mechanisms One of the challenges in the land sector for some developing countries is the persistence of land disputes. The origins of land disputes are attributed to the colonial era, which exemplified the land grabbing[2] by local leaders (Rafiee & Stenberg, 2018), the privatisation and commoditisation of land by local and foreign leaders (Batterbury & Ndi, 2018), and urbanisation and overpopulation, which require large land (Awuah & Abdulai, 2022). Then, different disputes emerged due to the competition for land for different uses, speculations, and conservation (parks and national reserves). According to Wehrmann (2008) and Veldman (2020), the land disputes can arise on boundary, stemming from outdated surveys, mistaken measurements or over boundary markers; ownership with reasons on disagreements of legal documents such as unclear land titles, inheritance issues, or fraudulent transactions (with pocket contracts); adverse possession claims which involve accessing land illegally or through skirting law, inheritance disputes that emerge from denial to some members of the family such as girls to inherit land; and trespassing and encroachment disputes that are observed among two neighbouring developers. The are the most land disputes reported in courts and land dispute resolution teams in Africa (Veldman, 2020). Resolving land disputes has also not been easy despite many attempts and mechanisms initiated. Regarding land dispute resolutions, authors like Tchatchoua-Djomo and van Dijk (2022) have been clear on how countries tried to elaborate land resolution mechanisms at the local level, mixing the approaches (traditional and modern mechanisms. However, these initiatives have not addressed the land disputes. Rather, some land disputes have been hardened and become the epicentre of many conflicts, such as civil wars, fratricidal violence, displacement, gender-based violence, and hindering development (Lund et al., 2025; Veldman, 2020). Nevertheless, there is a lack of knowledge on why such initiatives have failed, especially in developing countries. What is now known is that the persistence and complication of these land disputes have negatively affected the land governance arrangements in developing countries. The land sector is not motivating foreign and local investors, given that they still doubt the justice and legal processes in case of disputes. Therefore, documenting the state of transparency of land governance arrangements in Burundi and then proposing how it should be transparent with targets to motivate the African diaspora investment in the land sector is crucial. This will help to understand how land governance arrangements in Burundi are working and what is needed to address the recurrent challenges in the land sector. [1] Countries that are small in terms of area, as measured in square kilometres or miles [2] Tracts of land were forcibly taken from public ownership for religious purposes, and others were granted to local authorities as a bonification for the courtesy. 3. Methodology 3.1 Study area Burundi is a case study area, given that the land governance is experiencing challenges and making it nonproductive and becoming a source of conflict. Geographically, Burundi is a landlocked country and a member state of the East African Community. The most potential for citizens is land. According to the 2024 census (Government of Burundi, 2024) , 85.7% of the population relies on agriculture and livestock keeping. Besides, the census recalls that Burundi has an area of 27,884 km 2 and a population of 12,332,788. It is underlined that land in Burundi is a key contributor to the National GDP through the export of tea and coffee at 39.6%, employment provision at 84%, and food provision at 84% (CAHF, 2024: p 32). Moreover, land in Burundi is commoditised like other precious products in the country. Then, the galloping population and the rapid urbanisation in the existing cities and towns have driven the increase of competition in land access, which has created room for malicious practices. Therefore, land governance in Burundi became a topic of debate in research and provides a rich case study area. 3.2 Data collection methods and tools The study aims to document how land governance arrangements in Burundi are, to know if it is transparent or not and propose how they can be transparent to motivate investments in the land sector in Burundi. This will help to boost the African land and make it more productive than it is today. The study used a mixed research approach in data collection to include qualitative and quantitative data. For secondary data, this study applied a desk review approach by consulting published works (six) on Burundi related to land governance. Most of them are those published by international and local organisations that have been working in Burundi from 2020-2024. This timeframe is referred to as the signature of the Arusha Accord that ended the civil war that erupted after the massacre of the first president, who was democratically elected. Twelve (12) reports were referred to as the source of information for this paper. The study also used a key informant interview (KII) with actors who are working in the land sector, either as land officers, urban planners, and judges in three courts of Bujumbura, Muyinga, and Makamba. The KII with land officers contributed to this study to know how much land has been allocated to investors (local and international[3]); what are the major land-based investments that benefited from public land allocation; what are the land tenure types; and how much time and cost it takes to deliver certificates of ownership (titles) to investors. The KII with urban planners contributed to understanding how land use planning was undertaken and how sustainable land use was accomplished. The KII helped in describing how key stakeholders are involved in the process. The KII with judges were important to confirm and update the existing data and information on land conflicts and judicial cases related to properties that are reported, registered, and filed. Also, KII with local leaders and committee representatives in Bujumbura, Muyinga, and Makamba were approached to know how they are involved in land governance arrangements: land use planning, tenure security, and land dispute resolution. Finally, local and foreign investors in land have been contacted to learn how they acquired land for their specific investments. They provided data on the process, the time and cost incurred in accessing land, the availability of information, and the perception of tenure security. Data analysis techniques The study is based on qualitative and quantitative data. Then, a Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) was applied. The use of the QCA approach is recommended by Bryman (2012, p 289). The author explained that content analysis is ‘an approach to the analysis of documents and texts that seeks to qualify content in terms of predetermined categories and a systematic as well as replicable manner. Furthermore, Vaismoradi and Snelgrove ( 2019) disclose that engaging QCA when analysing data collected from a desk review and some KII is very important. The process involves the categorisation of data obtained from different documents, interpreting, comparing, and contrasting them to prove their validity and accuracy in responding to the research objective. For quantitative data, the statistical description was applied to determine the percentages, graphs, and tables on different topics such as allocation, land conflicts, and judicial cases. Finally, the information in this paper is presented in text and table format to ensure readability and presentability. [3] International investors include diaspora 4. Findings and discussion 4.1 Land in Burundi Land in Burundi has the same meaning and importance as it does in other countries. It is a source of wealth, power and offers a high social status connotation to the owners or users. Land is the primary source of income and livelihood in both rural and urban areas. Similarly, Land is the only resource useful for acquiring shelter, producing food for families, affording clothes and other non-food items for families, and other uses. The rapid urbanisation and overpopulation in Burundi have caused land scarcity for farmers and other land users. The competition for land access in Burundi is frightening and has caused many other problems, including civil war and fratricide. Burundi has fertile land located both in the high and lowlands. Also, the government relies on land for practising agriculture for food and for export. You can imagine how land is a crucial resource in Burundi and how its management requires informed decisions. Land is accessed through allocation by the government, transfer or transaction (sales, inheritance), and communal land. All these land access arrangements are before registration, except for communal land, to ensure tenure security. The existing legal texts in the Land Code allow anyone who is legally living in Burundi to access land through the four arrangements by following and respecting the conditions of each. This means that foreigners are allowed to access land, including diaspora, by following existing rules and conditions therein. In urban areas, land has become a commodity that is exchanged in cash or collateral. Land has created jobs outside its direct exploitation through brokerage and speculation. However, this has also got its side effects, such as soaring land prices per acre and conflicts among land dealers. For example, a KII informant with land investors revealed that the prices of an acre of bare land increased five to ten times from 2020. Also, the land conflicts increased due to brokers who may engage a double double-selling on one piece of land. 4.2 Investment in land in Burundi In the land sector, local elites and powerful people, foreigners and Diaspora have played a key role in different land-based investments, especially in housing development and agriculture and livestock keeping. It is obvious in Bujumbura city to find a neighbourhood named “Diaspora Neighbourhood”, neighbourhoods named according to the institutions, such as Burundi Republic Bank Neighbourhood (Quartier BRB), Somali Neighbourhoods (settled by military corps who served in United Nations missions in Somalia). These are houses that are either constructed by diaspora members or bought by diasporas and located in one place as a project. They include low-cost, medium and high-cost houses and are located in different urban centres of the cities (plate). In agriculture and livestock keeping, local elites constituted by government members (retired or active) and diasporas have invested in land by buying or exploiting their family’s lands with large-scale projects. Locally, they are known as rich people and have also caused the land prices to escalate in urban and rural settings. However, the processes of land acquisition in urban settings have not been easy and secure for the diaspora, given that land governance is not transparent. The KII results with individual developers expressed that they have a fear of tenure security for the lands bought by individuals. The feeling of tenure insecurity emanates from the processes of land certification and titling, which are complicated, time, and costly, according to one of the participants. For elites and foreigners, they are getting land from the government, which has been registered and uses pre-determined. If not registered, they get land under the umbrella of agriculture innovation, seed production and multiplication, aquaculture, and other projects that align with the political agenda. At the end, these lands remain theirs. This is one of the malicious practices used for land grabbing, as pointed out by Borras et al. (2025), Hall (2011), and Rafiee and Stenberg (2018) in different studies. The other practice is buying land from citizens by elites, foreigners, and diaspora, a situation caused by poverty among households and domestic inflation. The land is sold at a low price with the expectation of being sold at a high price in the future, which is five to ten times higher in less than five years. We argue that if this practice is not stopped or legally guided, especially for elites in power may lead to feudalism known as the Ubugererwa and landlordship in the long run. Land will be concentrated in the hands of a small number of families that have a historical background in political positions or are diaspora. 4.3 Processes of land use planning in Burundi Land use planning in Burundi is still bureaucratic and technocratic rather than being participative and adhortative. Whereas the process was supposed to be bottom-up , it is still top-down in its approach. For example, the desk review and KII show that land use planning is undertaken by the urban planners and other officers in the ministry and municipalities. The site identification, the preliminary studies, the detailed studies, the preparation of plans, adoption, and implementation are arbitrarily done by a task force nominated at the central government level. As a result, many plans have been creating problems related to social, economic, and environmental disruptions. It is acknowledged by local leaders that they are not involved when it comes to land use planning, especially in urban areas. One of the local leaders uttered, “… we are not involved in land use planning. We are only informed that there will be a project and that we have to tell land owners to be ready for compensation” . Practically, this is very dangerous to the future of the neighbourhood and the project itself. When we tried to know why local participation is not encouraged in land use planning, especially when it is related to surveyed and serviced plots, one of the KII clarified “… because we deal with land that is compensated and becoming public lands, land deals are created, and it is a chance for powerful people to get more plots in the project…” This gives room to land grabbing and land speculations that are, in one way or another, bad for the low- and middle-income earners. Recently, the World Bank informed that: Risk-informed spatial planning and enforcement are not practised in Bujumbura or other urban areas of Burundi. In addition, the country does not have a comprehensive, up-to-date land mapping and registry system that consolidates information on land tenure, type of ownership, and the fluctuation of the land and real estate market. This context hinders the government´s ability to track, anticipate, and plan for expansion (World Bank, 2023, p.1). The land use planning was supposed to be an entry point for the rest of the good practices of land practice that should be transparent through its operationalisation. However, the failure of having transparent land use planning affects the land allocation, land titling, and, to some extent, the land dispute resolution. Such a kind of planning is dominated by technocracy and rigidity and may affect the implementation of the land use plans. The adhocracy, coupled with decentralisation, was supposed to be applied in order to achieve transparent land use planning. The local knowledge of the site, coupled with local technology, will help the process of land use planning to come up with land use plans that are meritocratic and flexible. 4.4 Tricky land allocation in Burundi Land allocation in Burundi concerns the redistribution of state land for different uses, dominantly by shelter acquisition in urban settings and farming activities in rural settings. For urban lands, the land redistribution process started by preparing land use planning, plot production, land surveying and servicing. The philosophy behind plot production is to allocate land to those who do not have a house while he is living or planning to live in that place. However, the identification of those beneficiaries is full of opacity and cheating. The results revealed in the recent projects of land allocation undertaken in Bujumbura city, Gitega, and Ngozi showed that plots were allocated to those who have houses or plots either in the same city or in other cities (Figure 1). The findings show that Senior officials (nominated by decrees), senior officials in the army and police, elected officials, Businessmen, and NGOs officials were allocated many plots. Teachers and subaltern police and army corps were allocated plots in small numbers. When asked this question to land officers and urban planners, why these elites and powerful people were allocated land while they already owned houses, the answer was that they had information before the project, got prepared for early bird payment, and were ready to do a follow-up. Other groups of people were late and should not come or call frequently to ask about the progress. It was also revealed that 75 % of those who received land in those projects did not develop these plots, but they sold them some years later. The plot was allocated at BIF 2.5 million per acre and sold at BIF 25 million per acre after 2 years. Others have developed the land for business rather than family shelter. This confirms the existing literature that most of land allocation projects in developing countries welcomes land grabbing and speculation (Moizg, 2000; Ndi, 2017); the likelihood of marginalised and minority groups of people to access land is minimal (Kombe, 1994; Moizo, 2008); and the process to be dominated by corruption, favouritism, and nepotism (Udessa et al., 2023). However, there is still room to avoid and prevent this practice. Involving the sought beneficiaries from the beginning of the project and especially during allocation is crucial. To achieve this, disclosing information at an early stage to the public through all communication channels such as radio and television stations, local leaders' WhatsApp groups, and Facebook is crucial. This will help the target beneficiary group to prepare themselves in advance, financially and timely manner so that they fulfil the required conditions. Also, beneficiaries should be those whose records show that they did not access plots in previous land allocation projects or any other housing projects. Therefore, digitalisation of property ownership in urban areas is mandatorily recommended. This will enhance the prevention of any kind of land grabbing, speculation, corruption and nepotism in future land allocation. 4.5 Land owner-initiated land titling vs Registrar-initiated land titling in Burundi Land certification and titling always follow the land allocation or transfer of any kind. However, land certification in land allocated from the government and those transferred from different arrangements, like transactions or inheritance, is not easy. There are two land titling processes applied in Burundi (Figure 2). Property owners initiate the first one, and the second is initiated by the Registrar’s Office, as per the Land Code. The property owner uses the first arrangement, whereas the second arrangement is reserved for public projects. However, the KII results revealed that there is more than 15 years without public projects undertaken by the government. Therefore, the recent land registrations recorded in the Registrar’s Offices are at 99% initiated by the property owners. 4.5.1 Land title initiated by property owner Land certification begins at the local level, with the village's local leaders signing the transfer contract. The file is sent to the zonal level for a second-level signature. The file is taken to the commune/district level for verification, where information about the property is confirmed, and coordinates are recorded to be included in the file. Then, it may take days for this to be sent to the provincial level for signing and issuance of the certificate of property ownership. This may also take two to three weeks and will depend on the governor's political and work plans. Also, the cost is estimated to be 3% of the property value. For the title deeds, the certificate of property ownership is included in the file and submitted to the office of land title. The file is sent to the valuer, who then forwards it to the land officer for checking and evaluation. Then, the land officer and surveyor went to collect information, including coordinates. The minute regarding the concerned property has been composed and submitted for approval. This may take two weeks. This is how the land certificates and titles are processed. However, the actual practice is quite different. The KII results from different land developers revealed that the process may take months, even years, if one wants to follow the normal procedures. 4.5.2 Cost related to certification and land titles Also, the costs of acquiring land title are shown to be in five categories that are category A with BIF150,000 (US$50) per acre, category B for BIF100,000 (US$30) per acre, category C for BIF50,000 (US$18) B per acre, category D for BIF 25,000 (US$ 8) per acre, and category E: 12,000 BIF per acre. It is stipulated that no title should be paid at more than BIF 3 million. There are additional fees to be incurred for registration, which is BIF 10,000 (approximately US$3), for title assurance, which is BIF 20,000 (approximately US$6), and issuance, which is also BIF 20,000 (approximately US$6). You can calculate how much legally you can pay to process the land title. The cost must include transportation expenses, as the land offices are only located downtown. This will depend on the availability of fuel, given that the country has been experiencing a fuel crisis from 2021 to 2025 at the time this article is being written. This means that private transport may incur legal fees. This is a force majeure that has occurred, making land title processes lengthy and discouraging for acquirers. Despite the existing leadership in the land titling office having improved the processes and communicated these improvements to the public, this situation has forced landowners to use middlemen (brokers) who charge them hundreds of thousands or millions, depending on the location of the property. However, to make land titles accessible and transparent, there is a need for administrative decentralisation of land services. This will require decentralization, devolution, and delegation of land services from the regions to the actual communes. This will help to have land services close to landowners and increase the number of land titling, which is currently too low in comparison to EAC countries. Also, the transparency will be enhanced since everyone will be able to visit the offices for inquiries. Land tenure security will be provided to landowners and investors to orient their capital in the land sector, as proposed by de Soto (2000) and Simbizi et al. (2015). Additionally, the existing registered lands in the case study demonstrate that they have minimized land conflicts, as highlighted in other studies, such as Veldman (2020). The recent improvement in land titling is attributed to allowing investors in housing, like UBAKA Nation and BMBC, to invest in housing. This was also proposed by (CAHF, 2024) in their study. Improving land titling is also a key to regulating the existing practice of land encroachment and illegal land use changes, as shown in many other studies in the literature by Nguyen et al. (2017). 4.6 Land conflicts resolution mechanism in Burundi Burundi has known civil wars in different periods that were politically and ethnically motivated. These wars affected the land sector in different ways, including land conflicts. The ethnic killings of 1965, 1972, and 1993 have induced people to flee the country to neighbouring countries and overseas. Land and other properties were targeted by powerful people who remained in the country. The nationalisation and privatisation of land belonged to those who fled the country, and the laissez-faire in land governance created room for different direct and indirect land conflicts. 4.6.1 Types of land conflicts The results from the KII and desk review revealed that more than 65% of court cases involve land-based disputes. The same source added that the repatriation of refugees in the 2000s increased the land conflict by 40% from the existing situation. The most land conflicts recorded in different courts and conflict resolution committees include boundary disputes, inheritance issues, land use disagreements, land grabbing, conflicts within households, resource-based conflicts, and title disputes (Table 1). The conflicts have been increasing annually in all three provinces, rather than decreasing, due to existing land governance arrangements that are not transparent. Table 1: Cases recorded in the courts related to land disputes Year Land dispute types 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 Boundary disputes 890 1000 1050 1114 1500 Inheritance issues 420 600 661 702 750 Land use disagreements 321 356 428 480 560 Title disputes 240 250 245 300 280 Conflicts within households 115 120 121 130 135 Resource-based conflicts 15 13 23 32 28 Land grabbing 2 2 3 1 0 4.6.1 Land Disputes Resolution Mechanisms Also, it was found that apart from cases reported to the courts, other land-related conflicts have been resolved at the local level. Even though there was no specific number of such cases, it was acknowledged that land dispute resolutions start at the family level, and a large number of these conflicts are settled there. The elders in the family sit together and hear the parties in the conflicts. If this arrangement fails, the local leaders at the Ten Cell Unit (Nyumba Kumi) can intervene with the selected elders and wise men. If these failed, a group of five elders and wise men at the village level (Abahuza) is in charge of all types of conflicts at that level and intervenes before taking the issue to court. Recent reports have shown that these committees, which replaced traditional institutions called “Abashingantahe,” helped minimize cases that were supported for settlement in the courts. Another institution is the National Commission for Land and Other Property (CNTB in French), which was established by the Burundian constitution. It was supposed to end their activities, which started in 2010, by 2022. Their activities were delegated to the Commission of Truth and Reconciliation (CVR in French). It was noted that 20000 cases of land-related cases were still under consideration for resolution. The courts at various levels are also handling land-related cases. What is observed in this research is that land-related conflicts take different forms, as in other countries, but with distinct origins. In Burundi, the political and ethnic issues are the major problems that catalysed the land-related conflicts. This is not the same as in other countries, but they are experiencing different types of land conflicts that are similar to or closely related to those occurring in Burundi (Chikwanha, 2007; Lund et al., 2025). Additionally, findings align with those of Hutabarat (2011) and Tchatchoua-Djomo and van Dijk (2022), who revealed that the mechanisms used to resolve land disputes are still not specialized to address land issues. In Burundi, those who are selected to deal with land disputes at different levels are not qualified academically to deal with them. The way they are nominated/selected is not clear, and no criteria related to knowledge of land issues are mentioned. Therefore, mentioning that this opens room to favouritism for those who nominate them or their relatives during land conflict resolution may not be an exaggeration. It was also found that the nomination of the members of the Ten Cell Unit, Abahuza, and some judges in different courts is somehow politicised[4] and corruptive. This is one of the sources of corruption in the land sector, given that even the institutions that are responsible for land management are obtained through unclear processes. [4] Those who are members of these institutions or committees belong to the ruling party 5. Conclusion This study aimed to document the level of transparency in land governance in Burundi and identify areas for improvement to enhance openness, thereby enabling the African diaspora to contribute to land investment. The desk review and KII results have revealed that land in Burundi is a major resource that supports the people’s livelihood at 85% and the government's GDP at 39%. However, rapid urbanisation and overpopulation have made land a scarce resource, failing to accommodate these uses. In addition, Burundi has a diaspora that originated from different wars and brain drain. Even though the diaspora has contributed to investing in housing and agriculture despite the challenges in the land sector, these include the persistence of bureaucracy and technocracy in land use planning (no participation), the elitism and politicisation of land allocation, registration, and land dispute resolutions. All these have welcomed the corruption, nepotism, and favouritism that make land governance in Burundi not transparent. Rather, it welcomes a continuous land grabbing, land speculation, and other types of malicious actions in land governance. It does not motivate internal and external land investors, given that accessing land and its tenure security is not guaranteed to simple citizens and investors. Therefore, this study recommends that there should be transparent land governance through decentralisation of the existing land governance practice. The hidden agendas in various land governance processes, such as land use planning, land allocation, land registration, and land dispute resolution, that favour political elites and powerful individuals, should be examined and evaluated to determine a fixed quantity of land to be owned. Declarations Funding declaration The author did not receive financial support for this research. Data availability The data used in the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate All research methods and procedures complied with relevant ethical standards. The identities and participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any stage without any consequence. This study was conducted in accordance with the University of Burundi, under the Faculty of Engineering Sciences, which recognises this work, which has been undertaken in accordance with all necessary project processes. However, the University does not have an Ethical Committee that approves and certifies the research. Although we recognize and validate the research findings of this study, which have been presented at our university. This research has been presented in weekly University Seminars and the University Summer School Week. The University of Burundi supports further consideration of this research for official use, including publication. Consent to participate Before participation, informed consent was obtained from all participants after they were informed of the study’s purpose, data handling, and confidentiality protocols. Clinical Trial Number Clinical trial number: not applicable. Consent to Publish declaration Consent to publish declaration: not applicable. Competing interests The author declares no competing interests References Adam, J. N., Adams, T., & Gerber, J. D. (2021). The politics of decentralization: Competition in land administration and management in Ghana. Land , 10 (9), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10090948 Adane, M. G. (2022). Rural Land Cadastral Practice and its Contribution to Good Land Governance in Amhara Region, Ethiopia . Bahir Dar University. African Union. (2009). FRAMEWORK AND GUIDELINES ON LAND POLICY IN AFRICA Land: Land Policy in Africa: A Framework to Strengthen Land Rights, Enhance Productivity and Secure Livelihoods . Amanifard, F. (2022). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Land-Use Policies in Preventing the Risk of Coastal Flooding . Aalto University. Awuah, K. G. B., & Abdulai, R. T. (2022). Urban Land and Development Management in a Challenged Developing World: An Overview of New Reflections. Land , 11 (1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11010129 Barlowe, R., Adelaja, S., & Babladelis, P. (2013). Land Resource Management : Economic Foundations and New Directions (4th ed., Issue December, p. 513). Michigan State University. Barnes, G., Stanfield, D., & Barthel, K. (1999). LAND REGISTRATION MODERNIZATION IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES: A DISCUSSION OF THE MAIN PROBLEMS IN CENTRAL/EASTERN EUROPE, LATIN AMERICA, AND THE CARIBBEAN. In G. Barnes, D. Stanfield, & K. Barthel (Eds.), URISA Annual Conference (pp. 1–13). URISSA. Batterbury, S., & Ndi, F. (2018). Land-grabbing in Africa Land-grabbing in Africa (Issue January). Bennett, R. M., Unger, E. M., Lemmen, C., & Dijkstra, P. (2021). Land administration maintenance: a review of the persistent problem and emerging fit-for-purpose solutions. Land , 10 (5), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10050509 Biraro, M., Zevenbergen, J., & Alemie, B. . (2021). Good Practices in Updating Land Information Systems that Used Unconventional Approaches in Systematic Land Registration. Land , 10 (437), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040437 Abstract: Bondarev, B., Nosov, S., Antipov, O., & Papikian, L. (2019). Urban_land_use_planning_within_the_system_of_susta.pdf . 110 (2001), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf /20191100 2001 Borras, S. M., Arango, L., Belay, M., Franco, J., Sam Kahm, S., Moreda, T., Ra, D., Rojas, I., Wang, C., Ye, J., & Xu, Y. (2025). Death of agrarian societies by a thousand cuts: ‘Pin prick’ land grabs and the land rush. Globalizations , 1 (1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2025.2526296 Borras, S. M., & Franco, J. C. (2010). Contemporary discourses and contestations around pro-poor land policies and land governance. Journal of Agrarian Change , 10 (1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0366.2009.00243.x Bryman, A. (2012). Sampling in Qualitative Research. In A. Griffin (Ed.), Social Research Methods (Fourth, pp. 416–429). Oxford University Press Inc. CAHF. (2024). Housing Finance in Africa: A review of Africa’s housing finance markets 2024 Yearbook – 15th EDITION (Alison Tshangana (ed.); 15th ed.). Centre for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa. Che, S., Kumar, R. R., & Stauvermann, P. J. (2021). Taxation of land and economic growth. Economies , 9 (2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies9020061 Chigbu, U. E., Bendzko, T., Mabakeng, M. R., Kuusaana, E. D., & Tutu, D. O. (2021). Fit-for-purpose land administration from theory to practice: three demonstrative case studies of local land administration initiatives in africa. Land , 10 (476), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10050476 Chikwanha, A. B. (2007). The Anatomy of Conflicts in the East African Community ( EAC ): Linking Security With Development. Development Policy and the Security Agenda for Africa: Reassessing the Relationship , 1–24. https://www.ascleiden.nl/Pdf/LectureAnnieChikwanha.pdf Dalupan, M. C. G., Haywood, C., Wardell, D. A., Cordonnier-Segger, M. C., & Kibugi, R. (2015). Building enabling legal frameworks for sustainable land-use investments in Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique: a synthesis. In CIFOR Occasional Paper (Issue 140). http://www.cifor.org/library/5753/building-enabling-legal-frameworks-for-sustainable-land-use-investments-in-zambia-tanzania-and-mozambique-a-synthesis/ de Lattre-Gasquet, M., Le Mouël, C., & Mora, O. (2018). Land Use and Food Security in 2050: a Narrow Road. In Edition quae (pp. 11–19). https://doi.org/10.35690/978-2-7592-2880-5 de SOTO, H. (2000). The Mystety of Capital. Why Capitalism Triumps in the West and Fails Everywhere Else. In H. de SOTO (Ed.), Economia (first). Bantam Press. https://doi.org/10.18800/economia.200001.006 Deininger, K., Ali, D. A., & Alemu, T. (2011). Impacts of land certification on tenure security, investment, and land market participation: Evidence from Ethiopia. In Land Economics (Vol. 87, Issue 2). https://doi.org/10.3368/le.87.2.312 Dickinson, D., & Shahab, S. (2021). Post planning-decision process: Ensuring the delivery of high-quality developments in Cardiff. Land Use Policy , 100 (October 2020), 105114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105114 Elong, S., Muhwezi, L., & Acai, J. (2020). Assessment of the Challenges and Effects of Delays in Compulsory Land Acquisition on the Performance of Road Construction Projects in Uganda. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research , 10 (9), 1406–1429. European Network for Central Africa. (2017). Land , development and conflicts in the Great Lakes For a renewed engagement by the EU and Switzerland (Issue December). García-Morán, A., Ulvund, S., Unger, E. M., & Bennett, R. M. (2021). Exploring PPPs in support of fit-for-purpose land administration: A case study from Côte d’Ivoire. Land , 10 (9), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10090892 Government of Burundi. (2024). Publication des Resultats Preliminairess du Recensement General de la Population , de l’ Habitat, de l’Agriculture et de l’Elevage au Burundi, Edition 2024 (RGPHAE, 2024) (No. 1). RGPHAE. Hall, R. (2011). Land grabbing in Africa and the new politics of food. In Future Agricultures, Policy Brief . http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Land+Grabbing+in+Africa+and+the+New+Politics+of+Food#0 Hansson, S., Arfvidsson, H., & Simon, D. (2019). Governance for sustainable urban development: the double function of SDG indicators. Area Development and Policy , 4 (3), 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/23792949.2019.1585192 Hicks, C. (2020). What Are the Four Factors of Production ? U.S. News , 1–6. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.wichita.edu/academics/business/CIBA/wtc/documents/FourFactorsOfProduction_Investing101_USNews.pdf Hurni, H. (2000). Assessing sustainable land management (SLM). Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment , 81 (2), 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00182-1 Kombe, J. W. M. (1994). The demise of public urban land management and the emergence of informal land markets in Tanzania. A case of Dar-es-Salaam city. Habitat International , 18 (1), 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-3975(94)90037-X Lengoiboni, M., Richter, C., Asperen, P. Van, & Zevenbergen, J. (2021). Land Administration . 1–16. Lund, B. C., Odgaard, R., & Sjaastad, E. (2025). Land Rights and Land Conflicts in Africa : A review of issues and experiences . Metternicht, G. (2017). Land Use Planning. In Global Land Outlook Working Paper (No. 4; LAND USE PLANNING). Moizg, B. (2000). : Land Allocation: An Ethnic Perspective From Laos, Thailand and Vietnam . Putzel . Moizo, B. (2008). Land allocation and titling in Laos : origins, problems and local impacts on minority groups. In B. K. Leeprecha P., McCaskill D. (Ed.), Challenging the limits : indigenous peoples of the Mekong region (1st ed.). Mekong Press,. Musinguzi, M., & Enemark, S. (2019). A Fit-For-Purpose Approach to Land Administration in Africa - supporting the 2030 Global Agenda. International Journal of Technoscience and Development (IJTD) , 4 (June 2020), 69–89. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339821542 Ndi, F. A. (2017). Land grabbing, local contestation, and the struggle for economic gain: Insights from Nguti village, South West Cameroon. SAGE Open , 7 (1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016682997 Nguyen, H. H., Dargusch, P., Moss, P., & Aziz, A. A. (2017). Land-use change and socio-ecological drivers of wetland conversion in Ha Tien Plain, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Land Use Policy , 64 (1), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.02.019 OECD. (2017). Land-use Planning Systems in the OECD: Country Fact Sheets. In Land-use Planning Systems in the OECD . Oke, M. O., Adejayan, A. O., Kolapo, F. T., & Mokuolu, J. O. (2020). Pull and push factors as determinant of foreign portfolio investment in the emerging market. Risk Governance and Control: Financial Markets and Institutions , 10 (4), 33–43. https://doi.org/10.22495/rgcv10i4p3 Parsa, A., Nakendo, F., McCluskey, W. J., & Page, M. W. (2011). Impact of formalisation of property rights in informal settlements: Evidence from Dar es Salaam city. Land Use Policy , 28 (4), 695–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2010.12.005 Platt, R. H. (1974). Land Use and Society. In Land Use and Society Geography, Law, and Public Policy (Third Edit, pp. 13–19). Island Press. https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-455-0 Radchevskiy, N., Zaitseva, Y., & Tsoraeva, E. (2023). Land allocation problem in establishing boundaries of population centers. E3S Web of Conferences , 371 (23), 2–6. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202337103061 Rafiee, V., & Stenberg, E. (2018). Land grabbing and its implications on rural livelihoods in Ghana and Ethiopia-A Comparative study [| Institutionen för Naturvetenskap]. http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1242736/FULLTEXT01.pdf Remeikienė, R., Gasparėnienė, L., & Ginevičius, R. (2019). The specificity of the investment in land as in real estate. International Journal of Strategic Property Management , 23 (4), 244–255. https://doi.org/10.3846/ijspm.2019.8092 Sagashya, D., & English, C. (2010). Designing and Establishing a Land Administration System for Rwanda: Technical and Economic Analys. In Joint Discussion Paper World Bank, GLTN, FIG and FAO (Issue 2). https://www.fig.net/resources/publications/innovlandrightsrecog.pdf%5Cnwww.worldbank.org/rural Schlager, E., & Ostrom, E. (1992). Property-Rights Regimes and Natural Resources: A Conceptual Analysis. Land Economics , 68 (3), 249–262. Semeraro, T., Zaccarelli, N., Lara, A., Cucinelli, F. S., & Aretano, R. (2020). A bottom-up and top-down participatory approach to planning and designing local urban development: Evidence from an urban university center. Land , 9 (4), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9040098 Simbizi, C. M., D, Zevenbergen, J., & Bennett, R. (2015). Pro-Poor Land Administration and Land Tenure Security Provision. A Focus on Rwanda. GeoTechRwanda , 2014. Siyum, B. A. (2022). Practice and challenge of urban land governance: an empirical study in Tigrai, East Africa. Journal of Management and Governance , 26 (2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10997-022-09635-8 Sommer, S., Cherlet, M., & Ivits, E. (2018). Meaning of Land. In Global Land Outlook - First Edition (1st ed., pp. 20–29). UNCCD. Stanfield, D. (1990). RURAL LAND TITLING AND REGISTRATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN : by . Steel, G., Abukashawa, S., & Hussein, M. O. (2020). Urban Transformations and Land Governance in Peri-Urban Khartoum: The Case of Soba. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie , 111 (1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12372 Takele, N. S., Kwame, C. S.-Y., & Asfaw, M. (2014). Strengthening Good Governance in Urban Land Management in Ethiopia A Case-study of Hawassa. Journal of Environment and Earth Science , 4 (15), 96–108. Tchatchoua-Djomo, R., & van Dijk, H. (2022). Ambiguous Outcomes of Returnees’ Land Dispute Resolution and Restitution in War-Torn Burundi. Land , 11 (2), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11020191 Teklemariam, D., Azadi, H., Nyssen, J., Haile, M., & Witlox, F. (2015). Transnational Land Deals: Creating Inclusive Governance Frameworks. Land Use Policy , 42 , 781–789. The World Bank. (2014). Land Governance Assessment Framework: Implementation Manual. In Land Governance Assessment Framework (Issue October). https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/a91b90185037e5f11e9f99a989ac11dd-0050062013/original/LGAF-Manual-Oct-2013.pdf Thuo, A. D. M. (2013). Impacts of Urbanization on Land Use Planning, Livelihood and Environment in The Nairobi Rural-Urban Fringe, Kenya. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research , 2 (7), 70–79. www.ijstr.org Turimubumwe, P. (2020a). Challenging institutional frameworks in land administration. African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences , 4 (1), 2657–2664. https://revues.imist.ma/index.php/AJLP-GS/index Turimubumwe, P. (2020b). Public-Private Partnership in land administration A pathway for minimising corruption in land sector to individual land acquirers in Bujumbura. African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences , 3 (1), 2657–2664. https://revues.imist.ma/index.php/AJLP-GS/article/view/17725 Turimubumwe, P., Adam, A. G., & Alemie, B. K. (2022). Policy level analysis of public urban lands management in Burundi: insights for harmonization of policy frameworks. GeoJournal , 26 (4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10801-6 Udessa, F., Adugna, D., & Workalemahu, L. (2023). Socioeconomic Effects of Good Governance Practices in Urban Land Management: The Case of Lega Tafo Lega Dadi and Gelan Towns. Land , 12 (369), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020369 UN-Habitat. (2016). Tenure Responsive Land Use Planning: A Guide for Country Level Implementation . www.unhabitat.org UN-REDD. (2022). Land-Use Planning and Integrated Approaches To Reducing Emissions From Deforestation and Forest Degradation Key Messages . UNECE. (1996). Land administration Guidelines: With Special Reference to Countries in Transition . UNECE. (2000). Study on Key Aspects of Land Registration and Cadastral Legislation (Issue May). UNECE. (2005). Land Administration in the UNECE Region: Development trends and main principles . United Nations. https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/hlm/documents/Publications/landadmin.devt.trends.e.pdf USAID. (2013). Land tenure, Property Rights, and Economic Growth in Rural Areas. In USAID Issue Brief (Issue 3). https://www.land-links.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/USAID_Land_Tenure_Economic_Growth_Issue_Brief-061214-1.pdf Vaismoradi, M., & Snelgrove, S. (2019). Theme in qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung , 20 (3), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-20.3.3376 van Leeuwen, M. (2010). Crisis or continuity?. Framing land disputes and local conflict resolution in Burundi. Land Use Policy , 27 (3), 753–762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.10.006 Veldman, M. (2020). Land Disputes, Land Tenure Registration and Access to Justice in Fragile and Conflict Affected States: Questioning our Assumptions . https://www.usip.org/guiding-principles-stabiliza- Wehrmann, B. (2008). Land Conflicts: A practical guide to dealing with land disputes . World Bank. (2023). Burundi - Strengthening Urban Resilience: Improving urban and peri-urban resilience mechanisms in targeted Central, Eastern and Western African cities . Ziadat, F., Bunning, S., & De Pauw, E. (2017). Land Resource Planning for Sustainable Land Management. Working Paper No.14 (Issue 14). http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5937e.pdf Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-7883167\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":548741851,\"identity\":\"dcd1b4c5-2171-4269-b893-812c1966ae21\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Prosper Turimubumwe\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABFUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCDA2DEwMD4gLEBzGVjSMCjnAdJC7MB0VoYoFrYJOBasABz6cOHPxdU3GOwl8h9eOhm253EtTOSj1Xz7mCQ47uRwPbgAaYWy760NOkZZ4oZeCTSDQ7ntj1L3HYjLe027xkGY8kbCewGWBxmcIbHjJm3LQGoJY0BqOVw4rbbOWa3edsYEjcAbZHArsX4M+8/FC3534qBWurxaDGQ5m1AtYUNaC9DggEOLZY9bEC/HEvg4TnzjOFwzrlnxtvuPzOWnHtGwnDmmYft2PxizsMMDLGaBDn29jTmzzlld2S3nTn88MPbHTbyfMeTjz38gcVhQMzMAI8WBJAAYnDs4NQyCkbBKBgFowA3AACMOW22EnfhPgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Université du Burundi\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Prosper\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Turimubumwe\",\"suffix\":\"\"}],\"badges\":[],\"createdAt\":\"2025-10-17 06:08:43\",\"currentVersionCode\":1,\"declarations\":\"\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7883167/v1\",\"doiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7883167/v1\",\"draftVersion\":[],\"editorialEvents\":[],\"editorialNote\":\"\",\"failedWorkflow\":false,\"files\":[{\"id\":96978279,\"identity\":\"d6302cd5-5dc0-4ca4-a8d5-13675eafdb36\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"docx\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":286129,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"AnonymousmanuscriptDGS.docx\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/62781aa78f90450bea0d73bf.docx\"},{\"id\":96978282,\"identity\":\"2dd199fe-624c-4da5-979c-6ac7606f19d1\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"json\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":3379,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"7039309c051e44a7a6b770a7b9fa119c.json\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/57e139fa127c6673921a2a7d.json\"},{\"id\":97138432,\"identity\":\"7d731a58-7d2a-40d7-8ead-787aa614973f\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-01 09:58:51\",\"extension\":\"docx\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":286129,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"AnonymousmanuscriptDGSd1.docx\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/353fbce5fcc85883c0d7952f.docx\"},{\"id\":96978285,\"identity\":\"b190e259-2b1c-4f16-a931-604dd575ede6\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"xml\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":147882,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"7039309c051e44a7a6b770a7b9fa119c1enriched.xml\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/619c96b58b9fe0b6c2897461.xml\"},{\"id\":97138201,\"identity\":\"039196b1-c490-4962-a6e9-f2b01748abca\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-01 09:58:36\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":23535,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/e76b0e4828a8c0ebd9fcdb89.png\"},{\"id\":96978288,\"identity\":\"5cf32a56-a0ec-44d4-afe0-bf3260d83eb1\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"jpeg\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":771893,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage2.jpeg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/3d56316b835fc2c4fd1452c5.jpeg\"},{\"id\":96978286,\"identity\":\"03ceee82-a9ab-49e7-844b-caef4ec1c10c\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":17383,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/c1096174a51a58ebb3cc8979.png\"},{\"id\":96978289,\"identity\":\"a674a710-594b-4336-bf5a-7bb54e85ff01\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":166930,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Onlinefloatimage2.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/e39ea3b005f0bb3d35e780e4.png\"},{\"id\":96978291,\"identity\":\"3e48cb5d-2a6a-4caf-898e-e31d2942c81c\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"xml\",\"order_by\":8,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":145993,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"7039309c051e44a7a6b770a7b9fa119c1structuring.xml\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/9e5a81e9591d137415f4c831.xml\"},{\"id\":96978290,\"identity\":\"cb7b999b-e1e5-4252-967d-403be8af4745\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"html\",\"order_by\":9,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":156346,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"earlyproof.html\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/3b0ef3fe96d20ca4fc731510.html\"},{\"id\":96978280,\"identity\":\"2246b77e-1b79-4182-abb9-531072831725\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:45\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":344404,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eLand allocation in recent projects\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/8eab2146f43e09190d462ebf.png\"},{\"id\":97136767,\"identity\":\"915fa48f-fb71-4d1a-8bdf-2692f0d0afc3\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-01 09:56:59\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":262756,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eFigure 2 and 3: \\u0026nbsp;Processes required to obtain land title in Burundi\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eSource: Land offices, 2025\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"2.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/9255057a4b20d0d1115ab0f2.png\"},{\"id\":107151424,\"identity\":\"b452aa75-1a8d-435b-b067-1105369cb8eb\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-04-17 10:58:26\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":1114919,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7883167/v1/050bc618-f6d1-40c6-94eb-380384864159.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Transparent Land Governance Arrangements for Motivating Land Investment in Burundi\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"1. Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eLand is a real estate property in business terms, and, from a socio-economic perspective, it is a source of wealth and power. According to Platt (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR44\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1974\\u003c/span\\u003e), land is a prime resource that contributes to economic, social, environmental, and cultural development. Furthermore, it is clarified by Hicks (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR30\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e) that land is among the four factors of production in economics (Land, Labour, Capital, and Entrepreneurship), and Chigbu et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e) explain how land contributes to economic growth as a resource, a site for production, and a foundation for various economic activities. Many authors have identified challenges impeding development in developing countries. They include time and cost spent on accessing and securing land (Garc\\u0026iacute;a-Mor\\u0026aacute;n et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e), unclear processes (Nguyen et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR40\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e), lack of land information (Amanifard, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), corruption and favouritism (Awuah \\u0026amp; Abdulai, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). All the above-mentioned factors have discouraged local and international investors from directing their capital into the land sector. Consequently, the land sector in different countries has been left to elites and other speculators who keep arable and prime land idle (Moizg, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR36\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e; Rafiee \\u0026amp; Stenberg, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR46\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e). Therefore, land governance arrangements should be transparent to address the problem.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eConceptually, land governance covers the legal texts, processes, and structures engaged in managing land access, use, rights, and competing interests ( Udessa et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR64\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). Land in many developing countries is held privately and publicly. In Burundi, for example, there are three types of land tenure: private ownership, state land, and public land (Tchatchoua-Djomo \\u0026amp; van Dijk, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR57\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). Managing land access in pluralist land tenure is not easy and requires rules and regulations to be adopted and enforced. The existing stock of literature shows that in developing countries, rules and regulations are available, such as policies and acts in the land sector (Lund et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR34\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e; Siyum, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR52\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e; Turimubumwe et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR63\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). However, the practice in the land sector does not portray the existence of rules. There is no transparency in all land governance arrangements; rather, we observe opacity and tricky land deal arrangements.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn separate studies, Radchevskiy et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR45\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e) and Teklemariam et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR58\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2015\\u003c/span\\u003e) found that a lack of transparency in land allocation by government authorities, fraudulent land transactions among land dealers, elitism and nepotism in land access (for public land), delays in land demarcation and surveying have caused many problems. Furthermore, problems such as a lack of fairness in land access and tenure security (Awuah \\u0026amp; Abdulai, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), less accountability, and poor land governance (Udessa et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR64\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e), and the existence of corruption in the land sector (Turimubumwe, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR62\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020b\\u003c/span\\u003e) are linked to a lack of transparent land governance arrangements.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBesides, the lack of transparent land governance arrangements has affected the land production and achievement of economic growth in some developing countries (Rafiee \\u0026amp; Stenberg, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR46\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e). Also, land conflicts, fraudulent practices and delays in the land sector have demotivated internal and external investors in land for some countries (Elong et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR24\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e; European Network for Central Africa, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e). It is now worrying some developing countries' authorities that foreign investors, including diaspora, have not invested in their countries despite motivations and many promises. What is observed is that they decided to invest in the countries where they feel transparent land governance practices are guaranteed. Thus, there is a need to have transparent land governance to motivate investors in the land sector and increase land productivity in developing countries.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis paper aims to document the state of transparency in land governance arrangements in Burundi and propose how to make it transparent with targets to motivate investments in the land sector. The proposals are based on the existing practices in land governance arrangements such as land use planning, land access (allocation, inheritance, and transactions), certification/titling, and conflict resolution. It is believed that if land governance arrangements operate transparently, investors (foreigners and diaspora) from different parts of the world will be motivated, then inject and repatriate capital in the country.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2. Literature review\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2.1 Land and its meaning \\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe meaning and value of land are indefinite. Land has been defined based on its components, comprising soil, vegetation, and biota that support the bio-productive system (Sommer et al., 2018). In our society, land has been attributed to be a source of wealth, power, and identity for communities. Furthermore, land has been intertwined with human development and economic function. Nevertheless, it is a limited resource with uniqueness in value, an immovable resource, and a strategic socio-economic asset to both poor and rich people (Metternicht, 2017). Likewise, its ownership has been shifted from public to private holdings, which has complicated its management and its sustainable use. The rights to hold and own land have been expanded and enforced for decades. Land started to be commoditised as other goods and people started to claim different rights on it. According to Schlager and Ostrom (1992), five rights that landholders should enjoy were identified. These lights include the right of possession, right of control, right of exclusion, right of enjoyment, and right of disposition. This bundle of rights on property harnessed and motivated landholders to increase the number and area of land units. Conversely, powerful people used their influence to acquire as many as they could. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e1.1 \\u003cstrong\\u003eInvestments in the land sector\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eOne of the well-known investments that pays back with a good return on invested capital. Remeikienė et al. (2019) identified three motives of investing in land such as including (i) price increase in the land market, (ii) the intention to earn from the development of real estate, and (iii) as an investment object. Land has been a commodity that does not rot easily, and its degradation until its value reaches zero takes time. The most common investments in land include housing development, agricultural, tourism, and recreational (Awuah \\u0026amp; Abdulai, 2022). Investors in land always have expectations of recouping their capital plus a high interest in a certain time, either through reselling the land (speculation), investing in it directly (housing, farming) or using it as collateral in financial institutions to access loans. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn Africa and other developing countries, investments in the land sector have been linked to different malicious practices that include land grabbing and land speculation (Borras et al., 2025). The actors of these practices are foreigners and local elites, and powerful people who profit from the gaps that exist in enforcing land policies and institutions responsible for land governance. For foreign investments in the land sector, some of the pulling factors have been the trade openness, the high domestic interest rates and high growth potential for some countries, and widespread liberalisation of financial markets (Oke et al., 2020). \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn some other countries, the domestic inflation has been a pulling factor given that money loses its value. Yet, land value and investments on it, like housing and agriculture, increase value since they can be transferred using foreign currencies such as United States Dollars (US$) and Euro (\\u0026euro;). This has been in use in countries that experience domestic inflation, like Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, and Somalia. Nevertheless, no government accepts this practice legally, except that they know that some transfers of properties and services in some hotels are done in US$. Generally, this is not a problem, but it is how transparent these land transfers are transfer especially for communal and individual lands. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2.2 Transparent land governance and land investment \\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe commoditisation and importance of land in economic, social, political, and environmental development have awakened decision-makers to think of its governance. Similarly, challenges that accompanied the use of land for different ends were alarming. Therefore, to address some of the challenges, it was proposed in different conferences and meetings at international and regional levels that the way land should be accessed and used has to be guided by legal texts and known institutions (UNECE, 1996). Therefore, land policies and other regulatory texts were elaborated (Dickinson \\u0026amp; Shahab, 2021). Still, land policies and institutions exist in some developing countries, but challenges persist (Sagashya \\u0026amp; English, 2010). \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWhile land governance arrangements concern the rules, processes, and structures set to determine how land is accessed, used, and managed, as well as how land disputes should be resolved, the problems in land governance arise from the early stages of land use planning. Then, other problems related to land, such as allocation, land tenure security, and land disputes. The land sector becomes nonproductive and even a source of social tragedies (civil war) (Tchatchoua-Djomo \\u0026amp; van Dijk, 2022). \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2.2.1 Land use planning in developing countries \\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe starting point of sustainable use of land is having a land use planning schemes that show how land should be utilised, managed, and developed to meet the needs of people. Globally, there is an increase in competition for land since it is demanded for multiple uses and ecosystem services (Metternicht, 2017). This competition, coupled with laissez-faire by the existing systems responsible for land management, leads to the mismanagement of land. Many authors have converged in different research and times on what land use planning has to offer, such as assessing the potential of land, considering social, economic, and environmental factors, and making informed decisions about land use (Amanifard, 2022; Semeraro et al., 2020). Practically, if well undertaken, propose Barlowe, et al. (2013), land use planning contributes largely in optimising land use, resolving land-related disputes, and promoting the well-being of communities and the environment. However, many developing countries have failed to initiate land use planning, and this has contributed to different challenges in the land sector. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIt is underlined by UN-Habitat (2016) and Udessa et al. (2023) that key aspects of land use planning include the strategic allocation of land, regulation and management of land, balancing competing interests in land, promoting sustainability, and acting as public policy. Furthermore, the report by UN-REDD (2022) goes further and associates the land use planning with the approach to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Other issues of concern for our daily life and basic human needs are associated with land use planning, such as food security (de Lattre-Gasquet et al., 2018), climate change (Dalupan et al., 2015), and sustainable development (Lengoiboni et al., 2021). Therefore, the failure of governments to invest in land use planning induces countries and communities into different problems. Some of them include double allocation of land units, unsustainable land use and incompatibility of uses among adjacent land units, unregulated land development, including informal settlement in urban areas and other malicious practices in the land sector.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2.2.2 Land allocation \\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand allocation is defined as a process of assigning land uses and property rights to individuals, groups of people, communities, private or public entities for improved land management (Moizg, 2000). Land allocation techniques are many, including land redistribution, land readjustment, and land acquisition. This paper discusses land redistribution since it concerns public land acquisition by individuals for private profit. In this process, state-owned or controlled land on behalf of the citizens is redistributed to any facto users with conditions of development. In developing countries, this process is full of obscurity, opacity, and obstacles (Adam et al., 2021). The recent stock of knowledge shows that one of the challenges in this exercise of land allocation is the lack of transparency of \\u003cem\\u003ewho\\u003c/em\\u003e acquires \\u003cem\\u003ewhat, how,\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003ewhere\\u003c/em\\u003e. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWhile governments have developmental objectives in allocating state land to private holders, the process is criticised for being undertaken with trickery. The allocation has been used as a means of land grabbing and speculation both in urban and rural areas (Moizg, 2000), a source of land-based conflicts (Radchevskiy et al., 2023), inducing informal settlements (Takele et al., 2014), negatively impacting minorities and marginalised groups of people (Moizo, 2008), welcoming corruption and favouritism by ignoring conditions and criteria to access land (Udessa et al., 2023), and demotivating land-based investment (Rafiee \\u0026amp; Stenberg, 2018). This process is very complicated and critical, especially in small countries[1] that are rapidly urbanising and with a galloping population. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2.2.3 Certification and titling\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWhile land allocation by the government is supposed to be formal with titles or certificates of ownership for the transferred properties, the process may require additional time and cost to get the formal documents in some countries. In countries where land is not registered, but only registering transactions, the certification and titling may take months and even years (Bennett \\u003cem\\u003eet al.\\u003c/em\\u003e, 2021). It is underlined by Deininger et al (2011) that there are positive impacts of land certification on tenure security, investment, and land markets. This has also been found in other studies conducted in Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Africa (Barnes et al., 1999).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand registration accompanied by massive delivery of certificates and titles has increased a feeling of tenure security to land owners and investors (Simbizi et al., 2015). Furthermore, the eminent study by de SOTO (2000) on the mystery of capitalism showed how formalising properties facilitated the exchange of properties among land dealers. Land has been commoditised and certificates used to access loans in financial institutions. For a decade, developing partners such as the World Bank, African Development Bank, and other development organisations emphasised land registration as a means of poverty eradication and socio-political tensions (African Union, 2009; The World Bank, 2014). \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand certification as the final result of the land registration process has also been attributed to improving access to land information by land dealers at a low cost and in less time. In urban areas, this has improved the feeling of tenure security for landowners and investors (Deininger et al. 2011). It is also underlined by other studies that land certification increased investment in housing (CAHF, 2024), minimised land disputes related to boundaries and double allocation (Veldman, 2020), regulated land uses and land conversion (Nguyen et al., 2017); and responded to informal settlements (Parsa et al., 2011). All these are necessary to be observed in developing countries. However, the importance of land certification in some developing countries is disregarded and deliberately ignored (Garc\\u0026iacute;a-Mor\\u0026aacute;n et al., 2021). The recent studies show that some governments are still using paper-based property registration in all processes (Turimubumwe et al., 2022) and, where digitalised, updating the information is still a problem (Biraro et al., 2021). All these provide the loopholes that make the land sector poorly contribute to economic, social, and environmental development in developing countries.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2.2.4 Land disputes and resolution mechanisms\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eOne of the challenges in the land sector for some developing countries is the persistence of land disputes. The origins of land disputes are attributed to the colonial era, which exemplified the land grabbing[2] by local leaders (Rafiee \\u0026amp; Stenberg, 2018), the privatisation and commoditisation of land by local and foreign leaders (Batterbury \\u0026amp; Ndi, 2018), and urbanisation and overpopulation, which require large land (Awuah \\u0026amp; Abdulai, 2022). Then, different disputes emerged due to the competition for land for different uses, speculations, and conservation (parks and national reserves). \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAccording to Wehrmann (2008) and Veldman (2020), the land disputes can arise on boundary, stemming from outdated surveys, mistaken measurements or over boundary markers; ownership with reasons on disagreements of legal documents such as unclear land titles, inheritance issues, or fraudulent transactions (with pocket contracts); adverse possession claims which involve accessing land illegally or through skirting law, inheritance disputes that emerge from denial to some members of the family such as girls to inherit land; and trespassing and encroachment disputes that are observed among two neighbouring developers. The are the most land disputes reported in courts and land dispute resolution teams in Africa (Veldman, 2020). Resolving land disputes has also not been easy despite many attempts and mechanisms initiated.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eRegarding land dispute resolutions, authors like Tchatchoua-Djomo and van Dijk (2022) have been clear on how countries tried to elaborate land resolution mechanisms at the local level, mixing the approaches (traditional and modern mechanisms. However, these initiatives have not addressed the land disputes. Rather, some land disputes have been hardened and become the epicentre of many conflicts, such as civil wars, fratricidal violence, displacement, gender-based violence, and hindering development (Lund et al., 2025; Veldman, 2020). Nevertheless, there is a lack of knowledge on why such initiatives have failed, especially in developing countries.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWhat is now known is that the persistence and complication of these land disputes have negatively affected the land governance arrangements in developing countries. The land sector is not motivating foreign and local investors, given that they still doubt the justice and legal processes in case of disputes. Therefore, documenting the state of transparency of land governance arrangements in Burundi and then proposing how it should be transparent with targets to motivate the African diaspora investment in the land sector is crucial. This will help to understand how land governance arrangements in Burundi are working and what is needed to address the recurrent challenges in the land sector.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e[1] Countries that are small in terms of area, as measured in square kilometres or miles\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e[2] Tracts of land were forcibly taken from public ownership for religious purposes, and others were granted to local authorities as a bonification for the courtesy. \\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. Methodology\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e3.1 Study area \\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eBurundi is a case study area, given that the land governance is experiencing challenges and making it nonproductive and becoming a source of conflict. Geographically, Burundi is a landlocked country and a member state of the East African Community. The most potential for citizens is land. According to the 2024 census (Government of Burundi, 2024) , 85.7% of the population relies on agriculture and livestock keeping. Besides, the census recalls that Burundi has an area of 27,884 km\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e and a population of 12,332,788. It is underlined that land in Burundi is a key contributor to the National GDP through the export of tea and coffee at 39.6%, employment provision at 84%, and food provision at 84% (CAHF, 2024: p 32). Moreover, land in Burundi is commoditised like other precious products in the country. Then, the galloping population and the rapid urbanisation in the existing cities and towns have driven the increase of competition in land access, which has created room for malicious practices. Therefore, land governance in Burundi became a topic of debate in research and provides a rich case study area. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e3.2 Data collection methods and tools \\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe study aims to document how land governance arrangements in Burundi are, to know if it is transparent or not and propose how they can be transparent to motivate investments in the land sector in Burundi. This will help to boost the African land and make it more productive than it is today. The study used a mixed research approach in data collection to include qualitative and quantitative data. For secondary data, this study applied a desk review approach by consulting published works (six) on Burundi related to land governance. Most of them are those published by international and local organisations that have been working in Burundi from 2020-2024. This timeframe is referred to as the signature of the Arusha Accord that ended the civil war that erupted after the massacre of the first president, who was democratically elected. Twelve (12) reports were referred to as the source of information for this paper. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe study also used a key informant interview (KII) with actors who are working in the land sector, either as land officers, urban planners, and judges in three courts of Bujumbura, Muyinga, and Makamba. The KII with land officers contributed to this study to know how much land has been allocated to investors (local and international[3]); what are the major land-based investments that benefited from public land allocation; what are the land tenure types; and how much time and cost it takes to deliver certificates of ownership (titles) to investors. The KII with urban planners contributed to understanding how land use planning was undertaken and how sustainable land use was accomplished. The KII helped in describing how key stakeholders are involved in the process. The KII with judges were important to confirm and update the existing data and information on land conflicts and judicial cases related to properties that are reported, registered, and filed. Also, KII with local leaders and committee representatives in Bujumbura, Muyinga, and Makamba were approached to know how they are involved in land governance arrangements: land use planning, tenure security, and land dispute resolution. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFinally, local and foreign investors in land have been contacted to learn how they acquired land for their specific investments. They provided data on the process, the time and cost incurred in accessing land, the availability of information, and the perception of tenure security. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eData analysis techniques \\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe study is based on qualitative and quantitative data. Then, a Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) was applied. The use of the QCA approach is recommended by Bryman (2012, p 289). The author explained that content analysis is \\u0026lsquo;an approach to the analysis of documents and texts that seeks to qualify content in terms of predetermined categories and a systematic as well as replicable manner. Furthermore, Vaismoradi and Snelgrove ( 2019) disclose that engaging QCA when analysing data collected from a desk review and some KII is very important. The process involves the categorisation of data obtained from different documents, interpreting, comparing, and contrasting them to prove their validity and accuracy in responding to the research objective. For quantitative data, the statistical description was applied to determine the percentages, graphs, and tables on different topics such as allocation, land conflicts, and judicial cases. Finally, the information in this paper is presented in text and table format to ensure readability and presentability. \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e[3] International investors include diaspora \\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4. Findings and discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.1 Land in Burundi\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand in Burundi has the same meaning and importance as it does in other countries. It is a source of wealth, power and offers a high social status connotation to the owners or users. Land is the primary source of income and livelihood in both rural and urban areas. Similarly, Land is the only resource useful for acquiring shelter, producing food for families, affording clothes and other non-food items for families, and other uses. The rapid urbanisation and overpopulation in Burundi have caused land scarcity for farmers and other land users. The competition for land access in Burundi is frightening and has caused many other problems, including civil war and fratricide. Burundi has fertile land located both in the high and lowlands. Also, the government relies on land for practising agriculture for food and for export. You can imagine how land is a crucial resource in Burundi and how its management requires informed decisions.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand is accessed through allocation by the government, transfer or transaction (sales, inheritance), and communal land. All these land access arrangements are before registration, except for communal land, to ensure tenure security. The existing legal texts in the Land Code allow anyone who is legally living in Burundi to access land through the four arrangements by following and respecting the conditions of each. This means that foreigners are allowed to access land, including diaspora, by following existing rules and conditions therein. In urban areas, land has become a commodity that is exchanged in cash or collateral. Land has created jobs outside its direct exploitation through brokerage and speculation. However, this has also got its side effects, such as soaring land prices per acre and conflicts among land dealers. For example, a KII informant with land investors revealed that the prices of an acre of bare land increased five to ten times from 2020. Also, the land conflicts increased due to brokers who may engage a double double-selling on one piece of land.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.2 Investment in land in Burundi\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn the land sector, local elites and powerful people, foreigners and Diaspora have played a key role in different land-based investments, especially in housing development and agriculture and livestock keeping. It is obvious in Bujumbura city to find a neighbourhood named \\u0026ldquo;Diaspora Neighbourhood\\u0026rdquo;, neighbourhoods named according to the institutions, such as Burundi Republic Bank Neighbourhood (Quartier BRB), Somali Neighbourhoods (settled by military corps who served in United Nations missions in Somalia). These are houses that are either constructed by diaspora members or bought by diasporas and located in one place as a project. They include low-cost, medium and high-cost houses and are located in different urban centres of the cities (plate).\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn agriculture and livestock keeping, local elites constituted by government members (retired or active) and diasporas have invested in land by buying or exploiting their family\\u0026rsquo;s lands with large-scale projects. Locally, they are known as rich people and have also caused the land prices to escalate in urban and rural settings. However, the processes of land acquisition in urban settings have not been easy and secure for the diaspora, given that land governance is not transparent. The KII results with individual developers expressed that they have a fear of tenure security for the lands bought by individuals. \\u003cem\\u003eThe feeling of tenure insecurity emanates from the processes of land certification and titling, which are complicated, time, and costly,\\u003c/em\\u003e according to one of the participants.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFor elites and foreigners, they are getting land from the government, which has been registered and uses pre-determined. If not registered, they get land under the umbrella of agriculture innovation, seed production and multiplication, aquaculture, and other projects that align with the political agenda. At the end, these lands remain theirs. This is one of the malicious practices used for land grabbing, as pointed out by Borras et al. (2025), Hall (2011), and Rafiee and Stenberg (2018) in different studies. The other practice is buying land from citizens by elites, foreigners, and diaspora, a situation caused by poverty among households and domestic inflation. The land is sold at a low price with the expectation of being sold at a high price in the future, which is five to ten times higher in less than five years. We argue that if this practice is not stopped or legally guided, especially for elites in power may lead to feudalism known as the \\u003cem\\u003eUbugererwa\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eand landlordship in the long run. Land will be concentrated in the hands of a small number of families that have a historical background in political positions or are diaspora. \\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.3\\u0026nbsp;Processes of land use planning in Burundi\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand use planning in Burundi is still bureaucratic and technocratic rather than being participative and adhortative. Whereas the process was supposed to be \\u003cem\\u003ebottom-up\\u003c/em\\u003e, it is still \\u003cem\\u003etop-down\\u003c/em\\u003e in its approach. For example, the desk review and KII show that land use planning is undertaken by the urban planners and other officers in the ministry and municipalities. The site identification, the preliminary studies, the detailed studies, the preparation of plans, adoption, and implementation are arbitrarily done by a task force nominated at the central government level. As a result, many plans have been creating problems related to social, economic, and environmental disruptions. It is acknowledged by local leaders that they are not involved when it comes to land use planning, especially in urban areas. One of the local leaders uttered, \\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026ldquo;\\u0026hellip; we are not involved in land use planning. We are only informed that there will be a project and that we have to tell land owners to be ready for compensation\\u0026rdquo;\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003ePractically, this is very dangerous to the future of the neighbourhood and the project itself. When we tried to know why local participation is not encouraged in land use planning, especially when it is related to surveyed and serviced plots, one of the KII clarified \\u0026ldquo;\\u0026hellip; \\u003cem\\u003ebecause we deal with land that is compensated and becoming public lands, land deals are created, and it is a chance for powerful people to get more plots in the project\\u0026hellip;\\u0026rdquo;\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eThis gives room to land grabbing and land speculations that are, in one way or another, bad for the low- and middle-income earners. Recently, the World Bank informed that:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eRisk-informed spatial planning and enforcement are not practised in Bujumbura or other urban areas of Burundi. In addition, the country does not have a comprehensive, up-to-date land mapping and registry system that consolidates information on land tenure, type of ownership, and the fluctuation of the land and real estate market. This context hinders the government\\u0026acute;s ability to track, anticipate, and plan for expansion\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e(World Bank, 2023, p.1).\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe land use planning was supposed to be an entry point for the rest of the good practices of land practice that should be transparent through its operationalisation. However, the failure of having transparent land use planning affects the land allocation, land titling, and, to some extent, the land dispute resolution. Such a kind of planning is dominated by technocracy and rigidity and may affect the implementation of the land use plans. The adhocracy, coupled with decentralisation, was supposed to be applied in order to achieve transparent land use planning. The local knowledge of the site, coupled with local technology, will help the process of land use planning to come up with land use plans that are meritocratic and flexible. \\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.4 \\u0026nbsp;Tricky land allocation in Burundi\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand allocation in Burundi concerns the redistribution of state land for different uses, dominantly by shelter acquisition in urban settings and farming activities in rural settings. For urban lands, the land redistribution process started by preparing land use planning, plot production, land surveying and servicing. The philosophy behind plot production is to allocate land to those who do not have a house while he is living or planning to live in that place. However, the identification of those beneficiaries is full of opacity and cheating. The results revealed in the recent projects of land allocation undertaken in Bujumbura city, Gitega, and Ngozi showed that plots were allocated to those who have houses or plots either in the same city or in other cities (Figure 1). The findings show that Senior officials (nominated by decrees), senior officials in the army and police, elected officials, Businessmen, and NGOs officials were allocated many plots. Teachers and subaltern police and army corps were allocated plots in small numbers. When asked this question to land officers and urban planners, why these elites and powerful people were allocated land while they already owned houses, the answer was that they had information before the project, got prepared for early bird payment, and were ready to do a follow-up. Other groups of people were late and should not come or call frequently to ask about the progress.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIt was also revealed that 75 % of those who received land in those projects did not develop these plots, but they sold them some years later. The plot was allocated at BIF 2.5 million per acre and sold at BIF 25 million per acre after 2 years. \\u0026nbsp;Others have developed the land for business rather than family shelter. This confirms the existing literature that most of land allocation projects in developing countries welcomes land grabbing and speculation (Moizg, 2000; Ndi, 2017); the likelihood of marginalised and minority groups of people to access land is minimal (Kombe, 1994; Moizo, 2008); and the process to be dominated by corruption, favouritism, and nepotism (Udessa et al., 2023).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eHowever, there is still room to avoid and prevent this practice. Involving the sought beneficiaries from the beginning of the project and especially during allocation is crucial. To achieve this, disclosing information at an early stage to the public through all communication channels such as radio and television stations, local leaders\\u0026apos; WhatsApp groups, and Facebook is crucial. This will help the target beneficiary group to prepare themselves in advance, financially and timely manner so that they fulfil the required conditions. Also, beneficiaries should be those whose records show that they did not access plots in previous land allocation projects or any other housing projects. Therefore, digitalisation of property ownership in urban areas is mandatorily recommended. This will enhance the prevention of any kind of land grabbing, speculation, corruption and nepotism in future land allocation.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.5 Land owner-initiated land titling vs Registrar-initiated land titling in Burundi\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand certification and titling always follow the land allocation or transfer of any kind. However, land certification in land allocated from the government and those transferred from different arrangements, like transactions or inheritance, is not easy. There are two land titling processes applied in Burundi (Figure 2). Property owners initiate the first one, and the second is initiated by the Registrar\\u0026rsquo;s Office, as per the Land Code. The property owner uses the first arrangement, whereas the second arrangement is reserved for public projects. However, the KII results revealed that there is more than 15 years without public projects undertaken by the government. Therefore, the recent land registrations recorded in the Registrar\\u0026rsquo;s Offices are at 99% initiated by the property owners.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.5.1 \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp;Land title initiated by property owner\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eLand certification begins at the local level, with the village\\u0026apos;s local leaders signing the transfer contract. The file is sent to the zonal level for a second-level signature. The file is taken to the commune/district level for verification, where information about the property is confirmed, and coordinates are recorded to be included in the file. Then, it may take days for this to be sent to the provincial level for signing and issuance of the certificate of property ownership. This may also take two to three weeks and will depend on the governor\\u0026apos;s political and work plans. Also, the cost is estimated to be 3% of the property value. \\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFor the title deeds, the certificate of property ownership is included in the file and submitted to the office of land title. The file is sent to the valuer, who then forwards it to the land officer for checking and evaluation. Then, the land officer and surveyor went to collect information, including coordinates. The minute regarding the concerned property has been composed and submitted for approval. This may take two weeks. This is how the land certificates and titles are processed. However, the actual practice is quite different. The KII results from different land developers revealed that the process may take months, even years, if one wants to follow the normal procedures.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.5.2 \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp;Cost related to certification and land titles\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAlso, the costs of acquiring land title are shown to be in five categories that are category A with BIF150,000 (US$50) per acre, category B for BIF100,000 (US$30) per acre, category C for BIF50,000 (US$18) B per acre, category D for BIF 25,000 (US$ 8) per acre, and category E: 12,000 BIF per acre. It is stipulated that no title should be paid at more than BIF 3 million. There are additional fees to be incurred for registration, which is BIF 10,000 (approximately US$3), for title assurance, which is BIF 20,000 (approximately US$6), and issuance, which is also BIF 20,000 (approximately US$6). You can calculate how much legally you can pay to process the land title. The cost must include transportation expenses, as the land offices are only located downtown. This will depend on the availability of fuel, given that the country has been experiencing a fuel crisis from 2021 to 2025 at the time this article is being written. This means that private transport may incur legal fees. This is a force majeure that has occurred, making land title processes lengthy and discouraging for acquirers. Despite the existing leadership in the land titling office having improved the processes and communicated these improvements to the public, this situation has forced landowners to use middlemen (brokers) who charge them hundreds of thousands or millions, depending on the location of the property.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eHowever, to make land titles accessible and transparent, there is a need for administrative decentralisation of land services. This will require decentralization, devolution, and delegation of land services from the regions to the actual communes. This will help to have land services close to landowners and increase the number of land titling, which is currently too low in comparison to EAC countries. Also, the transparency will be enhanced since everyone will be able to visit the offices for inquiries. Land tenure security will be provided to landowners and investors to orient their capital in the land sector, as proposed by de Soto (2000) and Simbizi et al. (2015). \\u0026nbsp;Additionally, the existing registered lands in the case study demonstrate that they have minimized land conflicts, as highlighted in other studies, such as Veldman (2020). The recent improvement in land titling is attributed to allowing investors in housing, like UBAKA Nation and BMBC, to invest in housing. This was also proposed by (CAHF, 2024) in their study. Improving land titling is also a key to regulating the existing practice of land encroachment and illegal land use changes, as shown in many other studies in the literature by Nguyen et al. (2017).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.6\\u0026nbsp;Land conflicts resolution mechanism in Burundi\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eBurundi has known civil wars in different periods that were politically and ethnically motivated. These wars affected the land sector in different ways, including land conflicts. The ethnic killings of 1965, 1972, and 1993 have induced people to flee the country to neighbouring countries and overseas. Land and other properties were targeted by powerful people who remained in the country. The nationalisation and privatisation of land belonged to those who fled the country, and the laissez-faire in land governance created room for different direct and indirect land conflicts.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.6.1 Types of land conflicts \\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe results from the KII and desk review revealed that more than 65% of court cases involve land-based disputes. The same source added that the repatriation of refugees in the 2000s increased the land conflict by 40% from the existing situation. The most land conflicts recorded in different courts and conflict resolution committees include boundary disputes, inheritance issues, land use disagreements, land grabbing, conflicts within households, resource-based conflicts, and title disputes (Table 1). The conflicts have been increasing annually in all three provinces, rather than decreasing, due to existing land governance arrangements that are not transparent.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eTable 1: Cases recorded in the courts related to land disputes\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"1\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"491\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp; Year\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eLand dispute types\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 46px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2020\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 62px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2021\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 66px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2022\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2023\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e2024\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eBoundary disputes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 46px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e890\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 62px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 66px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1050\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1114\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1500\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eInheritance issues\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 46px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e420\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 62px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e600\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 66px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e661\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e702\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e750\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eLand use disagreements\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 46px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e321\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 62px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e356\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 66px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e428\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e480\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e560\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eTitle disputes\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 46px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e240\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 62px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e250\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 66px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e245\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e300\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e280\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eConflicts within households\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 46px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e115\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 62px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e120\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 66px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e121\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e130\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e135\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eResource-based conflicts\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 46px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e15\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 62px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 66px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e23\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e32\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e28\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eLand grabbing\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 46px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 62px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 66px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e4.6.1 \\u0026nbsp; \\u0026nbsp;Land Disputes Resolution Mechanisms\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAlso, it was found that apart from cases reported to the courts, other land-related conflicts have been resolved at the local level. Even though there was no specific number of such cases, it was acknowledged that land dispute resolutions start at the family level, and a large number of these conflicts are settled there. The elders in the family sit together and hear the parties in the conflicts. If this arrangement fails, the local leaders at the Ten Cell Unit (Nyumba Kumi) can intervene with the selected elders and wise men. If these failed, a group of five elders and wise men at the village level (Abahuza) is in charge of all types of conflicts at that level and intervenes before taking the issue to court. Recent reports have shown that these committees, which replaced traditional institutions called \\u0026ldquo;Abashingantahe,\\u0026rdquo; helped minimize cases that were supported for settlement in the courts. Another institution is the National Commission for Land and Other Property (CNTB in French), which was established by the Burundian constitution. It was supposed to end their activities, which started in 2010, by 2022. Their activities were delegated to the Commission of Truth and Reconciliation (CVR in French). It was noted that 20000 cases of land-related cases were still under consideration for resolution. The courts at various levels are also handling land-related cases.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWhat is observed in this research is that land-related conflicts take different forms, as in other countries, but with distinct origins. In Burundi, the political and ethnic issues are the major problems that catalysed the land-related conflicts. This is not the same as in other countries, but they are experiencing different types of land conflicts that are similar to or closely related to those occurring in Burundi (Chikwanha, 2007; Lund et al., 2025). Additionally, findings align with those of Hutabarat (2011) and Tchatchoua-Djomo and van Dijk (2022), who revealed that the mechanisms used to resolve land disputes are still not specialized to address land issues. In Burundi, those who are selected to deal with land disputes at different levels are not qualified academically to deal with them. The way they are nominated/selected is not clear, and no criteria related to knowledge of land issues are mentioned. Therefore, mentioning that this opens room to favouritism for those who nominate them or their relatives during land conflict resolution may not be an exaggeration. It was also found that the nomination of the members of the Ten Cell Unit, Abahuza, and some judges in different courts is somehow politicised[4] and corruptive. This is one of the sources of corruption in the land sector, given that even the institutions that are responsible for land management are obtained through unclear processes.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e[4] Those who are members of these institutions or committees belong to the ruling party\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"5. Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis study aimed to document the level of transparency in land governance in Burundi and identify areas for improvement to enhance openness, thereby enabling the African diaspora to contribute to land investment. The desk review and KII results have revealed that land in Burundi is a major resource that supports the people’s livelihood at 85% and the government's GDP at 39%. However, rapid urbanisation and overpopulation have made land a scarce resource, failing to accommodate these uses. In addition, Burundi has a diaspora that originated from different wars and brain drain. Even though the diaspora has contributed to investing in housing and agriculture despite the challenges in the land sector, these include the persistence of bureaucracy and technocracy in land use planning (no participation), the elitism and politicisation of land allocation, registration, and land dispute resolutions. All these have welcomed the corruption, nepotism, and favouritism that make land governance in Burundi not transparent. Rather, it welcomes a continuous land grabbing, land speculation, and other types of malicious actions in land governance. It does not motivate internal and external land investors, given that accessing land and its tenure security is not guaranteed to simple citizens and investors.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTherefore, this study recommends that there should be transparent land governance through decentralisation of the existing land governance practice. The hidden agendas in various land governance processes, such as land use planning, land allocation, land registration, and land dispute resolution, that favour political elites and powerful individuals, should be examined and evaluated to determine a fixed quantity of land to be owned. \\u0026nbsp;\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eFunding declaration\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe author did not receive financial support for this research.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;Data availability\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;The data used in the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eDeclarations\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;All research methods and procedures complied with relevant ethical standards. The identities and participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any stage without any consequence. This study was conducted in accordance with the University of Burundi, under the Faculty of Engineering Sciences, which recognises this work, which has been undertaken in accordance with all necessary project processes. However, the University does not have an Ethical Committee that approves and certifies the research. Although we recognize and validate the research findings of this study, which have been presented at our university. This research has been presented in weekly University Seminars and the University Summer School Week. The University of Burundi supports further consideration of this research for official use, including publication.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eConsent to participate\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;Before participation, informed consent was obtained from all participants after they were informed of the study’s purpose, data handling, and confidentiality protocols.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eClinical Trial Number\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eClinical trial number: not applicable.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eConsent to Publish declaration\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eConsent to publish declaration: not applicable.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp; Competing interests\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe author declares no competing interests\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eAdam, J. N., Adams, T., \\u0026amp; Gerber, J. D. (2021). The politics of decentralization: Competition in land administration and management in Ghana. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e10\\u003c/em\\u003e(9), 1\\u0026ndash;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10090948\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eAdane, M. G. (2022). \\u003cem\\u003eRural Land Cadastral Practice and its Contribution to Good Land Governance in Amhara Region, Ethiopia\\u003c/em\\u003e. Bahir Dar University.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eAfrican Union. (2009). \\u003cem\\u003eFRAMEWORK AND GUIDELINES ON LAND POLICY IN AFRICA Land: Land Policy in Africa: A Framework to Strengthen Land Rights, Enhance Productivity and Secure Livelihoods\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eAmanifard, F. (2022). \\u003cem\\u003eEvaluating the Effectiveness of Land-Use Policies in Preventing the Risk of Coastal Flooding\\u003c/em\\u003e. Aalto University.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eAwuah, K. G. B., \\u0026amp; Abdulai, R. T. (2022). Urban Land and Development Management in a Challenged Developing World: An Overview of New Reflections. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e11\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 1\\u0026ndash;12. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11010129\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBarlowe, R., Adelaja, S., \\u0026amp; Babladelis, P. (2013). \\u003cem\\u003eLand Resource Management : Economic Foundations and New Directions\\u003c/em\\u003e (4th ed., Issue December, p. 513). Michigan State University.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBarnes, G., Stanfield, D., \\u0026amp; Barthel, K. (1999). LAND REGISTRATION MODERNIZATION IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES: A DISCUSSION OF THE MAIN PROBLEMS IN CENTRAL/EASTERN EUROPE, LATIN AMERICA, AND THE CARIBBEAN. In G. Barnes, D. Stanfield, \\u0026amp; K. Barthel (Eds.), \\u003cem\\u003eURISA Annual Conference\\u003c/em\\u003e (pp. 1\\u0026ndash;13). URISSA.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBatterbury, S., \\u0026amp; Ndi, F. (2018). \\u003cem\\u003eLand-grabbing in Africa Land-grabbing in Africa\\u003c/em\\u003e (Issue January).\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBennett, R. M., Unger, E. M., Lemmen, C., \\u0026amp; Dijkstra, P. (2021). Land administration maintenance: a review of the persistent problem and emerging fit-for-purpose solutions. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e10\\u003c/em\\u003e(5), 1\\u0026ndash;18. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10050509\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBiraro, M., Zevenbergen, J., \\u0026amp; Alemie, B. . (2021). Good Practices in Updating Land Information Systems that Used Unconventional Approaches in Systematic Land Registration. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e10\\u003c/em\\u003e(437), 1\\u0026ndash;18. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040437 Abstract:\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBondarev, B., Nosov, S., Antipov, O., \\u0026amp; Papikian, L. (2019). \\u003cem\\u003eUrban_land_use_planning_within_the_system_of_susta.pdf\\u003c/em\\u003e. \\u003cem\\u003e110\\u003c/em\\u003e(2001), 1\\u0026ndash;8. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf /20191100 2001\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBorras, S. M., Arango, L., Belay, M., Franco, J., Sam Kahm, S., Moreda, T., Ra, D., Rojas, I., Wang, C., Ye, J., \\u0026amp; Xu, Y. (2025). Death of agrarian societies by a thousand cuts: \\u0026lsquo;Pin prick\\u0026rsquo; land grabs and the land rush. \\u003cem\\u003eGlobalizations\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e1\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 1\\u0026ndash;15. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2025.2526296\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBorras, S. M., \\u0026amp; Franco, J. C. (2010). Contemporary discourses and contestations around pro-poor land policies and land governance. \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Agrarian Change\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e10\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 1\\u0026ndash;32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0366.2009.00243.x\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eBryman, A. (2012). Sampling in Qualitative Research. In A. Griffin (Ed.), \\u003cem\\u003eSocial Research Methods\\u003c/em\\u003e (Fourth, pp. 416\\u0026ndash;429). Oxford University Press Inc.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eCAHF. (2024). \\u003cem\\u003eHousing Finance in Africa: A review of Africa\\u0026rsquo;s housing finance markets 2024 Yearbook \\u0026ndash; 15th EDITION\\u003c/em\\u003e (Alison Tshangana (ed.); 15th ed.). Centre for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eChe, S., Kumar, R. R., \\u0026amp; Stauvermann, P. J. (2021). Taxation of land and economic growth. \\u003cem\\u003eEconomies\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e9\\u003c/em\\u003e(2), 1\\u0026ndash;20. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies9020061\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eChigbu, U. E., Bendzko, T., Mabakeng, M. R., Kuusaana, E. D., \\u0026amp; Tutu, D. O. (2021). Fit-for-purpose land administration from theory to practice: three demonstrative case studies of local land administration initiatives in africa. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e10\\u003c/em\\u003e(476), 1\\u0026ndash;24. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10050476\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eChikwanha, A. B. (2007). The Anatomy of Conflicts in the East African Community ( EAC ): Linking Security With Development. \\u003cem\\u003eDevelopment Policy and the Security Agenda for Africa: Reassessing the Relationship\\u003c/em\\u003e, 1\\u0026ndash;24. https://www.ascleiden.nl/Pdf/LectureAnnieChikwanha.pdf\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eDalupan, M. C. G., Haywood, C., Wardell, D. A., Cordonnier-Segger, M. C., \\u0026amp; Kibugi, R. (2015). Building enabling legal frameworks for sustainable land-use investments in Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique: a synthesis. In \\u003cem\\u003eCIFOR Occasional Paper\\u003c/em\\u003e (Issue 140). http://www.cifor.org/library/5753/building-enabling-legal-frameworks-for-sustainable-land-use-investments-in-zambia-tanzania-and-mozambique-a-synthesis/\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003ede Lattre-Gasquet, M., Le Mou\\u0026euml;l, C., \\u0026amp; Mora, O. (2018). Land Use and Food Security in 2050: a Narrow Road. In \\u003cem\\u003eEdition quae\\u003c/em\\u003e (pp. 11\\u0026ndash;19). https://doi.org/10.35690/978-2-7592-2880-5\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003ede SOTO, H. (2000). The Mystety of Capital. Why Capitalism Triumps in the West and Fails Everywhere Else. In H. de SOTO (Ed.), \\u003cem\\u003eEconomia\\u003c/em\\u003e (first). Bantam Press. https://doi.org/10.18800/economia.200001.006\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eDeininger, K., Ali, D. A., \\u0026amp; Alemu, T. (2011). Impacts of land certification on tenure security, investment, and land market participation: Evidence from Ethiopia. In \\u003cem\\u003eLand Economics\\u003c/em\\u003e (Vol. 87, Issue 2). https://doi.org/10.3368/le.87.2.312\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eDickinson, D., \\u0026amp; Shahab, S. (2021). Post planning-decision process: Ensuring the delivery of high-quality developments in Cardiff. \\u003cem\\u003eLand Use Policy\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e100\\u003c/em\\u003e(October 2020), 105114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105114\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eElong, S., Muhwezi, L., \\u0026amp; Acai, J. (2020). Assessment of the Challenges and Effects of Delays in Compulsory Land Acquisition on the Performance of Road Construction Projects in Uganda. \\u003cem\\u003eInternational Journal of Scientific \\u0026amp; Engineering Research\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e10\\u003c/em\\u003e(9), 1406\\u0026ndash;1429.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eEuropean Network for Central Africa. (2017). \\u003cem\\u003eLand , development and conflicts in the Great Lakes For a renewed engagement by the EU and Switzerland\\u003c/em\\u003e (Issue December).\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eGarc\\u0026iacute;a-Mor\\u0026aacute;n, A., Ulvund, S., Unger, E. M., \\u0026amp; Bennett, R. M. (2021). Exploring PPPs in support of fit-for-purpose land administration: A case study from C\\u0026ocirc;te d\\u0026rsquo;Ivoire. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e10\\u003c/em\\u003e(9), 1\\u0026ndash;20. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10090892\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eGovernment of Burundi. (2024). \\u003cem\\u003ePublication des Resultats Preliminairess du Recensement General de la Population , de l\\u0026rsquo; Habitat, de l\\u0026rsquo;Agriculture et de l\\u0026rsquo;Elevage au Burundi, Edition 2024 (RGPHAE, 2024)\\u003c/em\\u003e (No. 1). RGPHAE.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eHall, R. (2011). Land grabbing in Africa and the new politics of food. In \\u003cem\\u003eFuture Agricultures, Policy Brief\\u003c/em\\u003e. http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en\\u0026amp;btnG=Search\\u0026amp;q=intitle:Land+Grabbing+in+Africa+and+the+New+Politics+of+Food#0\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eHansson, S., Arfvidsson, H., \\u0026amp; Simon, D. (2019). Governance for sustainable urban development: the double function of SDG indicators. \\u003cem\\u003eArea Development and Policy\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e4\\u003c/em\\u003e(3), 217\\u0026ndash;235. https://doi.org/10.1080/23792949.2019.1585192\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eHicks, C. (2020). What Are the Four Factors of Production ? \\u003cem\\u003eU.S. News\\u003c/em\\u003e, 1\\u0026ndash;6. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.wichita.edu/academics/business/CIBA/wtc/documents/FourFactorsOfProduction_Investing101_USNews.pdf\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eHurni, H. (2000). Assessing sustainable land management (SLM). \\u003cem\\u003eAgriculture, Ecosystems and Environment\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e81\\u003c/em\\u003e(2), 83\\u0026ndash;92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00182-1\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eKombe, J. W. M. (1994). The demise of public urban land management and the emergence of informal land markets in Tanzania. A case of Dar-es-Salaam city. \\u003cem\\u003eHabitat International\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e18\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 23\\u0026ndash;43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-3975(94)90037-X\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eLengoiboni, M., Richter, C., Asperen, P. Van, \\u0026amp; Zevenbergen, J. (2021). \\u003cem\\u003eLand Administration\\u003c/em\\u003e. 1\\u0026ndash;16.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eLund, B. C., Odgaard, R., \\u0026amp; Sjaastad, E. (2025). \\u003cem\\u003eLand Rights and Land Conflicts in Africa : A review of issues and experiences\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eMetternicht, G. (2017). Land Use Planning. In \\u003cem\\u003eGlobal Land Outlook Working Paper\\u003c/em\\u003e (No. 4; LAND USE PLANNING).\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eMoizg, B. (2000). : \\u003cem\\u003eLand Allocation: An Ethnic Perspective From Laos, Thailand and Vietnam\\u003c/em\\u003e. \\u003cem\\u003ePutzel\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eMoizo, B. (2008). Land allocation and titling in Laos : origins, problems and local impacts on minority groups. In B. K. Leeprecha P., McCaskill D. (Ed.), \\u003cem\\u003eChallenging the limits : indigenous peoples of the Mekong region\\u003c/em\\u003e (1st ed.). Mekong Press,.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eMusinguzi, M., \\u0026amp; Enemark, S. (2019). A Fit-For-Purpose Approach to Land Administration in Africa - supporting the 2030 Global Agenda. \\u003cem\\u003eInternational Journal of Technoscience and Development (IJTD)\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e4\\u003c/em\\u003e(June 2020), 69\\u0026ndash;89. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339821542\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eNdi, F. A. (2017). Land grabbing, local contestation, and the struggle for economic gain: Insights from Nguti village, South West Cameroon. \\u003cem\\u003eSAGE Open\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e7\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 1\\u0026ndash;14. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016682997\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eNguyen, H. H., Dargusch, P., Moss, P., \\u0026amp; Aziz, A. A. (2017). Land-use change and socio-ecological drivers of wetland conversion in Ha Tien Plain, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. \\u003cem\\u003eLand Use Policy\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e64\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 101\\u0026ndash;113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.02.019\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eOECD. (2017). Land-use Planning Systems in the OECD: Country Fact Sheets. In \\u003cem\\u003eLand-use Planning Systems in the OECD\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eOke, M. O., Adejayan, A. O., Kolapo, F. T., \\u0026amp; Mokuolu, J. O. (2020). Pull and push factors as determinant of foreign portfolio investment in the emerging market. \\u003cem\\u003eRisk Governance and Control: Financial Markets and Institutions\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e10\\u003c/em\\u003e(4), 33\\u0026ndash;43. https://doi.org/10.22495/rgcv10i4p3\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eParsa, A., Nakendo, F., McCluskey, W. J., \\u0026amp; Page, M. W. (2011). Impact of formalisation of property rights in informal settlements: Evidence from Dar es Salaam city. \\u003cem\\u003eLand Use Policy\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e28\\u003c/em\\u003e(4), 695\\u0026ndash;705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2010.12.005\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003ePlatt, R. H. (1974). Land Use and Society. In \\u003cem\\u003eLand Use and Society Geography, Law, and Public Policy\\u003c/em\\u003e (Third Edit, pp. 13\\u0026ndash;19). Island Press. https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-455-0\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eRadchevskiy, N., Zaitseva, Y., \\u0026amp; Tsoraeva, E. (2023). Land allocation problem in establishing boundaries of population centers. \\u003cem\\u003eE3S Web of Conferences\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e371\\u003c/em\\u003e(23), 2\\u0026ndash;6. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202337103061\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eRafiee, V., \\u0026amp; Stenberg, E. (2018). \\u003cem\\u003eLand grabbing and its implications on rural livelihoods in Ghana and Ethiopia-A Comparative study\\u003c/em\\u003e [| Institutionen f\\u0026ouml;r Naturvetenskap]. http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1242736/FULLTEXT01.pdf\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eRemeikienė, R., Gasparėnienė, L., \\u0026amp; Ginevičius, R. (2019). The specificity of the investment in land as in real estate. \\u003cem\\u003eInternational Journal of Strategic Property Management\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e23\\u003c/em\\u003e(4), 244\\u0026ndash;255. https://doi.org/10.3846/ijspm.2019.8092\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eSagashya, D., \\u0026amp; English, C. (2010). Designing and Establishing a Land Administration System for Rwanda: Technical and Economic Analys. In \\u003cem\\u003eJoint Discussion Paper World Bank, GLTN, FIG and FAO\\u003c/em\\u003e (Issue 2). https://www.fig.net/resources/publications/innovlandrightsrecog.pdf%5Cnwww.worldbank.org/rural\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eSchlager, E., \\u0026amp; Ostrom, E. (1992). Property-Rights Regimes and Natural Resources: A Conceptual Analysis. \\u003cem\\u003eLand Economics\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e68\\u003c/em\\u003e(3), 249\\u0026ndash;262.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eSemeraro, T., Zaccarelli, N., Lara, A., Cucinelli, F. S., \\u0026amp; Aretano, R. (2020). A bottom-up and top-down participatory approach to planning and designing local urban development: Evidence from an urban university center. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e9\\u003c/em\\u003e(4), 1\\u0026ndash;25. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9040098\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eSimbizi, C. M., D, Zevenbergen, J., \\u0026amp; Bennett, R. (2015). Pro-Poor Land Administration and Land Tenure Security Provision. A Focus on Rwanda. \\u003cem\\u003eGeoTechRwanda\\u003c/em\\u003e, 2014.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eSiyum, B. A. (2022). Practice and challenge of urban land governance: an empirical study in Tigrai, East Africa. \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Management and Governance\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e26\\u003c/em\\u003e(2), 1\\u0026ndash;20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10997-022-09635-8\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eSommer, S., Cherlet, M., \\u0026amp; Ivits, E. (2018). Meaning of Land. In \\u003cem\\u003eGlobal Land Outlook - First Edition\\u003c/em\\u003e (1st ed., pp. 20\\u0026ndash;29). UNCCD.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eStanfield, D. (1990). \\u003cem\\u003eRURAL LAND TITLING AND REGISTRATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN : by\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eSteel, G., Abukashawa, S., \\u0026amp; Hussein, M. O. (2020). Urban Transformations and Land Governance in Peri-Urban Khartoum: The Case of Soba. \\u003cem\\u003eTijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e111\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 45\\u0026ndash;59. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12372\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eTakele, N. S., Kwame, C. S.-Y., \\u0026amp; Asfaw, M. (2014). Strengthening Good Governance in Urban Land Management in Ethiopia A Case-study of Hawassa. \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Environment and Earth Science\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e4\\u003c/em\\u003e(15), 96\\u0026ndash;108.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eTchatchoua-Djomo, R., \\u0026amp; van Dijk, H. (2022). Ambiguous Outcomes of Returnees\\u0026rsquo; Land Dispute Resolution and Restitution in War-Torn Burundi. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e11\\u003c/em\\u003e(2), 1\\u0026ndash;24. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11020191\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eTeklemariam, D., Azadi, H., Nyssen, J., Haile, M., \\u0026amp; Witlox, F. (2015). Transnational Land Deals: Creating Inclusive Governance Frameworks. \\u003cem\\u003eLand Use Policy\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e42\\u003c/em\\u003e, 781\\u0026ndash;789.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eThe World Bank. (2014). Land Governance Assessment Framework: Implementation Manual. In \\u003cem\\u003eLand Governance Assessment Framework\\u003c/em\\u003e (Issue October). https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/a91b90185037e5f11e9f99a989ac11dd-0050062013/original/LGAF-Manual-Oct-2013.pdf\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eThuo, A. D. M. (2013). Impacts of Urbanization on Land Use Planning, Livelihood and Environment in The Nairobi Rural-Urban Fringe, Kenya. \\u003cem\\u003eInternational Journal of Scientific and Technology Research\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e2\\u003c/em\\u003e(7), 70\\u0026ndash;79. www.ijstr.org\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eTurimubumwe, P. (2020a). Challenging institutional frameworks in land administration. \\u003cem\\u003eAfrican Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e4\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 2657\\u0026ndash;2664. https://revues.imist.ma/index.php/AJLP-GS/index\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eTurimubumwe, P. (2020b). Public-Private Partnership in land administration A pathway for minimising corruption in land sector to individual land acquirers in Bujumbura. \\u003cem\\u003eAfrican Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e3\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 2657\\u0026ndash;2664. https://revues.imist.ma/index.php/AJLP-GS/article/view/17725\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eTurimubumwe, P., Adam, A. G., \\u0026amp; Alemie, B. K. (2022). Policy level analysis of public urban lands management in Burundi: insights for harmonization of policy frameworks. \\u003cem\\u003eGeoJournal\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e26\\u003c/em\\u003e(4), 1\\u0026ndash;15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10801-6\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eUdessa, F., Adugna, D., \\u0026amp; Workalemahu, L. (2023). Socioeconomic Effects of Good Governance Practices in Urban Land Management: The Case of Lega Tafo Lega Dadi and Gelan Towns. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e12\\u003c/em\\u003e(369), 1\\u0026ndash;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020369\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eUN-Habitat. (2016). \\u003cem\\u003eTenure Responsive Land Use Planning: A Guide for Country Level Implementation\\u003c/em\\u003e. www.unhabitat.org\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eUN-REDD. (2022). \\u003cem\\u003eLand-Use Planning and Integrated Approaches To Reducing Emissions From Deforestation and Forest Degradation Key Messages\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eUNECE. (1996). \\u003cem\\u003eLand administration Guidelines: With Special Reference to Countries in Transition\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eUNECE. (2000). \\u003cem\\u003eStudy on Key Aspects of Land Registration and Cadastral Legislation\\u003c/em\\u003e (Issue May).\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eUNECE. (2005). \\u003cem\\u003eLand Administration in the UNECE Region: Development trends and main principles\\u003c/em\\u003e. United Nations. https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/hlm/documents/Publications/landadmin.devt.trends.e.pdf\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eUSAID. (2013). Land tenure, Property Rights, and Economic Growth in Rural Areas. In \\u003cem\\u003eUSAID Issue Brief\\u003c/em\\u003e (Issue 3). https://www.land-links.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/USAID_Land_Tenure_Economic_Growth_Issue_Brief-061214-1.pdf\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eVaismoradi, M., \\u0026amp; Snelgrove, S. (2019). Theme in qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis. \\u003cem\\u003eForum Qualitative Sozialforschung\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e20\\u003c/em\\u003e(3), 1\\u0026ndash;14. https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-20.3.3376\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003evan Leeuwen, M. (2010). Crisis or continuity?. Framing land disputes and local conflict resolution in Burundi. \\u003cem\\u003eLand Use Policy\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e27\\u003c/em\\u003e(3), 753\\u0026ndash;762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.10.006\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eVeldman, M. (2020). \\u003cem\\u003eLand Disputes, Land Tenure Registration and Access to Justice in Fragile and Conflict Affected States: Questioning our Assumptions\\u003c/em\\u003e. https://www.usip.org/guiding-principles-stabiliza-\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eWehrmann, B. (2008). \\u003cem\\u003eLand Conflicts: A practical guide to dealing with land disputes\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eWorld Bank. (2023). \\u003cem\\u003eBurundi - Strengthening Urban Resilience: Improving urban and peri-urban resilience mechanisms in targeted Central, Eastern and Western African cities\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eZiadat, F., Bunning, S., \\u0026amp; De Pauw, E. (2017). \\u003cem\\u003eLand Resource Planning for Sustainable Land Management. Working Paper No.14\\u003c/em\\u003e (Issue 14). http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5937e.pdf\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Burundi, Corruption, Land allocation, Land Disputes, Land use planning, land title\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7883167/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7883167/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eLand governance was established to oversee land use planning, land allocation, land certification/titling, and land dispute resolution. However, the high competition for land access and land scarcity has led to malicious practices such as corruption, favouritism, and nepotism. Transparency in land governance has diminished, and the land sector faces various challenges. This paper aims to assess the transparency of land governance arrangements in Burundi and suggest ways to enhance transparency to encourage investment in the land sector.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eDesk review, key informant interviews with land officers and investors in the land sector, and case studies were methods used to collect data in this paper. Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) and statistical descriptions were methods used for data analysis. The findings show that the process of land use planning in Burundi is dominated by bureaucracy, technocracy, and rigidity rather than being participative and flexible. Also, land allocation, land certification, and land disputes have been in favour of the powerful and political elites. These findings lead to the conclusion that land governance arrangements in Burundi are not transparent and have led to land grabbing and land speculation by powerful and political elites. Therefore, it is recommended that the government decentralise and empower local authorities in land governance arrangements to increase participation, shorten time, and minimise costs used in providing land services.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Transparent Land Governance Arrangements for Motivating Land Investment in Burundi\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:40\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7883167/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"ce4de4c3-b13f-4e5b-b477-70d90c5aed5f\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"November 28th, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-04-17T10:57:02+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-11-28 08:52:40\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-7883167\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-7883167\",\"identity\":\"rs-7883167\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}