{"paper_id":"1d4781dc-8282-4285-9458-edbb159b5a4c","body_text":"Dynamics and Static Heating for CCTO, CaCO3, CuO, and TiO2 Powder for Enthalpy Measurement Using TGA/DSC | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Dynamics and Static Heating for CCTO, CaCO 3 , CuO, and TiO 2 Powder for Enthalpy Measurement Using TGA/DSC NORUZAMAN DAUD, JULIE JULIEWATTY MOHAMED, Wan Nor Dini Wan Nor Azli Jasmi, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6568439/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the thermal behavior and phase evolution of CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂ (CCTO) ceramics synthesized via solid-state reactions from CaCO₃, CuO, and TiO₂ precursors. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) were used to analyze enthalpy changes and thermal decomposition across dynamic and static heating profiles. The enthalpy of CCTO formation is 63.62 J/g was obtain in isothermal heating in this study. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) confirmed successful phase formation and crystallinity of the synthesized CCTO.The results contribute to optimizing synthesis conditions for high-purity CCTO ceramics, crucial for electronic applications. This comprehensive thermal and structural analysis enables better control over material properties through precise thermal control. Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics CCTO TGA/DSC Enthalpy XRD Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction The study of thermal behavior and phase evolution in ceramic materials is crucial for optimizing their synthesis and functional performance in electronic applications. Among these, CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂ (CCTO) has gained considerable attention due to its exceptional dielectric properties, making it a promising candidate for capacitor and sensor technologies [ 1 , 2 ]. The preparation and characterization of CCTO typically involve high-temperature solid-state reactions among metal oxides, where the thermodynamic pathways can significantly influence the final crystal structure and material properties. Understanding the thermal dynamics of the precursor materials CaCO₃, CuO, and TiO₂ is therefore essential to ensure phase purity and predict material performance [3; 5; 6]. The thermal analysis techniques such as Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) are employed to examine the enthalpy changes and phase transitions of the individual oxides and the resulting CCTO compound. By analyzing both dynamic and static heating profiles, the study aims to reveal the temperature ranges at which key decomposition and structural transformations occur [4; 7]. These findings contribute to refining the thermal synthesis route, ensuring complete reaction and minimization of residual phases. The use of high-purity precursors and controlled grinding and heating methods further ensures the reproducibility and accuracy of the results [ 8 ]. Corresponding to thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD) is used to confirm phase formation and structural integrity. The diffraction patterns of the individual oxides and the final CCTO product are analyzed to determine the extent of reaction and crystallinity [1; 11, 14]. Sharp, distinct diffraction peaks associated with the CCTO phase and the absence of residual precursor peaks indicate successful synthesis. These results, in conjunction with thermal data, provide a comprehensive understanding of the transformation process from precursors to the desired perovskite structure [ 9 ]. This study not only deepens insight into the thermal behavior of CaCO₃, CuO, TiO₂, and CCTO but also establishes a clear methodology for preparing high-purity ceramic materials using solid-state reactions. The thermal and structural analyses serve as vital tools for optimizing material synthesis and tailoring properties for specific applications [ 10 ]. Ultimately, this research provides a foundation for further exploration into the functional enhancement of CCTO and related ceramic systems through precise thermal control. Materials and Methods High-purity calcium oxide (CaO, > 99%, Sigma-Aldrich), copper (II) oxide (CuO, > 99%, Sigma-Aldrich), and titanium dioxide (TiO₂, > 99%, Merck) were accurately weighed using an analytical balance. The precursor materials were mixed manually using an agate mortar and pestle. Initially, the mixing and grinding were performed in a dry medium for one hour, followed by wet grinding for another hour by gradually adding acetone to form the CCTO mixture. The resulting mixture was then placed in an oven and dried at 50°C for 24 hours. After drying, the samples were subjected to simultaneous thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry (TGA/DSC) using a TGA/DSC 1 system (Mettler-Toledo). The thermal analysis for all samples was conducted under a nitrogen flow of 60 ml/min, with a heating rate of 10°C/min, from room temperature up to 1000°C for 90 minutes. At 1000°C, the nitrogen flow was replaced with oxygen at a rate of 20 ml/min for 30 minutes. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were obtained using a Bruker D8 Advance Powder Diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5404 nm), scanning over a 2θ range of 20° to 90°. The instrument was operated at 40 kV and 30 mA. Phase identification and peak analysis were performed using DIFFRAC.EVA software. DSC curve analysis was conducted using STARe Evolution Software, and the data comprising heat flow, mass change, time, and temperature were using Mettler-Toledo STARe thermal analysis software. Results and Discussion TGA Figure 1 shows TGA curves of CCTO, CaCO₃, CuO, and TiO₂ under both nonisothermal and isothermal heating conditions, revealing distinct thermal behaviors for each material. Table 1 demonstrates that under nonisothermal conditions, CCTO exhibits three notable weight loss steps at ~ 323.5°C (–0.6%), 781.9°C (–7.5%), and 931.4°C (–9.9%), indicating moisture loss followed by decomposition, likely due to carbonate breakdown and oxygen release, consistent with previous findings [ 12 ]. In contrast, CaCO₃ shows a single sharp decomposition step at 830.1°C with a 36.9% weight loss, matching the expected calcination reaction (CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂) as widely reported in thermal decomposition literature [ 13 ]. CuO undergoes a 9.9% weight loss at 992.6°C, attributed to its reduction to Cu₂O, and TiO₂ shows only a negligible 0.03% loss at 150°C, reflecting its high thermal stability and minimal moisture desorption. Under isothermal conditions at ~ 996°C, CCTO demonstrates a 3.1% weight gain, possibly due to oxygen uptake and phase stabilization at elevated temperatures. CaCO₃ mass percentage remains unchanged at this stage. Interestingly, CuO shows a 9.9% weight gain, signifying reoxidation of Cu₂O back to CuO—a reversible redox behavior supported by known thermodynamics [ 14 ]. TiO₂ remains stable with no measurable weight change, reinforcing its reputation for excellent high-temperature stability [ 15 ]. Table 1 TGA mass (%) analysis of CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂ (CCTO), CaCO 3 , CuO and TiO 2 Heating condition Sample Step Temperature point (°C) Weight change (%) Nonisothermal CCTO 1 323.5 –0.6 2 781.9 –7.5 3 931.4 –9.9 CaCO₃ 1 830.1 –36.9 CuO 1 992.6 –9.92 TiO₂ 1 150.0 –0.03 Isothermal CCTO 4 996.7 + 3.11 CaCO₃ 2 996.2 0.00 CuO 2 994.1 + 9.9 TiO₂ 2 995.6 0.00 DSC Figure 2 shows integral analysis of DSC curves for all samples and the data was tabulated in Table 2 . CCTO sample reveals 4 significant thermal phase behavior and stability during heating. The first major thermal event occurs between 657.9°C and 779.3°C, with a peak at 763.2°C and an endothermic enthalpy change of − 130.10 J/g. This suggests a major phase transformation, potentially related to the decomposition or evolution of precursor phases into the CCTO perovskite structure, as reported in previous studies on CCTO ceramics synthesized via solid-state routes [ 1 ]. A second, smaller exothermic event is observed between 770.17°C and 834.1°C, with a peak at 780.7°C and an enthalpy change of 61.92 J/g, which may be attributed to further intermediate transformations residual phases [ 2 ]. An additional thermal feature around 878.5°C shows a small endothermic response with an enthalpy of − 9.27 J/g. Notably, a sharp exothermic peak appears near 995.7°C, ranging from 992.6°C to 9995.7°C, with an associated enthalpy release of 63.62 J/g. This sharp exothermic behavior could correspond to the crystallization of the perovskite phase or sintering densification, in line with prior observations during high-temperature treatment of CCTO ceramics [ 10 ]. The CaCO₃ sample reveals significant thermal behavior over a heating period, particularly highlighting its decomposition characteristics. The main endothermic event is observed to begin at approximately 623.9°C, reaching a peak at around 834.8°C, and completing at about 864.3°C. This major thermal transition corresponds to the decomposition of CaCO₃ into calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), a reaction that typically occurs in this high-temperature range [ 3 ]. The associated enthalpy change for this event is measured at approximately − 971.57 J/g (with a maximum heat flow of 113.85 mW). In addition to the main decomposition, a minor thermal transition is detected between 869.4°C and 996.2°C, peaking at 994.3°C. This smaller endothermic peak, with a considerably lower enthalpy change of about 108.76 J/g, may be attributed to secondary processes such as the transformation of residual carbonate phases, grain boundary reactions, or minor impurities present in the sample. A study by Sanders and Gallagher (2002) reported that secondary peaks in CaCO₃ DSC profiles can arise from atmospheric effects or an impurity-related transformation during high-temperature test [ 4 ]. CuO (Copper(II) oxide) .The first is a prominent endothermic peak beginning at 896°C, peaking at 975.1°C, and ending around 989.5°C. This transition is consistent with the known decomposition of CuO into cuprous oxide (Cu₂O) and oxygen gas (O₂), which is an endothermic process. The enthalpy change of 341.4 J/g confirms significant energy absorption, typical of bond dissociation in metal oxides. This behavior has been confirmed in prior studies, which observed that CuO decomposes at high temperatures through a reduction process, especially in inert or reducing atmospheres [ 5 ]. Immediately following this decomposition, the DSC shows an exothermic event peaking at 995.4°C, with an enthalpy gain of + 372.7 J/g. This exothermic peak is likely due to the structural rearrangement of the Cu₂O phase formed during the earlier decomposition. Such solid-state transformations can release stored lattice energy and are often observed as subtle or sharp peaks depending on the degree of crystallinity and purity. Similar observations were reported by researchers investigating catalytic CuO behavior in thermal propellant systems, where CuO also showed exothermic reorganizations after initial decomposition [ 6 ]. The TiO₂ (titanium dioxide) sample reveals two major thermal events associated with its phase transformations. The first, a broad endothermic transition, begins at approximately 866.9°C and peaks around 95515°C, ending at 991.2°C. This transition corresponds to the well reported transformation from the anatase to the rutile phase of TiO₂. This phase change is known to be irreversible and is driven by thermodynamic stability at elevated temperatures. It is also associated with a significant energy uptake, reflected here by an enthalpy change of approximately − 98.5 J/g [ 7 ]. Following this endothermic event, the DSC curve shows a sharp exothermic peak near 995.8°C, which is likely due to structural stabilization of rutile. The energy release (+ 208.4 J/g) suggests a rapid reorganization into a more thermodynamically stable crystal structure. Such behavior has also been observed in studies involving nanostructured TiO₂, where the initial phase transition is followed by exothermic events due to densification and improved ordering of the rutile lattice [ 8 ]. Table 2 Calculated enthalpy analysis for CCTO, CaCO 3 , CuO, and TiO 2 Condition Sample Step Temperature range (°C) Temperature peak (°C) Enthalpy ΔH (J/g) Nonisothermal CCTO 1 657.9–779.3 763.2 -130.1 2 770.2–834.1 780.7 61.92 3 856.8–888.7 878.5 -9.27 CaCO₃ 1 623.9–836.4 834.8 -971.57 CuO 1 896.0–991.2 955.1 -341.04 TiO₂ 1 866.9–991.2 955.1 -98.50 Isothermal CCTO 4 992.6–996.3 995.7 63.62 CaCO₃ 2 869.4–996.3 994.3 108.76 CuO 2 992.6–996.3 995.0 372.17 TiO₂ 2 993.6–996.2 995.8 208.45 XRD Figure 3 shows the XRD patterns of CCTO, CaCO₃, CuO, and TiO₂ were examined to evaluate the phase formation and purity of the synthesized materials. The diffraction pattern of CCTO consistent with the body-centered cubic structure of CCTO as reported in the JCPDS card no. 01-075-1149 [ 1 ]. The nonexistence of secondary phases such as CaCO₃, CuO, or TiO₂ in the CCTO pattern indicates that a pure phase was successfully with complete reaction among precursors [ 2 ]. The XRD pattern of CuO aligns well with the monoclinic CuO structure (JCPDS 48-1548). Similarly, the TiO₂ sample indicative of the anatase phase of TiO₂ according to JCPDS 21-1272. The bottom most pattern, corresponding to CaCO₃, matching the calcite phase to CaO [ 4 ]. Conclusion The combined TGA/DSC and XRD analysis provided a detailed understanding of the thermal behavior and structural transformations involved in the synthesis of CCTO ceramics. Each precursor exhibited distinct thermal transitions that were critical in guiding the formation of the final perovskite phase. The successful synthesis of a pure and crystalline CCTO phase validates the chosen solid-state reaction route and controlled heating strategy. These findings emphasize the importance of precise thermal control during processing to achieve desirable material characteristics. This study thus lays the groundwork for further research aimed at enhancing the functional performance of CCTO for dielectric and electronic applications. Declarations Acknowledgment The authors would like to thank Faculty of Bioengineering and Technology, UMK for providing instrumentation facility and Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia with grant number (FRGS/1/2018/TK05/UMK/02/6) for financial support given to this research. References Subramanian MA, Li D, Duan N, Reisner BA, Sleight AW. High dielectric constant in ACu₃Ti₄O₁₂ and ACu₃Ti₃FeO₁₂ phases. J Solid State Chem . 2000;151(2):323–325. Sinclair DC, Adams TB, Morrison FD, West AR. CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂: One-step internal barrier layer capacitor. Appl Phys Lett . 2002;80(12):2153–2155. Zhuang D, Chen Z, Sun B. Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate at multiple heating rates in different atmospheres using the techniques of TG, DTG, and DSC. Crystals . 2025. Sanders JP, Gallagher PK. Kinetic analyses using simultaneous TG/DSC measurements: Part I: Decomposition of calcium carbonate in argon. Thermochim Acta . 2002. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6031(02)00032-1 Naktiyok J, Özer AK. Synthesis of copper oxide (CuO) from thermal decomposition of copper acetate monohydrate (Cu(CH₃COO)₂·H₂O). Nevşehir J Sci Technol . 2019;8(2):141–149. Vargeese AA. A kinetic investigation on the mechanism and activity of copper oxide nanorods on the thermal decomposition of propellants. Combust Flame . 2016;168:348–355. Hanaor DAH, Sorrell CC. Review of the anatase to rutile phase transformation. J Mater Sci . 2011;46(4):855–874. Marinescu C, Sofronia A, Rusti CF, Piticescu RM, Badilita V, Vasile E, Baies R, Tanasescu S. DSC investigation of nanocrystalline TiO₂ powder. J Therm Anal Calorim . 2011;106:843–849. Karunadasa KSP. Microstructural view of anatase to rutile phase transformation examined by in-situ high-temperature X-ray powder diffraction. J Solid State Chem . 2022;314:123377. Adams TB, Sinclair DC, West AR. Giant barrier layer capacitance effects in CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂ ceramics. Adv Mater . 2002;14(18):1321–1323. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-4095(20020916)14:18<1321::AID-ADMA1321>3.0.CO;2-P Hao B, Xu CZ, Chen G, Lu Y, Zhang L. Analysis of combustion properties of tungsten/copper oxide pyrotechnic delay composition. Propellants Explos Pyrotech . 2024;49(3):e202400232. https://doi.org/10.1002/prep.202400232 Chung SY, Kim IJ, Kang SJ. Strong nonlinearity and electrical stability of grain boundaries in CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂. Nat Mater . 2004;3(12):774–778. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat1258 Antrekowitsch H, Steinlechner S, Antrekowitsch J. Thermoanalytical characterization of the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in different atmospheres. J Therm Anal Calorim . 2003;71:763–769. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JTAN.0000002202.33887.92 Topor L, Aldinger F. Thermodynamic investigation of the Cu–O system. J Solid State Chem . 1993;106(1):107–119. https://doi.org/10.1006/jssc.1993.1181 Diebold U. The surface science of titanium dioxide. Surf Sci Rep . 2003;48(5–8):53–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-5729(02)00100-0 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-6568439\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":450453161,\"identity\":\"7a2ecef6-a7c7-409d-bc50-661d1242d227\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"NORUZAMAN 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TiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6568439/v1/523167e95c637e543b99a097.png\"},{\"id\":81808977,\"identity\":\"edbc12a1-bd57-4ffb-8c48-c70a7fd2d2b5\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-05-02 08:18:02\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":863812,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eIntegral analysis of DSC curves for (a) CCTO, (b) CaCO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, (c) CuO, and (d) TiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e powder enthalpy measurement using STARe software.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"2.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6568439/v1/a30ea0142d15d76c72cd0002.png\"},{\"id\":81808606,\"identity\":\"8683c316-4876-4e35-8037-97dbfd7f4039\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-05-02 08:10:02\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":937337,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eXRD patterns of CCTO, CaCO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, CuO, and TiO\\u003csub\\u003e2 \\u003c/sub\\u003eHeated samples.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage3.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6568439/v1/a09b91658884fa7adb54106a.png\"},{\"id\":81809900,\"identity\":\"8c4bcbc6-aa60-42e3-8765-6f619fb225c1\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-05-02 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Among these, CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂ (CCTO) has gained considerable attention due to its exceptional dielectric properties, making it a promising candidate for capacitor and sensor technologies [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The preparation and characterization of CCTO typically involve high-temperature solid-state reactions among metal oxides, where the thermodynamic pathways can significantly influence the final crystal structure and material properties. Understanding the thermal dynamics of the precursor materials CaCO₃, CuO, and TiO₂ is therefore essential to ensure phase purity and predict material performance [3; 5; 6].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe thermal analysis techniques such as Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) are employed to examine the enthalpy changes and phase transitions of the individual oxides and the resulting CCTO compound. By analyzing both dynamic and static heating profiles, the study aims to reveal the temperature ranges at which key decomposition and structural transformations occur [4; 7]. These findings contribute to refining the thermal synthesis route, ensuring complete reaction and minimization of residual phases. The use of high-purity precursors and controlled grinding and heating methods further ensures the reproducibility and accuracy of the results [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCorresponding to thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD) is used to confirm phase formation and structural integrity. The diffraction patterns of the individual oxides and the final CCTO product are analyzed to determine the extent of reaction and crystallinity [1; 11, 14]. Sharp, distinct diffraction peaks associated with the CCTO phase and the absence of residual precursor peaks indicate successful synthesis. These results, in conjunction with thermal data, provide a comprehensive understanding of the transformation process from precursors to the desired perovskite structure [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR9\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis study not only deepens insight into the thermal behavior of CaCO₃, CuO, TiO₂, and CCTO but also establishes a clear methodology for preparing high-purity ceramic materials using solid-state reactions. The thermal and structural analyses serve as vital tools for optimizing material synthesis and tailoring properties for specific applications [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Ultimately, this research provides a foundation for further exploration into the functional enhancement of CCTO and related ceramic systems through precise thermal control.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Materials and Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eHigh-purity calcium oxide (CaO, \\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;99%, Sigma-Aldrich), copper (II) oxide (CuO, \\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;99%, Sigma-Aldrich), and titanium dioxide (TiO₂, \\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;99%, Merck) were accurately weighed using an analytical balance. The precursor materials were mixed manually using an agate mortar and pestle. Initially, the mixing and grinding were performed in a dry medium for one hour, followed by wet grinding for another hour by gradually adding acetone to form the CCTO mixture. The resulting mixture was then placed in an oven and dried at 50\\u0026deg;C for 24 hours.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAfter drying, the samples were subjected to simultaneous thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry (TGA/DSC) using a TGA/DSC 1 system (Mettler-Toledo). The thermal analysis for all samples was conducted under a nitrogen flow of 60 ml/min, with a heating rate of 10\\u0026deg;C/min, from room temperature up to 1000\\u0026deg;C for 90 minutes. At 1000\\u0026deg;C, the nitrogen flow was replaced with oxygen at a rate of 20 ml/min for 30 minutes.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eX-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were obtained using a Bruker D8 Advance Powder Diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation (λ\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.5404 nm), scanning over a 2θ range of 20\\u0026deg; to 90\\u0026deg;. The instrument was operated at 40 kV and 30 mA. Phase identification and peak analysis were performed using DIFFRAC.EVA software. DSC curve analysis was conducted using STARe Evolution Software, and the data comprising heat flow, mass change, time, and temperature were using Mettler-Toledo STARe thermal analysis software.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Results and Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003eTGA\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFigure \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e shows TGA curves of CCTO, CaCO₃, CuO, and TiO₂ under both nonisothermal and isothermal heating conditions, revealing distinct thermal behaviors for each material. Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e demonstrates that under nonisothermal conditions, CCTO exhibits three notable weight loss steps at ~\\u0026thinsp;323.5\\u0026deg;C (\\u0026ndash;0.6%), 781.9\\u0026deg;C (\\u0026ndash;7.5%), and 931.4\\u0026deg;C (\\u0026ndash;9.9%), indicating moisture loss followed by decomposition, likely due to carbonate breakdown and oxygen release, consistent with previous findings [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e12\\u003c/span\\u003e]. In contrast, CaCO₃ shows a single sharp decomposition step at 830.1\\u0026deg;C with a 36.9% weight loss, matching the expected calcination reaction (CaCO₃ \\u0026rarr; CaO\\u0026thinsp;+\\u0026thinsp;CO₂) as widely reported in thermal decomposition literature [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e13\\u003c/span\\u003e]. CuO undergoes a 9.9% weight loss at 992.6\\u0026deg;C, attributed to its reduction to Cu₂O, and TiO₂ shows only a negligible 0.03% loss at 150\\u0026deg;C, reflecting its high thermal stability and minimal moisture desorption.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUnder isothermal conditions at ~\\u0026thinsp;996\\u0026deg;C, CCTO demonstrates a 3.1% weight gain, possibly due to oxygen uptake and phase stabilization at elevated temperatures. CaCO₃ mass percentage remains unchanged at this stage. Interestingly, CuO shows a 9.9% weight gain, signifying reoxidation of Cu₂O back to CuO\\u0026mdash;a reversible redox behavior supported by known thermodynamics [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e14\\u003c/span\\u003e]. TiO₂ remains stable with no measurable weight change, reinforcing its reputation for excellent high-temperature stability [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e15\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTGA mass (%) analysis of CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂ (CCTO), CaCO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, CuO and TiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHeating condition\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSample\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eStep\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTemperature point (\\u0026deg;C)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWeight change (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"5\\\" rowspan=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNonisothermal\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCCTO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e323.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ndash;0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e781.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ndash;7.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e931.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ndash;9.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCaCO₃\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e830.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ndash;36.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCuO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e992.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ndash;9.92\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTiO₂\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e150.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ndash;0.03\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"3\\\" rowspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIsothermal\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCCTO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e996.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e+\\u0026thinsp;3.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCaCO₃\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e996.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCuO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e994.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e+\\u0026thinsp;9.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTiO₂\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e995.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eDSC\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFigure \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e shows integral analysis of DSC curves for all samples and the data was tabulated in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e. CCTO sample reveals 4 significant thermal phase behavior and stability during heating. The first major thermal event occurs between 657.9\\u0026deg;C and 779.3\\u0026deg;C, with a peak at 763.2\\u0026deg;C and an endothermic enthalpy change of \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;130.10 J/g. This suggests a major phase transformation, potentially related to the decomposition or evolution of precursor phases into the CCTO perovskite structure, as reported in previous studies on CCTO ceramics synthesized via solid-state routes [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eA second, smaller exothermic event is observed between 770.17\\u0026deg;C and 834.1\\u0026deg;C, with a peak at 780.7\\u0026deg;C and an enthalpy change of 61.92 J/g, which may be attributed to further intermediate transformations residual phases [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e]. An additional thermal feature around 878.5\\u0026deg;C shows a small endothermic response with an enthalpy of \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;9.27 J/g. Notably, a sharp exothermic peak appears near 995.7\\u0026deg;C, ranging from 992.6\\u0026deg;C to 9995.7\\u0026deg;C, with an associated enthalpy release of 63.62 J/g. This sharp exothermic behavior could correspond to the crystallization of the perovskite phase or sintering densification, in line with prior observations during high-temperature treatment of CCTO ceramics [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe CaCO₃ sample reveals significant thermal behavior over a heating period, particularly highlighting its decomposition characteristics. The main endothermic event is observed to begin at approximately 623.9\\u0026deg;C, reaching a peak at around 834.8\\u0026deg;C, and completing at about 864.3\\u0026deg;C. This major thermal transition corresponds to the decomposition of CaCO₃ into calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), a reaction that typically occurs in this high-temperature range [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The associated enthalpy change for this event is measured at approximately \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;971.57 J/g (with a maximum heat flow of 113.85 mW).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn addition to the main decomposition, a minor thermal transition is detected between 869.4\\u0026deg;C and 996.2\\u0026deg;C, peaking at 994.3\\u0026deg;C. This smaller endothermic peak, with a considerably lower enthalpy change of about 108.76 J/g, may be attributed to secondary processes such as the transformation of residual carbonate phases, grain boundary reactions, or minor impurities present in the sample. A study by Sanders and Gallagher (2002) reported that secondary peaks in CaCO₃ DSC profiles can arise from atmospheric effects or an impurity-related transformation during high-temperature test [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCuO (Copper(II) oxide) .The first is a prominent endothermic peak beginning at 896\\u0026deg;C, peaking at 975.1\\u0026deg;C, and ending around 989.5\\u0026deg;C. This transition is consistent with the known decomposition of CuO into cuprous oxide (Cu₂O) and oxygen gas (O₂), which is an endothermic process. The enthalpy change of 341.4 J/g confirms significant energy absorption, typical of bond dissociation in metal oxides. This behavior has been confirmed in prior studies, which observed that CuO decomposes at high temperatures through a reduction process, especially in inert or reducing atmospheres [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eImmediately following this decomposition, the DSC shows an exothermic event peaking at 995.4\\u0026deg;C, with an enthalpy gain of +\\u0026thinsp;372.7 J/g. This exothermic peak is likely due to the structural rearrangement of the Cu₂O phase formed during the earlier decomposition. Such solid-state transformations can release stored lattice energy and are often observed as subtle or sharp peaks depending on the degree of crystallinity and purity. Similar observations were reported by researchers investigating catalytic CuO behavior in thermal propellant systems, where CuO also showed exothermic reorganizations after initial decomposition [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR6\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe TiO₂ (titanium dioxide) sample reveals two major thermal events associated with its phase transformations. The first, a broad endothermic transition, begins at approximately 866.9\\u0026deg;C and peaks around 95515\\u0026deg;C, ending at 991.2\\u0026deg;C. This transition corresponds to the well reported transformation from the anatase to the rutile phase of TiO₂. This phase change is known to be irreversible and is driven by thermodynamic stability at elevated temperatures. It is also associated with a significant energy uptake, reflected here by an enthalpy change of approximately \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;98.5 J/g [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFollowing this endothermic event, the DSC curve shows a sharp exothermic peak near 995.8\\u0026deg;C, which is likely due to structural stabilization of rutile. The energy release (+\\u0026thinsp;208.4 J/g) suggests a rapid reorganization into a more thermodynamically stable crystal structure. Such behavior has also been observed in studies involving nanostructured TiO₂, where the initial phase transition is followed by exothermic events due to densification and improved ordering of the rutile lattice [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCalculated enthalpy analysis for CCTO, CaCO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, CuO, and TiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCondition\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSample\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eStep\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTemperature range (\\u0026deg;C)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTemperature peak (\\u0026deg;C)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEnthalpy ΔH (J/g)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"5\\\" rowspan=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNonisothermal\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCCTO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e657.9\\u0026ndash;779.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e763.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-130.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e770.2\\u0026ndash;834.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e780.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e61.92\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e856.8\\u0026ndash;888.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e878.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-9.27\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCaCO₃\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e623.9\\u0026ndash;836.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e834.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-971.57\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCuO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e896.0\\u0026ndash;991.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e955.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-341.04\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTiO₂\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e866.9\\u0026ndash;991.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e955.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-98.50\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"3\\\" rowspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIsothermal\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCCTO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e992.6\\u0026ndash;996.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e995.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e63.62\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCaCO₃\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e869.4\\u0026ndash;996.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e994.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e108.76\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCuO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e992.6\\u0026ndash;996.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e995.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e372.17\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTiO₂\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e993.6\\u0026ndash;996.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e995.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e208.45\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eXRD\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFigure \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e shows the XRD patterns of CCTO, CaCO₃, CuO, and TiO₂ were examined to evaluate the phase formation and purity of the synthesized materials. The diffraction pattern of CCTO consistent with the body-centered cubic structure of CCTO as reported in the JCPDS card no. 01-075-1149 [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The nonexistence of secondary phases such as CaCO₃, CuO, or TiO₂ in the CCTO pattern indicates that a pure phase was successfully with complete reaction among precursors [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e]. The XRD pattern of CuO aligns well with the monoclinic CuO structure (JCPDS 48-1548). Similarly, the TiO₂ sample indicative of the anatase phase of TiO₂ according to JCPDS 21-1272. The bottom most pattern, corresponding to CaCO₃, matching the calcite phase to CaO [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe combined TGA/DSC and XRD analysis provided a detailed understanding of the thermal behavior and structural transformations involved in the synthesis of CCTO ceramics. Each precursor exhibited distinct thermal transitions that were critical in guiding the formation of the final perovskite phase. The successful synthesis of a pure and crystalline CCTO phase validates the chosen solid-state reaction route and controlled heating strategy. These findings emphasize the importance of precise thermal control during processing to achieve desirable material characteristics. This study thus lays the groundwork for further research aimed at enhancing the functional performance of CCTO for dielectric and electronic applications.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAcknowledgment\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors would like to thank Faculty of Bioengineering and Technology, UMK for providing instrumentation facility and Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia with grant number (FRGS/1/2018/TK05/UMK/02/6) for financial support given to this research.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSubramanian MA, Li D, Duan N, Reisner BA, Sleight AW. High dielectric constant in ACu₃Ti₄O₁₂ and ACu₃Ti₃FeO₁₂ phases. \\u003cem\\u003eJ Solid State Chem\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2000;151(2):323\\u0026ndash;325.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSinclair DC, Adams TB, Morrison FD, West AR. CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂: One-step internal barrier layer capacitor. \\u003cem\\u003eAppl Phys Lett\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2002;80(12):2153\\u0026ndash;2155.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eZhuang D, Chen Z, Sun B. Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate at multiple heating rates in different atmospheres using the techniques of TG, DTG, and DSC. \\u003cem\\u003eCrystals\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2025.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSanders JP, Gallagher PK. Kinetic analyses using simultaneous TG/DSC measurements: Part I: Decomposition of calcium carbonate in argon. \\u003cem\\u003eThermochim Acta\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2002. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6031(02)00032-1\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eNaktiyok J, \\u0026Ouml;zer AK. Synthesis of copper oxide (CuO) from thermal decomposition of copper acetate monohydrate (Cu(CH₃COO)₂\\u0026middot;H₂O). \\u003cem\\u003eNevşehir J Sci Technol\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2019;8(2):141\\u0026ndash;149.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eVargeese AA. A kinetic investigation on the mechanism and activity of copper oxide nanorods on the thermal decomposition of propellants. \\u003cem\\u003eCombust Flame\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2016;168:348\\u0026ndash;355.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHanaor DAH, Sorrell CC. Review of the anatase to rutile phase transformation. \\u003cem\\u003eJ Mater Sci\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2011;46(4):855\\u0026ndash;874.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eMarinescu C, Sofronia A, Rusti CF, Piticescu RM, Badilita V, Vasile E, Baies R, Tanasescu S. DSC investigation of nanocrystalline TiO₂ powder. \\u003cem\\u003eJ Therm Anal Calorim\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2011;106:843\\u0026ndash;849.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eKarunadasa KSP. Microstructural view of anatase to rutile phase transformation examined by in-situ high-temperature X-ray powder diffraction. \\u003cem\\u003eJ Solid State Chem\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2022;314:123377.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAdams TB, Sinclair DC, West AR. Giant barrier layer capacitance effects in CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂ ceramics. \\u003cem\\u003eAdv Mater\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2002;14(18):1321\\u0026ndash;1323. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-4095(20020916)14:18\\u0026lt;1321::AID-ADMA1321\\u0026gt;3.0.CO;2-P\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHao B, Xu CZ, Chen G, Lu Y, Zhang L. Analysis of combustion properties of tungsten/copper oxide pyrotechnic delay composition. \\u003cem\\u003ePropellants Explos Pyrotech\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2024;49(3):e202400232. https://doi.org/10.1002/prep.202400232\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eChung SY, Kim IJ, Kang SJ. Strong nonlinearity and electrical stability of grain boundaries in CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂. \\u003cem\\u003eNat Mater\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2004;3(12):774\\u0026ndash;778. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat1258\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAntrekowitsch H, Steinlechner S, Antrekowitsch J. Thermoanalytical characterization of the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in different atmospheres. \\u003cem\\u003eJ Therm Anal Calorim\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2003;71:763\\u0026ndash;769. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JTAN.0000002202.33887.92\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eTopor L, Aldinger F. Thermodynamic investigation of the Cu\\u0026ndash;O system. \\u003cem\\u003eJ Solid State Chem\\u003c/em\\u003e. 1993;106(1):107\\u0026ndash;119. https://doi.org/10.1006/jssc.1993.1181\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eDiebold U. The surface science of titanium dioxide. \\u003cem\\u003eSurf Sci Rep\\u003c/em\\u003e. 2003;48(5\\u0026ndash;8):53\\u0026ndash;229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-5729(02)00100-0\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":true,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Universiti Malaysia Kelantan\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"CCTO, TGA/DSC, Enthalpy, XRD\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6568439/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6568439/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis study investigates the thermal behavior and phase evolution of CaCu₃Ti₄O₁₂ (CCTO) ceramics synthesized via solid-state reactions from CaCO₃, CuO, and TiO₂ precursors. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) were used to analyze enthalpy changes and thermal decomposition across dynamic and static heating profiles. The enthalpy of CCTO formation is 63.62 J/g was obtain in isothermal heating in this study. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) confirmed successful phase formation and crystallinity of the synthesized CCTO.The results contribute to optimizing synthesis conditions for high-purity CCTO ceramics, crucial for electronic applications. This comprehensive thermal and structural analysis enables better control over material properties through precise thermal control.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Dynamics and Static Heating for CCTO, CaCO3, CuO, and TiO2 Powder for Enthalpy Measurement Using TGA/DSC\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-05-02 08:09:58\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6568439/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"550ccc7b-f378-4cb4-8916-06bf5771a74f\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"May 2nd, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":47978215,\"name\":\"Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-05-02T08:09:58+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-05-02 08:09:58\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-6568439\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-6568439\",\"identity\":\"rs-6568439\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}