{"paper_id":"1a8ecf24-7ef0-4c4e-bd88-a0f83dff98c2","body_text":"Hydration properties of belite cement prepared by lime-hydrothermal treatment of Saudi basaltic volcanic ash and glass | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Hydration properties of belite cement prepared by lime-hydrothermal treatment of Saudi basaltic volcanic ash and glass Tamer H.A. Hasanin, M. A. Tantawy This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5917687/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In this study, lime, volcanic ash, and OPC were used to prepare belite, belite/OPC blended, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cements. The hydrothermal treatment of volcanic ash/lime mixes at 190 oC for 3.5 h followed by calcination at 600 oC for 3 h. The heat of hydration of cements was measured, and hydration characteristics were assessed by combined water, compressive strength, bulk density, and total porosity measurements. The microstructural changes with hydration progress were monitored by XRD, TGA, FTIR, and SEM techniques. Hydrated calcium silicate is formed by hydrothermal treatment and was transformed to belite by calcination. The heat of hydration of plain belite cements increases with increasing lime content, confirming its unsuitability for massive concrete applications. Whereas, belite/OPC blended cements exhibit a lower heat of hydration to be suitable for applications requiring moderate heat of hydration and low initial strength gain. The rate of hydration of belite cement improves both by increasing the content of lime to 25-30% as well as blending with OPC. Volcanic ash/OPC blended cement has an average compressive strength between plain belite cement and belite/OPC blended cement. This research provide valuable insights for practical application of prepared belite cement in the construction. Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Physical sciences/Chemistry Physical sciences/Engineering Physical sciences/Materials science Belite cement lime volcanic ash heat of hydration strength development microstructure Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 1. Introduction The cement industry is one of the heavy industries that consume energy resources and pollute the environment. In terms of the consumption of energy resources, the total energy needed to manufacture cement is estimated at 110 kW/t. The grinding and processing of raw materials consumes about 30%, the clinker production process consumes about 30%, and the clinker grinding process consumes about 40% of the total energy required for manufacturing 1 . Regarding environmental pollution, the average CO2 emission from the cement industry is about 0.95 tons of CO2 per ton 2 . Belite cement, produced by hydrothermal treatment of lime-silicate mixtures followed by firing at temperatures not exceeding 800 °C, is distinguished by a reduced energy footprint and lower CO₂ emissions than conventional Portland cement 3 . This process yields a cementitious binder where the primary hydraulic phase is belite (dicalcium silicate, C₂S), which predominates over other phases 4 . Chemically, the cement is rich in calcium and silica, with the hydrothermal treatment promoting the formation of reactive, low-crystallinity belite alongside a modest amount of amorphous calcium silicate hydrate 5 . The mineralogical composition typically includes poorly crystalline belite, minor residual lime, and trace amounts of secondary phases resulting from incomplete reactions. As a result, belite cement exhibits slower early strength development but achieves durable, long-term performance, making it an attractive option for sustainable construction practices where lower thermal processing and reduced environmental impact are desired 6 . The technology of producing belite cement consists of two steps: hydrothermal treatment of lime-pozzolana blends, followed by burning at low temperatures not exceeding 750 oC. Therefore, the technology of producing belite cement is one of the promising solutions to the problem of the cement industry's consumption of energy resources and environmental pollution. However, this technology faces many technical problems, the most important of which are the danger and difficulty of implementing hydrothermal treatment on a large industrial scale commensurate with the size of the cement industry, which is responsible for providing millions of tons of cement daily to implement construction projects and other uses of cement all over the world. Also, the slow rate of hydration of belite cement, and the low rate of development of mechanical strength of concrete based on belite cement. These obstacles reduce the opportunity to use belite cement as an alternative to OPC for construction purposes and limit the trend towards its manufacture and use. These challenges are worth studying to generalize the technology of producing belite cement as one of the energy-saving solutions in the cement industry. Basalt volcanic ash in Saudi Arabia originates from the volcanic activity that occurred in the region 7 . The Arabian Peninsula, including parts of Saudi Arabia, has a geological history marked by volcanic activity 8 . The most notable volcanic activity in Saudi Arabia occurred in the Quaternary period 9 . The Harrat regions have contributed to the presence of basaltic materials, including volcanic ash 10 . Basalt volcanic ash is a gray to black rock, due to its significant content of Fe₂O₃ and FeO. Basalt volcanic ash primarily consists of SiO 2 usually less than 60% making it more basic and Al₂O₃ typically found in moderate amounts. In addition to MgO, CaO and other trace oxides like K 2 O, Na 2 O, and MnO 2 may also be present 11,12 . Basalt ash tends to be durable and resistant to erosion, which can be advantageous for construction applications 13,14 . Common uses of basalt volcanic ash include addition in concrete production as a pozzolana 15,16 and road construction as an asphalt mixture 17 . Basalt volcanic ash is commonly used for soil amendment in agriculture to improve soil fertility 18 as well as for erosion control measures 19 . Basalt volcanic ash is also commonly used for water filtration in water purification systems 20 . Basalt ash is used for the manufacture of ceramic bricks and tiles 21,22 . The composition of waste glass varies depending on the type of glass 23 . Container and flat glass used for bottles and mirrors respectively are typically soda-lime-silica glass made from silica sand, soda ash, and limestone. Recycling of glass involves the processes of collection, sorting, cleaning, crushing, melting, forming, and cooling 24 . The benefits of recycling glass include; resource conservation, energy savings, reducing the environmental impact, and economic benefits 25 . In contrast, recycling glass faces many challenges such as; contamination of the recycling stream making it harder to process, transportation costs, and fluctuating market demand affecting the economic viability of recycling 26 . Using waste glass as a cement additive is an innovative approach that can provide both environmental and economic benefits 27 . The benefits of using waste glass as a cement additive are reducing waste disposal, raw material conservation 28 , and lowering energy requirements in cement production to reduce carbon emissions 29 . Many studies have been conducted on the preparation of belite cement, and few studies have been conducted on measuring the properties of belite cement. The process involves hydrothermal preparation of the calcium silicate hydrate phase (CSH) with a Ca:Si ratio of 2:1 followed by calcination to produce the β-Ca 2 SiO 4 phase. The effect of various synthesis conditions was investigated 30 . Low-temperature synthesis of belite from a mixture of lime, BaCl 2 , and different siliceous raw materials with the ratio (Ca+Ba)/Si = 2 was performed through hydrothermal treatment at 180 o C for 5 h and calcination at 750˚C for 3 h 31 . Low-temperature synthesis of belite from lime and white sand (Ca/Si=2) in NaOH solution was done by hydrothermal treatment at 135 o C for 3 h followed by calcination at 1000 o C for 3 h 32 . The hydration of plain belite cement was accelerated in the case of OPC blended belite cement 33 . Belite cement was synthesized from lime and fly ash by hydrothermal treatment at 97 oC followed by ignition up to 1000 o C and blending belite cement with OPC increased the strength 34 . In case of fly ash, lime, and NaOH mix with a ratio of 70:30:1 hydrothermally processed at 90-100 ◦C for 12 h and calcined at 800 o C for 1.5 h, the rate of early hydration heat release of belite cement was higher than that of OPC as well as the compressive strength improved with the addition of gypsum 35 . The present research contribution aims to understand the hydration characteristics of belite cement prepared by hydrothermal treatment of mixes containing 20-35% lime at 190 o C for 3.5 h followed by calcination at 600 o C for 3 h. The heat of hydration and hydration characteristics of plain belite cement, belite/OPC blended cement, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for up to 28 days, were traced by combined water, compressive strength, bulk density, and total porosity measurements as well as proved by XRD, FTIR, TGA/DrTGA and SEM techniques. 2. Materials and experimental procedures 2.1. Raw materials and preparation of belite cements The basaltic volcanic ash is basalt scoria from cinder cones located 130 km south of Medina, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The waste glass was obtained from a glass manufacturing workshop. The volcanic ash and waste glass were ground by a ball mill for 30 min. Lime was prepared by calcination of limestone at 950 o C for 3 h in a muffle furnace. The volcanic ash, glass, and lime were sieved to pass 125-micron sieve. Belite cement mixes illustrated in Table 1 were prepared by homogenizing powder of volcanic ash, glass, and lime and BaCl 2 .2H 2 O corresponding to 2 wt% Ba, manually in a plastic bag. Fig. 1 illustrates the cement preparation, hydration, and testing processes. About 150 g of the raw mix was mixed with 750 ml distilled water (solid/liquid ratio=1/5) in a stainless steel capsule and was tightly closed. The hydrothermal treatment was carried out in an electric drier at 190 o C for 3.5 h. The specific values of the treatment temperature and duration were chosen based on previous research experience to ensure formation of the belite cement. Then, the capsule was cooled to room temperature. The product was filtered using filter paper in a porcelain funnel connected to an electric pump and dried in the microwave for 15 min. Then the product was ignited at 600 o C for 3 h in a muffle furnace. Three categories of belite cement were prepared to study the heat of hydration, hydration characteristics, mechanical properties, and microstructure. Their compositions are shown in Table 2. The first category is the plain belite cement which were symbolized H20-H35. The second category is belite/OPC blended cement prepared by mixing 50 wt % belite cement with 50 wt% OPC, and were symbolized HC20-HC35 respectively. The third category is volcanic ash/OPC blended cement, prepared by mixing 50 wt % volcanic ash with 50 wt % OPC, and was symbolized VAC50. Cement mixes were thoroughly mixed in plastic bags. 2.2. Performance of cement by initial heat of hydration 70 mL of distilled water whose temperature was maintained at 20±0.5 ℃ (t o ), was injected into a thermally insulated container provided with an agitator rotating at 300±50 rpm. 70 g of cement powder was immediately added to the water and the time counting was started. The temperature was recorded every 20 s, until the temperature reached a maximum value (T max ), then started to decrease. The initial heat of hydration (Q) is calculated from the expression (Q=M.C.ΔT) expressed in kJ/kg. Where M is the total mass of cement powder and water (140g), C is the heat capacity of water (4.18 Jg -1o C -1 ), and, ΔT is the temperature difference (ΔT= T max -t o , o C) 36 . Table 1. Mix composition used for preparation of belite cement hydrothermal treatment and calcination. Mix Raw materials, % Volcanic Ash Glass Lime H20 50 30 20 H25 45 30 25 H30 40 30 30 H35 35 30 35 Table 2. Mix composition of plain belite cement, belite/OPC blended cements and volcanic ash/OPC blended cements. Mix Components, % w/c ratio Belite cement VA OPC H20 100 0 0 0.45 H25 100 0 0 0.60 H30 100 0 0 0.65 H35 100 0 0 0.80 HC20 50 0 50 0.30 HC25 50 0 50 0.38 HC30 50 0 50 0.47 HC35 50 0 50 0.53 VAC50 0 50 50 0.30 2.2. Testing of cement pastes Cement pastes were prepared by mixing appropriate w/c ratios that produce workable cement paste, molded in a 2x2x2 cm 3 iron mold, and stored in a humid atmosphere for 24 h, removed from molds, and, cured in water until testing at 3, 7, and 28 days. The bulk density of cement pastes was determined by Archimedes' principle of buoyancy based on ASTM specification 37 . The compressive strength of cement paste cubes was measured by a compressive strength apparatus based on ASTM specifications 38 . The hydrated cement specimens were dried and free water content was determined by heating in a domestic microwave oven based on ASTM specifications 39 . The chemically combined water content was determined for dried specimens by heating in a muffle furnace based on ASTM specifications 40 . The total porosity was estimated from the free and total water contents and bulk density according to following reference 41 . A set of three samples was used to estimate the hydration characteristics of cement pastes at curing ages. The oxide content of volcanic ash, glass, and lime was estimated by XRF Philips spectrometer PW1606. The mineral composition of raw materials and hydrated cement specimens was investigated by XRD Philips diffractometer PW1370 with nickel filter CuKα radiation source. FTIR was analyzed using a Perkin Elmer System Spectrum X spectrometer within the range 400-4000 cm -1 . TGA/DrTGA were performed using a Shimadzu corporation thermal analyzer (DTG-60 H), under a heating rate of 20 °C/min up to 900 °C, in nitrogen atmosphere. SEM analysed by JSM-IT200 model, Jeol, Japan, Central Laboratory for Microanalysis and Nanotechnology, Minia University. 2.3. Characterization of raw materials Table 3 illustrates the chemical analysis of OPC, lime, volcanic ash, and glass by XRF. Lime is composed of CaO (93.23 wt%) and small amounts of SiO 2 , MgO, and Al 2 O 3 . On the other hand, the main constituents of volcanic ash are SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , and CaO. Table 3. Chemical composition of raw materials by XRF Oxide, Wt% Raw materials Lime Volcanic ash OPC SiO 2 1.92 60.92 22.13 Al 2 O 3 0.65 14.73 4.13 Fe 2 O 3 0.34 7.12 1.88 CaO 93.23 5.08 64.10 MgO 0.69 1.92 3.15 Na 2 O 0.20 4.23 0.13 K 2 O 0.04 2.41 0.62 P 2 O 5 0.05 0.31 0.22 TiO 2 0.05 0.80 0.06 SO 3 0.48 0.17 2.16 Cl - 0.05 0.04 0.06 LOI* 1.55 2.12 1.16 Total 99.25 99.85 99.80 * LOI loss on ignition Fig. 2 shows the XRD patterns of raw materials. Glass is composed of amorphous sodium and calcium silicates as its characteristic broad bump appears in the between 10 and 38 2theta. Volcanic ash consists of amorphous silicates in addition to albite as its characteristic peaks appear at 17.3 and 28.3 2theta. Lime consists of calcium oxide, as its characteristic peaks appear at 17.3 and 28.3 2theta. In addition to portlandite, its characteristic peaks appear at 17.3 and 28.3 2theta due to hydration by moisture. OPC contains the clinker minerals alite, belite, aluminate, and ferrite in addition to calcite and gypsum 42 . Fig. 3 shows the FTIR spectra of raw materials. The FTIR of glass shows the following absorption bands. The broadband at 1013 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Si–O–Si asymmetric stretching vibration of silica networks. The broadband around 3400 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Si–OH stretching vibration of absorbed water. The sharp band at 768 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Si–O–Si symmetric stretching vibration of well-ordered silica frameworks. The sharp band at 456 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Si–O bending vibration of the silica matrix 43 . The FTIR of volcanic ash shows the following absorption bands. The broadband at 1010 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Si–O–Si asymmetric stretching vibration of silica networks. The broadband around 3400 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Si–OH stretching vibration of absorbed water. The sharp band at 560 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Fe–O stretching vibration of iron oxides. The sharp band at 455 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Mg–O and Ca–O stretching vibration of magnesium or calcium oxides 44 . The FTIR of lime shows the following absorption bands. The intense sharp band at 3635 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the O–H stretching vibration of hydroxyl groups indicating slaked lime Ca(OH)₂. The broadband around 1405 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the C–O asymmetric stretching vibration of carbonate groups indicating carbonation of lime. The sharp band at 897 cm⁻¹ regarded as the C–O out-of-plane bending vibration of carbonate groups. The broadband at 415 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Ca–O stretching vibration of lime CaO 45 . The FTIR of OPC shows the following absorption bands. The very weak sharp band at 3640 cm-1 is regarded as the O–H stretching vibration of portlandite. The weak broadband at 3428 cm-1 is regarded as the Si–OH stretching vibration of absorbed water. The sharp band at 1411 cm-1 is regarded as the C–O asymmetric stretching vibration of carbonate of limestone blended with OPC. The weak sharp band at 1144 cm-1 is regarded as the S–O stretching vibration of sulfate of gypsum added to OPC. The weak sharp band at 1087 cm-1 and sharp broadband at 906 cm-1 are regarded to Si–O–Si asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations respectively of calcium silicate phases C₃S and C₂S. The sharp band at 900 cm-1 is regarded as the C–O out-of-plane bending vibration of carbonate of limestone blended with OPC. The sharp band at 511 cm-1 is regarded as the Al–O and Si–O bending vibration of aluminate as well as silicate networks, The sharp band at 421 cm-1 is regarded as the Ca–O stretching vibration of calcium-related phases (C₃A, C₄AF, Ca(OH)₂) 46 . The SEM imaging gives an approximate idea of the grain size distribution and crystallization nature of the raw materials. Fig. 4 shows the SEM images of raw materials. In terms of the grain size of the raw materials, it is clear that the glass particles are finer than the volcanic ash particles, although the glass contains a percentage of coarse particles with a diameter exceeding 50 microns. While lime is very fine, as its particles do not exceed 3 microns in diameter. In terms of the nature of crystallization, it is clear that the lime and OPC particles are more regular, which expresses the crystallization of their minerals, while the volcanic ash and glass particles do not form in specific crystalline patterns, which indicates the prevailing amorphous state of the volcanic ash and glass. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Performance of cement by initial heat of hydration The initial heat of hydration measurement (Fig. 5) illustrates the performance of prepared belite cement compared to the reference value for heat of hydration (85-100 kJ/kg initial stage heat of hydration for OPC), showing which mixes exceed or stay below this threshold 47 . The VAC50 mix shows the lowest heat of hydration among all the mixes, indicating a slower reaction and reduced heat generation, as well as its suitability for massive concrete structures where heat control is critical to avoid thermal cracking 48 . H20–H35 mixes, which represent belite cement with increasing lime content (20-35%), exhibit the highest heat of hydration compared to all cement mixes 49 . The heat of hydration increases progressively as the lime content due to the exothermic hydration reaction of lime, releasing more heat 47 . Accordingly, these belite cements could not be suitable for massive concrete structure applications due to their high heat generation 48 . HC20–HC35 mixes (belite cement blended with 50% OPC) exhibit a moderate heat of hydration compared to the pure belite cements (H20–H35), due to the dilution effect of OPC, which hydrates more rapidly and releases lower heat of hydration 49 . These mixes are suitable for applications requiring moderate heat of hydration and low initial strength gain 47 . 3.2. Phase identification of cement pastes 3.2.1. X-ray diffraction Fig. 6a shows the XRD patterns of H20 untreated, hydrothermally treated, calcined, and hydrated at 3 days. When H20 was hydrothermally treated at 190 °C, the amorphous helibrandite phase was formed as appearing in the broad bump between 10 and 38 2theta 31 . The formation of helibrandite results from the reaction of a part of the amorphous silicates of the volcanic ash with lime during the hydrothermal treatment. When the product of the H20 mixture (hydrothermally treated at 190 °C) was calcined at 600 °C, the helibrandite was transformed into alite and belite minerals, which showed their characteristic peaks at 32-33, 39, 45.6 and 46.5 2theta 50 . When the product of the H20 mixture (hydrothermally treated at 190 °C and calcined at 600 °C) was hydrated in water, the percentage of portlandite formation did not increase, and the percentage of alite and belite minerals was only slightly reduced, which will negatively affect the mechanical properties of the produced cement. Fig. 6b shows the XRD patterns of H20 calcined and hydrated at 3-28 days. When the H20 mixture (hydrothermally treated at 190 °C and calcined at 600 °C) was hydrated in water for longer periods, the rate of hydration of alite and belite increased. The amorphous hydrated products (CSH) were formed giving a wide bump at 10-38 2theta. This may lead to an improvement in the mechanical properties of the produced cement, confirming that the produced cement hydrates slowly. It is expected to give higher mechanical properties at later ages due to its richness in belite. Fig. 6c shows H20-H35 hydrated at 28 days. With the increasing amount of lime, the rate of CSH formation improves, as seen from the increase in the intensity of the amorphous phases (wide bump at 10-38 2theta), up to the mixture containing 25% lime. Then the rate of CSH formation decreases at higher lime ratios. The same behavior can be explained by following the increase of portlandite. Fig. 7a shows the XRD pattern of HC20 calcined and hydrated at 3-28 days. When H20 was mixed with OPC and hydrated in water for 28 days, the alite and belite phases originating from the OPC were observed to hydrate at a faster rate than the alite and belite phases originating from the produced belite cement. It is also observed that the rate of formation of amorphous CSH increased with the age of hydration. Fig. 7b shows the XRD pattern of HC20-HC35 hydrated at 28 days. When samples H20-H35 were mixed with OPC and hydrated in water for 28 days, an improvement in the rate of hydration was observed. This was indicated by the increase in the rate of CSH and portlandite formation from mixture H20 to mixture H30, then the rate of hydration decreased in mixture H35. This may prove that the rate of hydration of the produced belite cement increased in the presence of OPC 51 . Fig. 8 shows the XRD pattern VAC50 unhydrated and hydrated for up to 28 days. When volcanic ash was mixed with OPC and hydrated for 28 days, an improvement in the rate of hydration was observed. This was indicated by the increase in the rate of portlandite formation until the age of 7 days. Then a significant decrease in the rate of portlandite formation was observed after that, accompanied by an increase in the rate of CSH formation. This was indicated by the increase in the intensity of the wide bump from 10 to 38 2theta. This indicates the reaction of portlandite with amorphous silica in the volcanic ash to form CSH, confirming the pozzolanic role of the volcanic ash 52 . 3.2.2. FTIR analysis Fig. 9a shows the FTIR spectra of H20 untreated, hydrothermally treated, calcined, and hydrated at 3 days. After the hydrothermal treatment of H20, the intensity of the sharp band at 3635 cm⁻¹ s regarded as the O–H stretching vibration of hydroxyl groups linked to Ca(OH)₂, decreased due to the reaction of Ca(OH)₂ with amorphous silica forming hydrated calcium silicates. At the same time, the broadband at 1032 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Si–O–Si asymmetric stretching vibration of silica networks shifted to 973 confirming the formation of hydrated calcium silicates. The intensity of the broadband around 3400 cm⁻¹ is regarded as the Si–OH stretching vibration of absorbed water increases due to the inclusion of high water content in hydrated calcium silicates. After calcination of the hydrothermally treated H20, the formation of dicalcium silicate C₂S is proved from the appearance of new absorption bands at 996 and 510 cm-1 which are regarded as the Si–O–Si asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations as well as Ca–O stretching / Si–O bending vibrations of Ca–O and Si–O bonds in C₂S respectively. After hydration of calcined hydrothermally treated H20, the formation of CSH is elucidated from the appearance of the new absorption band at 928 cm-1 that is regarded as the Si–OH stretching vibration of CSH 53 . In Fig. 9b, the broadening of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of Si-O bond of CSH at 967 cm-1 with aging of belite cement, (H20-H35) hydrothermally treated, calcined, and hydrated at 28 days, is regarded to the increasing the degree of polymerization forming longer silicate chains and a more complex network, increasing cross-linking of silicate chains, and, replacement of Si by Ca or the incorporation of other ions (such as Ba 2+ ions) in CSH structure 54 . In Fig. 9c, the intensity of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of the Si-O bond of CSH at 967 cm-1 decreases with increasing lime content of belite cement, (from H20 to H35). This is due to lowering the formation of CSH with decreasing volcanic ash content. In Fig. 10a, the intensity and broadening of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of the Si-O bond of CSH at 967 cm-1 increases with the aging of HC20 up to 28 days, due to the formation of CSH regarding the hydration of OPC. In Fig. 10b, the broadening of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of the Si-O bond of CSH at 967 cm-1 increases from HC20 to HC25 and then decreases up to HC35. This indicates that increasing lime content in the belite cement adversely influences the hydration of OPC. In Fig. 11, the intensity of the sharp stretching vibration band of portlandite at 3635 cm⁻¹ does not significantly decrease with the aging of volcanic ash/OPC blended cement (VAC50) up to 28 days. This is due to the limited pozzolanic activity of volcanic ash. 3.2.3. TG analysis The derivative weight determines the thermal behavior and the decomposition temperatures of belite cement, providing information about the relative quantities of decomposable phases present in different belite cement mixes. Fig. 12 shows the TGA/Dr.TGA thermogram of H20 mixture hydrothermally treated at 190 °C. The sharp peak around 460 o C indicates that the belite cement undergoes a significant change in weight at that temperature due to rapid dehydration of the residual portlandite. The broad peaks around 60 o C (extending beyond 200 o C), 650 o C, and 820 o C indicate the gradual slow decomposition processes regarding; loss of free absorbed water, decomposition of hillebrandite into belite, and phase transformation of belite respectively 55 . Fig. 13 shows the TGA/Dr.TGA thermograms of pure belite cement hydrated for 28 days. The results of the derivative weight corresponding to the dehydration of the belite phase show a gradual increase in the content of the CSH with the age of the hydration up to 28 days. However, the decrease in the values of the derivative weight corresponding to the dehydration of the portlandite phase, as well as the slight increase in the percentage of total weight loss with the age of the hydration, indicate a decrease in the rate of hydration of the belite cement. The derivative weight corresponding to the dehydration of the belite phase shows an increase in the formation of CSH as the percentage of lime added to the composition of the beite cement increases. However, the increase in the percentage of total weight loss shows that the percentage of 30% lime corresponds to the highest percentage of weight loss with the hydration of cement, then the percentage of total weight loss decreases when the percentage of lime increases to 35%. Fig. 14 shows the TGA/Dr.TGA thermograms of belite/OPC blended cement hydrated for 28 days. The values of the derivative weight corresponding to the dehydration of the portlandite phase of belite/OPC blended cement are within 3-4 times the values corresponding to the pure belite cement, and their values of the percentage of total weight loss are about twice the values of the pure belite cement. This confirms the improvement in the hydration of belite cement in the presence of OPC. Fig. 15 shows the TGA/Dr.TGA thermograms of volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for 28 days. The values of the derived weight corresponding to the dehydration of the portlandite phase, as well as the values of the total weight loss ratios of the volcanic ash/OPC blended cement, are higher than those of pure belite cement, but lower than those of the OPC blended with belite cement. This confirms that the rate of hydration of the belite/OPC blended cement is higher than that of the volcanic ash/OPC blended cement. This is evident from the comparison shown in Fig. 16. 3.2.4. SEM analysis Fig. 17 show the SEM images of H20 hydrothermally treated at 190 °C, calcined at 600 °C and, hydrated in water for up to 28 days. The hydrothermal treatment of the H20 resulted in the volcanic ash and glass particles being coated with a fibrous amorphous material resulting from the formation of hydrated calcium silicates. This fibrous amorphous material was transformed into dispersed nanoparticles after firing at 600 °C due to the loss of water of crystallization, and then it was transformed into an amorphous material after hydrolysis due to the formation of amorphous calcium silicates. The amount of amorphous material increases with the age of the hydrated sample. Although both the amount of amorphous material and the percentage of combined water increase with the increase in the percentage of added lime, this pattern contradicts the results of compressive strength, bulk density, and total porosity, as both of them decrease with the increase in the percentage of added lime. It seems that the increase in the amount of amorphous material and the percentage of combined water increases with the increase in the percentage of added lime due to the hydration of lime into calcium hydroxide and not because of the hydration of calcium silicates. This explains the nature of the decrease in compressive strength and density and the increase in porosity with the increase in the percentage of added lime 56 , although the percentage of combined water increases. Fig. 18 shows the SEM images of belite cement H20, OPC blended with H20 and, OPC blended with volcanic ash hydrated in water for 28 days. SEM images of the hydrated cement samples confirm the XRD and TGA results that the rate of hydration of belite/OPC blended cement is the highest, followed by volcanic ash/OPC blended cement, and in last place comes pure belite cement. This is clearly shown by observing the accumulation of non-hydrated crystalline cementitious materials in the belite cement sample. While the belite/OPC blended cement is rich in amorphous hydration products. Fig. 19 shows the SEM images of belite cement H20-H35 and OPC blended with H20-H35 hydrated in water for 28 days. The density of the amorphous CSH increases with the percentage of lime added to the composition of the belite cement up to 30% lime, and then decreases in the belite cement containing 35% lime, and these results are consistent with the XRD and TGA results. At the same time, the density of the amorphous CSH increases with the addition of OPC to the composition of the belite cement. This proves that the addition of OPC enhances the hydration of belite cement. 3.3. Physico-mechanical properties of cement pastes 3.3.1. Chemically combined water Fig. 20 shows the combined water content of pure belite cement, belite/OPC blended cement, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for 28 days. The results of the combined water content are consistent with the compressive strength measurements, showing that belite/OPC blended cement, as well as those blended with volcanic ash, contain a higher combined water content than pure plain belite cement. This is due to the slower hydration of the belite phase compared to the alite phase. However, the combined water content increases with increasing lime percentage added to belite cement blends, from H20 to H35, as well as in belite/OPC blended cement. This is due to the abundance of hydrated lime remaining after reacting with silica to form belite. The curve illustrates the influence both of lime content and more reactive phases (OPC or pozzolans) on the rate and extent of hydration. The belite cements (H20-H35) favor a lower but steadier hydration profile, while OPC blended belite cements (HC20-HC35) ensures a strong early contribution to combined water content and further growth over time. 3.3.2. Bulk density and total porosity of cement pastes Fig. 21 shows the bulk density and total porosity of pure belite cement, belite/OPC blended cement, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for 28 days. It is noted that the variation in density and porosity of H20-H35 is not monotonous, possibly due to the inaccuracy of the routine methods used here for measuring the density and porosity of cement pastes. Bulk density decreases and total porosity increases moving from volcanic ash/OPC blended cement, to belite/OPC blended cement, and finally to plain belite cement. This confirms the weak hydration of belite cement, which leads to more free water remaining, which leads to a decrease in bulk density and an increase in total porosity. 3.3.3. Compressive strength Fig. 22 shows the compressive strength of pure belite cement, belite/OPC blended cement, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for 28 days. The compressive strength of all plain belite cement; H20-H35 is low. The compressive strength gained with the age of hydration is also low. H20 has a lower compressive strength than mixes of other plain belite cements; H25 to H35 at early ages, while it has a higher compressive strength than the other belite cements at later ages. All belite/OPC blended cement; HC20 to HC35 have improved compressive strength compared with plain belite cements, among which, HC20 shows the highest compressive strength at all ages of hydration. While volcanic ash/OPC blended cement has a compressive strength on average between that of plain belite cement (H20 to H35) and belite/OPC blended cement. Conclusion Based on the above research findings, the following points were concluded. Volcanic ash contains coarse amorphous silicates and albite. Hydrated dicalcium silicate, (helibrandite) is formed via the hydrothermal treatment, then transformed into alite and belite minerals by calcination at 600 °C. The plain belite cement was slowly hydrated in water giving low mechanical properties of the produced cement. It is expected to provide higher mechanical properties at later ages due to its richness in belite. The rate of hydration improves both by increasing the content of lime to 25-30% and by blending with OPC. The volcanic ash has low pozzolanic properties. Belite/OPC and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement contain a higher combined water content than pure plain belite cement. The bulk density and total porosity results confirm the slow hydration of belite cement. The compressive strength of all plain belite cement (H20-H35) is low. The compressive strength gained with the age of hydration is also low. All belite blended cement have improved compressive strength, among which HC20 shows the highest compressive strength at all ages of hydration. Plain belite cement, releases a high heat of hydration. Whereas belite/OPC blended cement releases a lower heat of hydration. This makes it more suitable for applications where moderate heat of hydration and low initial strength gain are not harmful. Declarations Acknowledgments This work was funded by the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Jouf University under grant No. (DGSSR-2023-02-02284). Author contributions Tamer H.A. 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days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"6.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/0ed86c1955998870b9979f96.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187805,\"identity\":\"2b9d3d79-6757-4841-883c-8358a1f6848b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":81267,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eXRD patterns of (a) HC20 calcined and hydrated at 3-28 days as well as (b) HC20-HC35 hydrated at 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"7.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/88f01a1be876930c1bde085c.jpg\"},{\"id\":81188328,\"identity\":\"b393c4bf-2cd6-4ad3-b8c4-4f6169305911\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:47:42\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":8,\"title\":\"Figure 8\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":47760,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eXRD patterns of VAC50 unhydrated and hydrated up to 28 day.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"8.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/2a3cccd15de62e2c9555c5cc.jpg\"},{\"id\":81188324,\"identity\":\"e98fbd66-045d-4102-95d5-c53d7cd7d58f\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:47:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":9,\"title\":\"Figure 9\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":109374,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFTIR spectra of (a) H20 untreated, hydrothermally treated, calcined and hydrated at 3 days, (b) H20 calcined and hydrated at 3-28 days as well as (c) H20-H35 hydrated at 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"9.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/f122b9b784f2e14669b225ea.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187807,\"identity\":\"a15488e6-8799-41ee-b8e5-28e41d9a6e52\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":10,\"title\":\"Figure 10\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":76549,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFTIR spectra of (a) HC20 calcined and hydrated at 3-28 days as well as (b) HC20-HC35 hydrated at 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"10.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/c8a9edbeb4e544a718a85895.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187810,\"identity\":\"502df001-bc42-4aa5-9b1b-bfafb259a7c9\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":11,\"title\":\"Figure 11\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":40248,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFTIR spectra of VAC50 unhydrated and hydrated up to 28 day.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"11.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/d0dc70a5e374097beccb0f3d.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187806,\"identity\":\"bb754951-a25c-446b-9810-d0d1b7d816c7\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":12,\"title\":\"Figure 12\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":27580,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTGA/DrTGA patterns of H20 hydrothermally treated.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"12.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/51be31f26898d3a3d3c24573.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187816,\"identity\":\"7c490239-37ff-46e7-88f6-4555e364ad9c\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":13,\"title\":\"Figure 13\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":77727,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTGA/DrTGA patterns of (a) H20 hydrated at 3-28days as well as\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e(b) H20-H35 hydrated at 28days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"13.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/de51fd86e53b9de451fd745f.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187811,\"identity\":\"e2160300-70e4-480b-8fd3-3b3f625cc021\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":14,\"title\":\"Figure 14\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":79720,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTGA/DrTGA patterns of (a) HC20 hydrated at 3-28days as well as\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e(b) HC20-HC35 hydrated at 28days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"14.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/8917ef617db426e18f9301bd.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187812,\"identity\":\"1208b780-3b0b-4d25-9fa5-3ffd8b62692c\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":15,\"title\":\"Figure 15\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":40028,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTGA/DrTGA patterns of VAC50 hydrated at 3-28days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"15.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/aff0ae1d2933b7cb604c9cf5.jpg\"},{\"id\":81188327,\"identity\":\"7f3bb636-97b0-4883-8324-297fae1afbf7\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:47:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":16,\"title\":\"Figure 16\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":40620,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTGA/DrTGA patterns of H20, HC20, and VAC50 hydrated at 28days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"16.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/25af0fb986cd5e0ef9e98ce2.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187819,\"identity\":\"0dba8575-8413-4e93-a2ec-9e206ba68074\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":17,\"title\":\"Figure 17\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":95386,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSEM images of H20 hydrothermally treated at 190°C for 3 h, calcined at 600°C for 3 h and hydrated in water for up to 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"17.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/5680792e0d3cc81f71e6d1f1.jpg\"},{\"id\":81188326,\"identity\":\"1a2bea41-fddc-4abc-a8b8-7a413925d6c2\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:47:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":18,\"title\":\"Figure 18\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":109409,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSEM images of (a) belite cement H20, (b) OPC blended with H20 and (c) OPC blended with volcanic ash hydrated in water for 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"18.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/f2bbed84562f2459e590ee4c.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187822,\"identity\":\"66ab9497-5865-4a45-ab40-6e532f2a1ff5\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:42\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":19,\"title\":\"Figure 19\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":63100,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSEM images of (a) belite cements H20-H35 and (b) OPC blended with H20-H35 hydrated in water at 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"19.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/ea2531f1334226ddccf750fb.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187823,\"identity\":\"20453d47-a227-4fa7-bc6f-ad6b5ae52896\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:42\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":20,\"title\":\"Figure 20\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":37000,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCombined water content of pure belite cement, Portland cement blended with belite cement, and blended with volcanic ash hydrated in water for 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"20.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/c7440ffb2aacf97da520005c.jpg\"},{\"id\":81187809,\"identity\":\"a807bbdc-c14f-4352-85da-3b114f9c0fd5\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":21,\"title\":\"Figure 21\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":49305,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e(a) Bulk density and (b) total porosity of pure belite cement, Portland cement blended with belite cement, and blended with volcanic ash hydrated in water for 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"21.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/aa4d7ed2fe565d5e031e8a55.jpg\"},{\"id\":81188323,\"identity\":\"8c0c0b7f-e2a0-4131-97c5-14b88a0d0c27\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-23 08:47:41\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":22,\"title\":\"Figure 22\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":39890,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCompressive strength of pure belite cement, Portland cement blended with belite cement, and blended with volcanic ash hydrated in water for 28 days.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"22.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/5d4bfd6e55487a08273159ce.jpg\"},{\"id\":89310635,\"identity\":\"1bde9719-ae0d-4404-b291-c736a49377d2\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-08-18 16:08:56\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":2350123,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5917687/v1/fde8ab8e-2fba-446b-97aa-8ba96165951b.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Hydration properties of belite cement prepared by lime-hydrothermal treatment of Saudi basaltic volcanic ash and glass\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"1. Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe cement industry is one of the heavy industries that consume energy resources and pollute the environment. In terms of the consumption of energy resources, the total energy needed to manufacture cement is estimated at 110 kW/t. The grinding and processing of raw materials consumes about 30%, the clinker production process consumes about 30%, and the clinker grinding process consumes about 40% of the total energy required for manufacturing\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e1\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Regarding environmental pollution, the average CO2 emission from the cement industry is about 0.95 tons of CO2 per ton\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eBelite cement, produced by hydrothermal treatment of lime-silicate mixtures followed by firing at temperatures not exceeding 800 °C, is distinguished by a reduced energy footprint and lower CO₂ emissions than conventional Portland cement\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. This process yields a cementitious binder where the primary hydraulic phase is belite (dicalcium silicate, C₂S), which predominates over other phases\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e4\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Chemically, the cement is rich in calcium and silica, with the hydrothermal treatment promoting the formation of reactive, low-crystallinity belite alongside a modest amount of amorphous calcium silicate hydrate\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e5\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The mineralogical composition typically includes poorly crystalline belite, minor residual lime, and trace amounts of secondary phases resulting from incomplete reactions. As a result, belite cement exhibits slower early strength development but achieves durable, long-term performance, making it an attractive option for sustainable construction practices where lower thermal processing and reduced environmental impact are desired\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e6\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe technology of producing belite cement consists of two steps: hydrothermal treatment of lime-pozzolana blends, followed by burning at low temperatures not exceeding 750 oC. Therefore, the technology of producing belite cement is one of the promising solutions to the problem of the cement industry's consumption of energy resources and environmental pollution. However, this technology faces many technical problems, the most important of which are the danger and difficulty of implementing hydrothermal treatment on a large industrial scale commensurate with the size of the cement industry, which is responsible for providing millions of tons of cement daily to implement construction projects and other uses of cement all over the world. Also, the slow rate of hydration of belite cement, and the low rate of development of mechanical strength of concrete based on belite cement. These obstacles reduce the opportunity to use belite cement as an alternative to OPC for construction purposes and limit the trend towards its manufacture and use. These challenges are worth studying to generalize the technology of producing belite cement as one of the energy-saving solutions in the cement industry.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eBasalt volcanic ash in Saudi Arabia originates from the volcanic activity that occurred in the region\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e7\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The Arabian Peninsula, including parts of Saudi Arabia, has a geological history marked by volcanic activity\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e8\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The most notable volcanic activity in Saudi Arabia occurred in the Quaternary period\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e9\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The Harrat regions have contributed to the presence of basaltic materials, including volcanic ash\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e10\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Basalt volcanic ash is a gray to black rock, due to its significant content of Fe₂O₃ and FeO. Basalt volcanic ash primarily consists of SiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e usually less than 60% making it more basic and Al₂O₃ typically found in moderate amounts. In addition to MgO, CaO and other trace oxides like K\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO, Na\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO, and MnO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e may also be present\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e11,12\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Basalt ash tends to be durable and resistant to erosion, which can be advantageous for construction applications\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e13,14\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Common uses of basalt volcanic ash include addition in concrete production as a pozzolana\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e15,16\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e and road construction as an asphalt mixture\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e17\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Basalt volcanic ash is commonly used for soil amendment in agriculture to improve soil fertility\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e18\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e as well as for erosion control measures\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e19\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Basalt volcanic ash is also commonly used for water filtration in water purification systems\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e20\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Basalt ash is used for the manufacture of ceramic bricks and tiles\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e21,22\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe composition of waste glass varies depending on the type of glass\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e23\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Container and flat glass used for bottles and mirrors respectively are typically soda-lime-silica glass made from silica sand, soda ash, and limestone. Recycling of glass involves the processes of collection, sorting, cleaning, crushing, melting, forming, and cooling\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e24\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The benefits of recycling glass include; resource conservation, energy savings, reducing the environmental impact, and economic benefits\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e25\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. In contrast, recycling glass faces many challenges such as; contamination of the recycling stream making it harder to process, transportation costs, and fluctuating market demand affecting the economic viability of recycling\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e26\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Using waste glass as a cement additive is an innovative approach that can provide both environmental and economic benefits\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e27\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The benefits of using waste glass as a cement additive are reducing waste disposal, raw material conservation\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e28\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e, and lowering energy requirements in cement production to reduce carbon emissions\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e29\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eMany studies have been conducted on the preparation of belite cement, and few studies have been conducted on measuring the properties of belite cement. The process involves hydrothermal preparation of the calcium silicate hydrate phase (CSH) with a Ca:Si ratio of 2:1 followed by calcination to produce the β-Ca\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eSiO\\u003csub\\u003e4\\u003c/sub\\u003e phase. The effect of various synthesis conditions was investigated\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e30\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Low-temperature synthesis of belite from a mixture of lime, BaCl\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e, and different siliceous raw materials with the ratio (Ca+Ba)/Si = 2 was performed through hydrothermal treatment at 180 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 5 h and calcination at 750˚C for 3 h\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e31\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Low-temperature synthesis of belite from lime and white sand (Ca/Si=2) in NaOH solution was done by hydrothermal treatment at 135 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 3 h followed by calcination at 1000 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 3 h\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e32\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The hydration of plain belite cement was accelerated in the case of OPC blended belite cement\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e33\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Belite cement was synthesized from lime and fly ash by hydrothermal treatment at 97 oC followed by ignition up to 1000 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC and blending belite cement with OPC increased the strength\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e34\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. In case of fly ash, lime, and NaOH mix with a ratio of 70:30:1 hydrothermally processed at 90-100 ◦C for 12 h and calcined at 800 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 1.5 h, the rate of early hydration heat release of belite cement was higher than that of OPC as well as the compressive strength improved with the addition of gypsum\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e35\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe present research contribution aims to understand the hydration characteristics of belite cement prepared by hydrothermal treatment of mixes containing 20-35% lime at 190 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 3.5 h followed by calcination at 600 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 3 h. The heat of hydration and hydration characteristics of plain belite cement, belite/OPC blended cement, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for up to 28 days, were traced by combined water, compressive strength, bulk density, and total porosity measurements as well as proved by XRD, FTIR, TGA/DrTGA and SEM techniques.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2. Materials and experimental procedures \",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2.1. Raw materials and preparation of belite cements\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe basaltic volcanic ash is basalt scoria from cinder cones located 130 km south of Medina, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The waste glass was obtained from a glass manufacturing workshop. The volcanic ash and waste glass were ground by a ball mill for 30 min. Lime was prepared by calcination of limestone at 950 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 3 h in a muffle furnace. The volcanic ash, glass, and lime were sieved to pass 125-micron sieve. Belite cement mixes illustrated in Table 1 were prepared by homogenizing powder of volcanic ash, glass, and lime and BaCl\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e.2H\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO corresponding to 2 wt% Ba, manually in a plastic bag. Fig. 1 illustrates the cement preparation, hydration, and testing processes. About 150 g of the raw mix was mixed with 750 ml distilled water (solid/liquid ratio=1/5) in a stainless steel capsule and was tightly closed. The hydrothermal treatment was carried out in an electric drier at 190 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 3.5 h. The specific values of the treatment temperature and duration were chosen based on previous research experience to ensure formation of the belite cement. Then, the capsule was cooled to room temperature. The product was filtered using filter paper in a porcelain funnel connected to an electric pump and dried in the microwave for 15 min. Then the product was ignited at 600 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC for 3 h in a muffle furnace. Three categories of belite cement were prepared to study the heat of hydration, hydration characteristics, mechanical properties, and microstructure. Their compositions are shown in Table 2. The first category is the plain belite cement which were symbolized H20-H35. The second category is belite/OPC blended cement prepared by mixing 50 wt % belite cement with 50 wt% OPC, and were symbolized HC20-HC35 respectively. The third category is volcanic ash/OPC blended cement, prepared by mixing 50 wt % volcanic ash with 50 wt % OPC, and was symbolized VAC50. Cement mixes were thoroughly mixed in plastic bags.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2.2. Performance of cement by initial heat of hydration\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e70 mL of distilled water whose temperature was maintained at 20\\u0026plusmn;0.5 ℃ (t\\u003csub\\u003eo\\u003c/sub\\u003e), was injected into a thermally insulated container provided with an agitator rotating at 300\\u0026plusmn;50 rpm. 70 g of cement powder was immediately added to the water and the time counting was started. The temperature was recorded every 20 s, until the temperature reached a maximum value (T\\u003csub\\u003emax\\u003c/sub\\u003e), then started to decrease. The initial heat of hydration (Q) is calculated from the expression (Q=M.C.\\u0026Delta;T) expressed in kJ/kg. Where M is the total mass of cement powder and water (140g), C is the heat capacity of water (4.18 Jg\\u003csup\\u003e-1o\\u003c/sup\\u003eC\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e), and, \\u0026Delta;T is the temperature difference (\\u0026Delta;T= T\\u003csub\\u003emax\\u003c/sub\\u003e-t\\u003csub\\u003eo\\u003c/sub\\u003e, \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC)\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e36\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eTable 1.\\u003c/strong\\u003e Mix composition used for preparation of belite cement hydrothermal treatment and calcination.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"1\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" valign=\\\"bottom\\\" style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMix\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd colspan=\\\"3\\\" valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 218px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eRaw materials, %\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 104px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eVolcanic Ash\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 58px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGlass\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 56px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eLime\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eH20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 104px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 58px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 56px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eH25\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 104px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e45\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 58px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 56px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e25\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eH30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 104px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e40\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 58px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 56px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eH35\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 104px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e35\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 58px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 56px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e35\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eTable 2.\\u003c/strong\\u003e Mix composition of plain belite cement, belite/OPC blended cements and volcanic ash/OPC blended cements.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"0\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"358\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMix\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd colspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 203px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eComponents, %\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ew/c ratio\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eBelite cement\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eVA\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eOPC\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eH20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e100\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.45\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eH25\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e100\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.60\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eH30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e100\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.65\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eH35\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e100\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.80\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eHC20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eHC25\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.38\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eHC30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.47\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eHC35\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.53\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 71px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eVAC50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 108px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 48px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 47px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 85px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.30\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2.2. Testing of cement pastes\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eCement pastes were prepared by mixing appropriate w/c ratios that produce workable cement paste, molded in a 2x2x2 cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e iron mold, and stored in a humid atmosphere for 24 h, removed from molds, and, cured in water until testing at 3, 7, and 28 days. \\u0026nbsp;The bulk density of cement pastes was determined by Archimedes\\u0026apos; principle of buoyancy based on ASTM specification\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e37\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The compressive strength of cement paste cubes was measured by a compressive strength apparatus based on ASTM specifications\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e38\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The hydrated cement specimens were dried and free water content was determined by heating in a domestic microwave oven based on ASTM specifications\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e39\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The chemically combined water content was determined for dried specimens by heating in a muffle furnace based on ASTM specifications\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e40\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The total porosity was estimated from the free and total water contents and bulk density according to following reference\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e41\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. A set of three samples was used to estimate the hydration characteristics of cement pastes at curing ages. The oxide content of volcanic ash, glass, and lime was estimated by XRF Philips spectrometer PW1606. The mineral composition of raw materials and hydrated cement specimens was investigated by XRD Philips diffractometer PW1370 with nickel filter CuK\\u0026alpha; radiation source. FTIR was analyzed using a Perkin Elmer System Spectrum X spectrometer within the range 400-4000 cm\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. TGA/DrTGA were performed using a Shimadzu corporation thermal analyzer (DTG-60 H), under a heating rate of 20 \\u0026deg;C/min up to 900 \\u0026deg;C, in nitrogen atmosphere. SEM analysed by JSM-IT200 model, Jeol, Japan, Central Laboratory for Microanalysis and Nanotechnology, Minia University.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2.3. Characterization of raw materials\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTable 3\\u0026nbsp;illustrates the chemical analysis of OPC, lime, volcanic ash, and glass by XRF. Lime is composed of CaO (93.23 wt%) and small amounts of SiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e, MgO, and Al\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e. On the other hand, the main constituents of volcanic ash are SiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e, Al\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, Fe\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e, and CaO. \\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eTable 3.\\u003c/strong\\u003e Chemical composition of raw materials by XRF\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"1\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eOxide, Wt%\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd colspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 201px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eRaw materials\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eLime\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eVolcanic ash\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eOPC\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eSiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.92\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e60.92\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e22.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAl\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.65\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e14.73\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e4.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eFe\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.34\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e7.12\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.88\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCaO\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e93.23\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e5.08\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e64.10\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eMgO\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.69\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.92\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e3.15\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eNa\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e4.23\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eK\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.04\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.41\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.62\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eP\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e5\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.05\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.31\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.22\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eTiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.05\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.80\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp dir=\\\"RTL\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan dir=\\\"LTR\\\"\\u003e0.06\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eSO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.48\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.17\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd valign=\\\"top\\\" style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCl\\u003csup\\u003e-\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.05\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.04\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.06\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eLOI*\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.55\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.12\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 54px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eTotal\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 50px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e99.25\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e99.85\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 57px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e99.80\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e* LOI loss on ignition\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 2\\u0026nbsp;shows the XRD patterns of raw materials. Glass is composed of amorphous sodium and calcium silicates as its characteristic broad bump appears in the between 10 and 38 2theta. Volcanic ash consists of amorphous silicates in addition to albite as its characteristic peaks appear at 17.3 and 28.3 2theta. Lime consists of calcium oxide, as its characteristic peaks appear at 17.3 and 28.3 2theta. In addition to portlandite, its characteristic peaks appear at 17.3 and 28.3 2theta due to hydration by moisture. OPC contains the clinker minerals alite, belite, aluminate, and ferrite in addition to calcite and gypsum\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e42\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Fig. 3 shows the FTIR spectra of raw materials. The FTIR of glass shows the following absorption bands. The broadband at 1013 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si asymmetric stretching vibration of silica networks. The broadband around 3400 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;OH stretching vibration of absorbed water. The sharp band at 768 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si symmetric stretching vibration of well-ordered silica frameworks. The sharp band at 456 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;O bending vibration of the silica matrix\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e43\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe FTIR of volcanic ash shows the following absorption bands. The broadband at 1010 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si asymmetric stretching vibration of silica networks. The broadband around 3400 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;OH stretching vibration of absorbed water. The sharp band at 560 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Fe\\u0026ndash;O stretching vibration of iron oxides. The sharp band at 455 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Mg\\u0026ndash;O and Ca\\u0026ndash;O stretching vibration of magnesium or calcium oxides\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e44\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The FTIR of lime shows the following absorption bands. The intense sharp band at 3635 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the O\\u0026ndash;H stretching vibration of hydroxyl groups indicating slaked lime Ca(OH)₂. The broadband around 1405 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the C\\u0026ndash;O asymmetric stretching vibration of carbonate groups indicating carbonation of lime. The sharp band at 897 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; regarded as the C\\u0026ndash;O out-of-plane bending vibration of carbonate groups. The broadband at 415 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Ca\\u0026ndash;O stretching vibration of lime CaO\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e45\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe FTIR of OPC shows the following absorption bands. The very weak sharp band at 3640 cm-1 is regarded as the O\\u0026ndash;H stretching vibration of portlandite. The weak broadband at 3428 cm-1 is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;OH stretching vibration of absorbed water. The sharp band at 1411 cm-1 is regarded as the C\\u0026ndash;O asymmetric stretching vibration of carbonate of limestone blended with OPC. The weak sharp band at 1144 cm-1 is regarded as the S\\u0026ndash;O stretching vibration of sulfate of gypsum added to OPC. The weak sharp band at 1087 cm-1 and sharp broadband at 906 cm-1 are regarded to Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations respectively of calcium silicate phases C₃S and C₂S. The sharp band at 900 cm-1 is regarded as the C\\u0026ndash;O out-of-plane bending vibration of carbonate of limestone blended with OPC. The sharp band at 511 cm-1 is regarded as the Al\\u0026ndash;O and Si\\u0026ndash;O bending vibration of aluminate as well as silicate networks, The sharp band at 421 cm-1 is regarded as the Ca\\u0026ndash;O stretching vibration of calcium-related phases (C₃A, C₄AF, Ca(OH)₂)\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e46\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The SEM imaging gives an approximate idea of the grain size distribution and crystallization nature of the raw materials. Fig. 4 shows the SEM images of raw materials. In terms of the grain size of the raw materials, it is clear that the glass particles are finer than the volcanic ash particles, although the glass contains a percentage of coarse particles with a diameter exceeding 50 microns. While lime is very fine, as its particles do not exceed 3 microns in diameter. In terms of the nature of crystallization, it is clear that the lime and OPC particles are more regular, which expresses the crystallization of their minerals, while the volcanic ash and glass particles do not form in specific crystalline patterns, which indicates the prevailing amorphous state of the volcanic ash and glass.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. Results and discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.1. Performance of cement by initial heat of hydration\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe initial heat of hydration measurement (Fig. 5)\\u0026nbsp;illustrates the performance of prepared belite cement compared to the reference value for heat of hydration (85-100 kJ/kg initial stage heat of hydration for OPC), showing which mixes exceed or stay below this threshold\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e47\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The VAC50 mix shows the lowest heat of hydration among all the mixes, indicating a slower reaction and reduced heat generation, as well as its suitability for massive concrete structures where heat control is critical to avoid thermal cracking\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e48\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. H20\\u0026ndash;H35 mixes, which represent belite cement with increasing lime content (20-35%), exhibit the highest heat of hydration compared to all cement mixes\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e49\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. The heat of hydration increases progressively as the lime content due to the exothermic hydration reaction of lime, releasing more heat\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e47\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Accordingly, these belite cements could not be suitable for massive concrete structure applications due to their high heat generation\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e48\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. HC20\\u0026ndash;HC35 mixes (belite cement blended with 50% OPC) exhibit a moderate heat of hydration compared to the pure belite cements (H20\\u0026ndash;H35), due to the dilution effect of OPC, which hydrates more rapidly and releases lower heat of hydration\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e49\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. These mixes are suitable for applications requiring moderate heat of hydration and low initial strength gain\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e47\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.2. Phase identification of cement pastes\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.2.1. X-ray diffraction\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 6a\\u0026nbsp;shows the XRD patterns of H20 untreated, hydrothermally treated, calcined, and hydrated at 3 days. When H20 was hydrothermally treated at 190 \\u0026deg;C, the amorphous helibrandite phase was formed as appearing in the broad bump between 10 and 38 2theta\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e31\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u0026nbsp;The formation of helibrandite results from the reaction of a part of the amorphous silicates of the volcanic ash with lime during the hydrothermal treatment. When the product of the H20 mixture (hydrothermally treated at 190 \\u0026deg;C) was calcined at 600 \\u0026deg;C, the helibrandite was transformed into alite and belite minerals, which showed their characteristic peaks at 32-33, 39, 45.6 and 46.5 2theta\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e50\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. When the product of the H20 mixture (hydrothermally treated at 190 \\u0026deg;C and calcined at 600 \\u0026deg;C) was hydrated in water, the percentage of portlandite formation did not increase, and the percentage of alite and belite minerals was only slightly reduced, which will negatively affect the mechanical properties of the produced cement. Fig. 6b shows the XRD patterns of H20 calcined and hydrated at 3-28 days. When the H20 mixture (hydrothermally treated at 190 \\u0026deg;C and calcined at 600 \\u0026deg;C) was hydrated in water for longer periods, the rate of hydration of alite and belite increased. The amorphous hydrated products (CSH) were formed giving a wide bump at 10-38 2theta. This may lead to an improvement in the mechanical properties of the produced cement, confirming that the produced cement hydrates slowly. It is expected to give higher mechanical properties at later ages due to its richness in belite.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 6c\\u0026nbsp;shows H20-H35 hydrated at 28 days. With the increasing amount of lime, the rate of CSH formation improves, as seen from the increase in the intensity of the amorphous phases (wide bump at 10-38 2theta), up to the mixture containing 25% lime. Then the rate of CSH formation decreases at higher lime ratios. The same behavior can be explained by following the increase of portlandite. Fig. 7a shows the XRD pattern of HC20 calcined and hydrated at 3-28 days. When H20 was mixed with OPC and hydrated in water for 28 days, the alite and belite phases originating from the OPC were observed to hydrate at a faster rate than the alite and belite phases originating from the produced belite cement. It is also observed that the rate of formation of amorphous CSH increased with the age of hydration. Fig. 7b shows the XRD pattern of HC20-HC35 hydrated at 28 days. When samples H20-H35 were mixed with OPC and hydrated in water for 28 days, an improvement in the rate of hydration was observed. This was indicated by the increase in the rate of CSH and portlandite formation from mixture H20 to mixture H30, then the rate of hydration decreased in mixture H35. This may prove that the rate of hydration of the produced belite cement increased in the presence of OPC\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e51\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. Fig. 8 shows the XRD pattern VAC50 unhydrated and hydrated for up to 28 days. When volcanic ash was mixed with OPC and hydrated for 28 days, an improvement in the rate of hydration was observed. This was indicated by the increase in the rate of portlandite formation until the age of 7 days. Then a significant decrease in the rate of portlandite formation was observed after that, accompanied by an increase in the rate of CSH formation. This was indicated by the increase in the intensity of the wide bump from 10 to 38 2theta. This indicates the reaction of portlandite with amorphous silica in the volcanic ash to form CSH, confirming the pozzolanic role of the volcanic ash\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e52\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.2.2. FTIR analysis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 9a\\u0026nbsp;shows the FTIR spectra of H20 untreated, hydrothermally treated, calcined, and hydrated at 3 days. After the hydrothermal treatment of H20, the intensity of the sharp band at 3635 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; s regarded as the O\\u0026ndash;H stretching vibration of hydroxyl groups linked to Ca(OH)₂, decreased due to the reaction of Ca(OH)₂ with amorphous silica forming hydrated calcium silicates. At the same time, the broadband at 1032 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si asymmetric stretching vibration of silica networks shifted to 973 confirming the formation of hydrated calcium silicates. The intensity of the broadband around 3400 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; is regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;OH stretching vibration of absorbed water increases due to the inclusion of high water content in hydrated calcium silicates. After calcination of the hydrothermally treated H20, the formation of dicalcium silicate C₂S is proved from the appearance of new absorption bands at 996 and 510 cm-1 which are regarded as the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations as well as Ca\\u0026ndash;O stretching / Si\\u0026ndash;O bending vibrations of Ca\\u0026ndash;O and Si\\u0026ndash;O bonds in C₂S respectively. After hydration of calcined hydrothermally treated H20, the formation of CSH is elucidated from the appearance of the new absorption band at 928 cm-1 that is regarded as the\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003eSi\\u0026ndash;OH stretching vibration of CSH\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e53\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn Fig. 9b, the broadening of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of Si-O bond of CSH at 967 cm-1 with aging of belite cement, (H20-H35) hydrothermally treated, calcined, and hydrated at 28 days, is regarded to the increasing the degree of polymerization forming longer silicate chains and a more complex network, increasing cross-linking of silicate chains, and, replacement of Si by Ca or the incorporation of other ions (such as Ba\\u003csup\\u003e2+\\u003c/sup\\u003e ions) in CSH structure\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e54\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e. In Fig. 9c, the intensity of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of the Si-O bond of CSH at 967 cm-1 decreases with increasing lime content of belite cement, (from H20 to H35). This is due to lowering the formation of CSH with decreasing volcanic ash content. In Fig. 10a, the intensity and broadening of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of the Si-O bond of CSH at 967 cm-1 increases with the aging of HC20 up to 28 days, due to the formation of CSH regarding the hydration of OPC. In Fig. 10b, the broadening of the asymmetric stretching vibration band of the Si-O bond of CSH at 967 cm-1 increases from HC20 to HC25 and then decreases up to HC35. This indicates that increasing lime content in the belite cement adversely influences the hydration of OPC. In Fig. 11, the intensity of the sharp stretching vibration band of portlandite at 3635 cm⁻\\u0026sup1; does not significantly decrease with the aging of volcanic ash/OPC blended cement (VAC50) up to 28 days. This is due to the limited pozzolanic activity of volcanic ash.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.2.3. TG analysis\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe derivative weight determines the thermal behavior and the decomposition temperatures of belite cement, providing information about the relative quantities of decomposable phases present in different belite cement mixes. Fig. 12 shows the TGA/Dr.TGA thermogram of H20 mixture hydrothermally treated at 190 \\u0026deg;C. The sharp peak around 460 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC indicates that the belite cement undergoes a significant change in weight at that temperature due to rapid dehydration of the residual portlandite. The broad peaks around 60 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC (extending beyond 200 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC), 650 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC, and 820 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC indicate the gradual slow decomposition processes regarding; loss of free absorbed water, decomposition of hillebrandite into belite, and phase transformation of belite respectively\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e55\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 13 shows the TGA/Dr.TGA thermograms of pure belite cement hydrated for 28 days. The results of the derivative weight corresponding to the dehydration of the belite phase show a gradual increase in the content of the CSH with the age of the hydration up to 28 days. However, the decrease in the values of the derivative weight corresponding to the dehydration of the portlandite phase, as well as the slight increase in the percentage of total weight loss with the age of the hydration, indicate a decrease in the rate of hydration of the belite cement. The derivative weight corresponding to the dehydration of the belite phase shows an increase in the formation of CSH as the percentage of lime added to the composition of the beite cement increases. However, the increase in the percentage of total weight loss shows that the percentage of 30% lime corresponds to the highest percentage of weight loss with the hydration of cement, then the percentage of total weight loss decreases when the percentage of lime increases to 35%.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 14 shows the TGA/Dr.TGA thermograms of belite/OPC blended cement hydrated for 28 days. The values of the derivative weight corresponding to the dehydration of the portlandite phase of belite/OPC blended cement are within 3-4 times the values corresponding to the pure belite cement, and their values of the percentage of total weight loss are about twice the values of the pure belite cement. This confirms the improvement in the hydration of belite cement in the presence of OPC. Fig. 15 shows the TGA/Dr.TGA thermograms of volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for 28 days. The values of the derived weight corresponding to the dehydration of the portlandite phase, as well as the values of the total weight loss ratios of the volcanic ash/OPC blended cement, are higher than those of pure belite cement, but lower than those of the OPC blended with belite cement. This confirms that the rate of hydration of the belite/OPC blended cement is higher than that of the volcanic ash/OPC blended cement. This is evident from the comparison shown in Fig. 16.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.2.4. SEM analysis\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 17\\u0026nbsp;show the SEM images of H20 hydrothermally treated at 190 \\u0026deg;C, calcined at 600 \\u0026deg;C and, hydrated in water for up to 28 days. The hydrothermal treatment of the H20 resulted in the volcanic ash and glass particles being coated with a fibrous amorphous material resulting from the formation of hydrated calcium silicates. This fibrous amorphous material was transformed into dispersed nanoparticles after firing at 600 \\u0026deg;C due to the loss of water of crystallization, and then it was transformed into an amorphous material after hydrolysis due to the formation of amorphous calcium silicates. The amount of amorphous material increases with the age of the hydrated sample. Although both the amount of amorphous material and the percentage of combined water increase with the increase in the percentage of added lime, this pattern contradicts the results of compressive strength, bulk density, and total porosity, as both of them decrease with the increase in the percentage of added lime. It seems that the increase in the amount of amorphous material and the percentage of combined water increases with the increase in the percentage of added lime due to the hydration of lime into calcium hydroxide and not because of the hydration of calcium silicates. This explains the nature of the decrease in compressive strength and density and the increase in porosity with the increase in the percentage of added lime\\u003cu\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e56\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/u\\u003e, although the percentage of combined water increases.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 18 shows the SEM images of belite cement H20, OPC blended with H20 and, OPC blended with volcanic ash hydrated in water for 28 days. SEM images of the hydrated cement samples confirm the XRD and TGA results that the rate of hydration of belite/OPC blended cement is the highest, followed by volcanic ash/OPC blended cement, and in last place comes pure belite cement. This is clearly shown by observing the accumulation of non-hydrated crystalline cementitious materials in the belite cement sample. While the belite/OPC blended cement is rich in amorphous hydration products. Fig. 19 shows the SEM images of belite cement H20-H35 and OPC blended with H20-H35 hydrated in water for 28 days. The density of the amorphous CSH increases with the percentage of lime added to the composition of the belite cement up to 30% lime, and then decreases in the belite cement containing 35% lime, and these results are consistent with the XRD and TGA results. At the same time, the density of the amorphous CSH increases with the addition of OPC to the composition of the belite cement. This proves that the addition of OPC enhances the hydration of belite cement.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.3. Physico-mechanical properties of cement pastes\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.3.1. Chemically combined water\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 20 shows the combined water content of pure belite cement, belite/OPC blended cement, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for 28 days. The results of the combined water content are consistent with the compressive strength measurements, showing that belite/OPC blended cement, as well as those blended with volcanic ash, contain a higher combined water content than pure plain belite cement. This is due to the slower hydration of the belite phase compared to the alite phase. However, the combined water content increases with increasing lime percentage added to belite cement blends, from H20 to H35, as well as in belite/OPC blended cement. This is due to the abundance of hydrated lime remaining after reacting with silica to form belite. The curve illustrates the influence both of lime content and more reactive phases (OPC or pozzolans) on the rate and extent of hydration. The belite cements (H20-H35) favor a lower but steadier hydration profile, while OPC blended belite cements (HC20-HC35) ensures a strong early contribution to combined water content and further growth over time.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.3.2. Bulk density and total porosity of cement pastes\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 21 shows the bulk density and total porosity of pure belite cement, belite/OPC blended cement, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for 28 days. It is noted that the variation in density and porosity of H20-H35 is not monotonous, possibly due to the inaccuracy of the routine methods used here for measuring the density and porosity of cement pastes. Bulk density decreases and total porosity increases moving from volcanic ash/OPC blended cement, to belite/OPC blended cement, and finally to plain belite cement. This confirms the weak hydration of belite cement, which leads to more free water remaining, which leads to a decrease in bulk density and an increase in total porosity.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e3.3.3. Compressive strength\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFig. 22 shows the compressive strength of pure belite cement, belite/OPC blended cement, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement hydrated in water for 28 days. The compressive strength of all plain belite cement; H20-H35 is low. The compressive strength gained with the age of hydration is also low. H20 has a lower compressive strength than mixes of other plain belite cements; H25 to H35 at early ages, while it has a higher compressive strength than the other belite cements at later ages. All belite/OPC blended cement; HC20 to HC35 have improved compressive strength compared with plain belite cements, among which, HC20 shows the highest compressive strength at all ages of hydration. While volcanic ash/OPC blended cement has a compressive strength on average between that of plain belite cement (H20 to H35) and belite/OPC blended cement.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eBased on the above research findings, the following points were concluded. Volcanic ash contains coarse amorphous silicates and albite. Hydrated dicalcium silicate, (helibrandite) is formed via the hydrothermal treatment, then transformed into alite and belite minerals by calcination at 600 \\u0026deg;C. The plain belite cement was slowly hydrated in water giving low mechanical properties of the produced cement. It is expected to provide higher mechanical properties at later ages due to its richness in belite. The rate of hydration improves both by increasing the content of lime to 25-30% and by blending with OPC. The volcanic ash has low pozzolanic properties. Belite/OPC and volcanic ash/OPC blended cement contain a higher combined water content than pure plain belite cement. The bulk density and total porosity results confirm the slow hydration of belite cement. The compressive strength of all plain belite cement (H20-H35) is low. The compressive strength gained with the age of hydration is also low. All belite blended cement have improved compressive strength, among which HC20 shows the highest compressive strength at all ages of hydration. Plain belite cement, releases a high heat of hydration. Whereas belite/OPC blended cement releases a lower heat of hydration. This makes it more suitable for applications where moderate heat of hydration and low initial strength gain are not harmful.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAcknowledgments\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThis work was funded by the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at Jouf University under grant No. (DGSSR-2023-02-02284).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAuthor contributions\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTamer H.A. Hasanin\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cul\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eManuscript proposal\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eResult drawing\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eAssist in discussion\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eManuscript editing\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eLanguage editing\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eLiterature review collection\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ul\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eM.A. Tantawy\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cul\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eManuscript proposal\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eExperimental work\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eResult drawing\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eDiscussion of results\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eLanguage editing\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n \\u003cli\\u003eManuscript preparation\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ul\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eData availability statement\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors confirm that the data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCompeting Interests Statement\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eLiu, J., Zhang, S., Wagner, F. 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Synthesis of alite, belite and ferrite in both monophase and polyphase states and their hydration behavior, J. Maters. Resear. Tech. \\u003cstrong\\u003e25\\u003c/strong\\u003e, 3901-3916 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.151.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eGong, Y., Yang, J., Sun, H., Xu, F. Effect of fly ash belite cement on hydration performance of Portland cement. Crystals. \\u003cstrong\\u003e11\\u003c/strong\\u003e, 740 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11070740.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eKhan, K., Amin, M. N., Usman, M., Imran, M., Al-Faiad, M. A., Shalabi, F. I. Effect of fineness and heat treatment on the pozzolanic activity of natural volcanic ash for its utilization as supplementary cementitious materials. Crystals. \\u003cstrong\\u003e12\\u003c/strong\\u003e, 302 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12020302.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eMadadi, A., Wei, J. 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Chemical activation and set acceleration of lime-natural pozzolan cement, Ceramics-Silik\\u0026aacute;ty \\u003cstrong\\u003e50\\u003c/strong\\u003e(4), 193-199 (2006).\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"scirep\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"\",\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Belite cement, lime, volcanic ash, heat of hydration, strength development, microstructure\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5917687/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5917687/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"In this study, lime, volcanic ash, and OPC were used to prepare belite, belite/OPC blended, and volcanic ash/OPC blended cements. The hydrothermal treatment of volcanic ash/lime mixes at 190 oC for 3.5 h followed by calcination at 600 oC for 3 h. The heat of hydration of cements was measured, and hydration characteristics were assessed by combined water, compressive strength, bulk density, and total porosity measurements. The microstructural changes with hydration progress were monitored by XRD, TGA, FTIR, and SEM techniques. Hydrated calcium silicate is formed by hydrothermal treatment and was transformed to belite by calcination. The heat of hydration of plain belite cements increases with increasing lime content, confirming its unsuitability for massive concrete applications. Whereas, belite/OPC blended cements exhibit a lower heat of hydration to be suitable for applications requiring moderate heat of hydration and low initial strength gain. The rate of hydration of belite cement improves both by increasing the content of lime to 25-30% as well as blending with OPC. Volcanic ash/OPC blended cement has an average compressive strength between plain belite cement and belite/OPC blended cement. This research provide valuable insights for practical application of prepared belite cement in the construction.\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Hydration properties of belite cement prepared by lime-hydrothermal treatment of Saudi basaltic volcanic ash and glass\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:32\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5917687/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2025-05-13T06:30:38+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-05-08T09:38:50+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-05-06T02:32:50+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"286914802686752928546090492144890408583\",\"date\":\"2025-04-27T01:54:49+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"171516530262335125735070648557038727206\",\"date\":\"2025-04-23T03:00:03+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-04-22T08:35:31+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-04-21T04:32:18+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"date\":\"2025-04-15T00:27:22+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"scirep\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"\",\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"3769b7ff-1333-4c8b-b57b-a7fde3149417\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"April 23rd, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"published-in-journal\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":47492338,\"name\":\"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences\"},{\"id\":47492339,\"name\":\"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences\"},{\"id\":47492340,\"name\":\"Physical sciences/Chemistry\"},{\"id\":47492341,\"name\":\"Physical sciences/Engineering\"},{\"id\":47492342,\"name\":\"Physical sciences/Materials science\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-08-18T16:03:52+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":{\"articleIdentity\":\"rs-5917687\",\"link\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-14951-8\",\"journal\":{\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isVorOnly\":false,\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\"},\"publishedOn\":\"2025-08-12 15:58:05\",\"publishedOnDateReadable\":\"August 12th, 2025\"},\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-04-23 08:39:32\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"10.1038/s41598-025-14951-8\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-14951-8\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-5917687\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-5917687\",\"identity\":\"rs-5917687\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}