{"paper_id":"11658144-c31a-47e7-ba40-cdabda5dcd7c","body_text":"Factors Predicting Social Media Addiction among University Students in Klang Valley, Malaysia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Factors Predicting Social Media Addiction among University Students in Klang Valley, Malaysia Idil Mohamed Yusuf, Yin How Wong, Sapna Shridhar Patil, Picholas Kian Ann Phoa, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7527272/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Social media addiction is an emerging concern, particularly among university students, who represent a highly connected demographic. Sleep disturbances may contribute to increased social media use. Objective This study aimed to assess the prevalence of social media addiction and examine its predictors, including sociodemographic factors and sleep quality, among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1,373 students selected through stratified sampling from public and private universities in Klang Valley. Data were collected using a self-administered online questionnaire, including the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and binary logistic regression were used for data analysis. Results About 35.0% participants were classified as addicted to social media. Social media addiction was significantly associated with age (p = 0.010), academic performance (p = 0.013), and sleep quality (p < 0.001). Logistic regression analysis identified poor sleep quality (AOR = 2.42, 95% CI = 1.844–3.191, p < 0.001), CGPA < 2.70 (AOR = 2.019, 95% CI = 1.313–3.42, p = 0.009), and aged 22–23 years (AOR = 1.824, 95% CI = 1.185–2.807, p = 0.006) as significant predictors of social media addiction. Conclusion The findings indicate a high prevalence of social media addiction among university students in Klang Valley. Given that poor sleep quality predicted social media addiction, promoting good sleep hygiene may mitigate addiction risk, especially among those with older age and low academic performance. Behavioral addiction Malaysia social media addiction sleep quality university students INTRODUCTION The term “social media” was first introduced back in 1994, but the definition varied over landscapes and research background [1]. In this study, we adopted the definition by Bishop (2019), stating that “social media as any online resource that is designed to facilitate engagement between individuals”[2]. This includes websites and applications associated with forum activities, microblogging, and social networking. As of 2024, social media is dominated by platforms like Facebook (3.05 billion users), YouTube (2.49 billion users), Instagram and WhatsApp (2 billion users), and TikTok (1.56 billion users) [3]. Global social media usage has steadily grown since 2017 and is projected to reach 5.85 billion users by 2027 [3]. While social media has become a vital part of modern life, its excessive use has led to the development of internet-related behavioral issues, particularly social media addiction [4]. Social media addiction refers to the excessive use of social networking sites that interferes daily functioning, interpersonal relationships, and mental wellbeing, thus leading to neglect of important aspects of life (e.g., work, health, social connection) [5]. Pooled global prevalence of social media addiction among university student population is 18.4% [6]. Studies have shown that the prevalence of social media addiction is significantly higher among teenagers and young adults, likely due to their earlier and more frequent exposure to these platforms and their greater digital competence [7]. The increased in screen time also increases the opportunities of young people addicted to social media [8]. Simultaneously, sleep problem, a universal yet understated public health issue, affects the health systemically, including increased risk of cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, dementia, and mental health conditions [9]. While it is well-established that social media addiction can negatively impact sleep quality, less is known about whether poor sleep quality may contribute to a heightened risk of social media addiction [10,11]. Research has shown that adolescents experiencing poor sleep exhibit heightened sensitivity to rewards and impaired cognitive control, which may contribute to poor decision-making and a higher risk of engaging in substance use [12]. This may suggest that poor sleep quality play a critical role in the development and maintenance of social media addiction. Therefore, given emergence of social media addiction, it is important to evaluate students' sleep patterns and identify sociodemographic groups that may be more vulnerable, to better understand and address the development of addictive social media behaviors. In this study, we aim to assess the prevalence of social media addiction and examine its predictors, including sleep quality, among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Methods 2.1 Study design A cross-sectional study was conducted among university students in the Klang Valley, Malaysia. Data collection was carried out from October 2024 to May 2025. 2.2 Study population and setting This study was conducted among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The Klang Valley is a densely populated region in the central zone of the Peninsular Malaysia, comprising the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and several districts in the state of Selangor. Stratified sampling was used to recruit participants from four universities in the Klang Valley, respectively, with two representing public institutions and two representing private institutions. The inclusion criteria were: (1) individuals aged 18 years and above, (2) individuals formally enrolled in the selected universities, (3) individuals who use social media, and (4) individuals who volunteer to participate in the study. We exclude those who were currently receiving treatment for diagnosed mental health conditions, and those who are unable to communicate in English were excluded from participation. The sample size for this study was calculated using the sample size formula for finite populations. According to the Ministry of Higher Education, the total population size of students enrolled in public and private universities in Klang Valley in 2023 was 1,593,597 [13]. Using the z-score of 1.96, margin of error of 0.05, and the population proportion of 42.3% [14], the minimum sample size for this study is 375 respondents. 2.3 Instruments 2.3.1 Sociodemographic This section included items such as gender, age, nationality, university type (public or private), year of study, cumulative grade point average (CGPA), level of study, study field, current living arrangement, and household income as stratified according to income structure by the Department of Statistics Malaysia, namely the Bottom 40% (B40; RM4,849.00 and below), Middle 40% (M40; RM4,850.00 – RM10,959.00), and Top 20% (T20; RM10,960.00 and above) [15]. 2.3.2 Social Media Usage This section included questions about the types of social media platforms used, the time spent on social media each day and week, the main reasons for using these platforms, their preferred devices for access, how often they post, and how frequently they check their accounts. Participants also reported which activities take up most of their time on social media. 2.3.3 Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) is a validated tool used to measure social media addiction.[16] It consists of six items reflecting the core components of addiction: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse [5]. The items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often). A higher total score indicates a higher level of social media addiction, and the cutoff score of 19 (out of 30) indicate individuals at risk of addictive social media use [16]. The BSMAS is unidimensional, demonstrated good reliability, and consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.83) across 28 studies [17]. 2.3.4 Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) is used to measure sleep quality over the past month. It consists of 19 self-rated questions assessing seven components of sleep: subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleep medication, and daytime dysfunction. The scores for each component are summed to yield a global score ranging from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicating poorer sleep quality. A global PSQI score of less than 5 is indicative of good sleep quality, while a score of 5 or above suggests poor sleep quality. The initial evaluation of the global PSQI scale reported good reliability and validity, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83, test-retest reliability of 0.85, sensitivity of 89.6%, and specificity of 86.5% [18,19]. 2.4 Data Collection Data were collected using an online, self-administered structured questionnaire designed to collect sociodemographic, social media usage, social media addiction, and sleep quality among respondents. The English versions of the questionnaires were used in this study. On average, it took approximately 10 minutes for participants to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed using Google Forms and was distributed through both online and face-to-face methods to ensure wider reach and improved response rates. For online distribution, the survey link and QR code were shared via social media platforms such as WhatsApp and through email. In the face-to-face approach, the QR code linked to the questionnaire was displayed in high-traffic areas within university campuses, including lecture halls, cafeterias, and libraries. Students were invited to scan the QR code using their mobile devices to access the form instantly. 2.5 Data Analysis Data obtained was entered and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 27.0). The demographic backgrounds of the participants, such as age, gender, level of study, and current year, were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The Chi-square test was used to examine the association between social media addiction and variables like gender, age group, academic performance (CGPA), university type, living arrangement, and sleep quality. A p -value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Binary logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with social media addiction. Variables with a p -value ≤ 0.05 in bivariate analysis were selected for inclusion in the multivariable logistic regression model. Results were reported as crude ratio (OR) and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence intervals and corresponding p -values. 2.6 Ethical Consideration This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. Ethical approval for the study was granted by Taylor’s University Human Ethics Committee (Reference No.: HEC 2024/302). All records from this study will be kept confidential, and individual identities were not disclosed in reports or publications. RESULTS 3.1. Sociodemographic and pattern of social media usage A total of 1373 university students participated in the study, with a majority being female, Malaysian, and undergraduate students from private universities. Most were aged between 20 to 21 years old. Participants came from various faculties, primarily Applied and Health Sciences, and reported a range of academic performances and household income levels. In terms of living arrangements, students mostly lived with friends and housemates. Table 1 summarizes the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents. Table 1 Sociodemographic of respondents involved in this study (N = 1373) Variable Frequency (n) Percentage (%) Sex Female 845 61.5% Male 528 38.5% Age 18–19 378 27.5 20–21 595 43.3 22–23 241 17.6 24 and above 159 11.6 Nationality Malaysian 955 69.6 Non-Malaysian 418 30.4 University Private 853 62.1 Public 520 37.9 Year of Study Year 1 577 42.0 Year 2 492 35.8 Year 3 236 17.2 Year 4 or 5 68 5.0 CGPA 3.70–4.00 614 44.7 2.70–3.69 695 50.6 < 2.70 64 4.7 Household Income B40 614 44.7 M40 405 29.5 T20 354 25.8 Level of Study Undergraduate 1163 84.7 Foundation 134 9.8 Postgraduate 76 5.5 Faculty Applied and Health Science 479 34.9 Computer Science, Engineering, Architectural Science 329 24.0 Business and Law 322 23.5 Social Science, Leisure Management, Education, Religious Study 243 17.7 Living Arrangement Living with family 544 39.6 Living with friends and housemate 552 40.2 Living alone 277 20.2 Note: B40 = RM 4,849 and less; M40 = RM 4,850 to RM 10,959; T20 = RM 10,960 and more Table 2 summarizes participants' social media usage patterns. Most reported spending 3–4 hours daily on social media, primarily using Instagram, WhatsApp, and YouTube. Common reasons for use included seeing what is going on in others’ lives, connecting with loved ones, and following political situations, with most time spent on social networking. While many reported posting only once every few months, a notable portion post on social media daily. Frequent checking was common, with many checking social media every 30, and over half reported it was the first thing they checked upon waking. Table 2 Social media usage among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia (N = 1373) Item Frequency (n) Percentage (%) How much time do you spend on social media per day? Less than 30 mins 26 1.9 1–2 hours 217 15.8 3–4 hours 491 35.7 5–6 hours 369 26.9 6–7 hours 120 8.7 More than 7 hours 150 10.9 What social media platform do you use the most? (choose up to 3) Instagram 987 71.9 WhatsApp 819 59.9 YouTube 636 46.3 TikTok 454 33.1 Facebook 190 13.8 X 184 13.4 Snapchat 158 11.5 Others 41 3.0 Telegram 37 2.7 Reddit 12 0.9 What do you personally use social media for? Seeing what is going on in everyone's lives 1139 83.0 To connect with loved one(s) 738 53.8 Political situation in the country 242 17.6 To promote and run a business 51 3.7 For which of the following do you spend most of your time? Social networking 778 56.7 Learning 234 17.0 Gaming 170 12.4 News update 146 10.6 Others 45 3.3 What is your go-to device to access your social media feed? Mobile 1224 89.1 Tablet 71 5.2 Laptop 64 4.7 Desktop 14 1.0 How often do you use/post on social media? Daily 308 22.4 Once in 2 to 3 days 193 14.1 Weekly 169 12.3 Once every 2 weeks 146 10.6 Monthly 159 11.6 Once every few months 398 29.0 How often do you check on social media? Every 5 minutes 167 12.2 Every 15 minutes 296 21.6 Every 30 minutes 388 28.3 Every 45 minutes 206 15.0 Every 60 minutes 316 23.0 Social media is the first thing I check when I get up from bed in the morning. Strongly agree 327 23.8 Agree 460 33.5 Maybe 378 27.5 Disagree 147 10.7 Strongly disagree 61 4.4 3.2 Sleep quality The mean global PSQI score was 7.68 (SD = 3.48), indicating that, on average, students experienced poor sleep quality, as scores above 5 reflect disturbed sleep. The distribution of sleep quality among the participants revealed that out of 1,373 respondents, most students (n = 981, 71.4%) were classified as having poor sleep quality, while only 392 students (28.6%) reported good sleep quality. These findings suggest that more than two-thirds of university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia, experience poor sleep quality. 3.3 Prevalence of social media addiction The mean total score for social media addiction was 17.01 (SD = 4.63), with scores ranging from 6 to 30. Out of the total 1,373 respondents, 480 students (35.0%) were classified as addicted to social media, while 893 students (65.0%) were categorized as not addicted. These findings suggest that more than one-third of university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia, exhibit signs of social media addiction. 3.4 Association between social media addiction and sociodemographic factors and sleep quality A chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine the relationship between sociodemographic, sleep quality, and social media addiction, as presented in Table 3 . The results indicated a statistically significant association between social media addiction and age, academic performance, and sleep quality ( p < 0.05). Table 3 Association between social media addiction and sociodemographic factors among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia (N = 1373) using Chi-Squared test. Variable Social media addiction Chi-square (χ²) p -value Not addicted n (%) Addicted n (%) Gender Female 553 (65.4) 292 (34.6) 0.158 0.691 Male 340 (64.4) 188 (35.6) Age 18–19 246 (65.1) 132 (34.9) 11.380 0.010 20–21 403 (67.7) 192 (32.3) 22–23 135 (56.0) 106 (44.0) 24 and above 109 (68.6) 50 (31.4) Nationality Malaysian 625 (65.4) 330 (34.6) 0.226 0.667 Non-Malaysian 268 (64.1) 150 (35.9) University Private 555 (65.1) 298 (34.9) 0.001 0.981 Public 338(65.0) 182(35.0) Year of Study Year 1 387 (67.1) 190 (32.9) 4.089 0.252 Year 2 322 (65.4) 170 (34.6) Year 3 141 (59.7) 95 (40.3) Year 4 or 5 43 (63.2) 25 (36.8) CGPA 3.70–4.00 411(66.9) 203 (33.1) 8.730 0.013 2.70–3.69 451(64.9) 244 (35.1) < 2.69 31(48.4) 33 (51.6) Household income B40 408 (66.4) 206 (33.6) 2.500 0.281 M40 267 (65.9) 138 (34.1) T20 218 (61.6) 136(38.4) Level of Study Foundation 90 (67.2) 44 (32.8) 0.329 0.848 Undergraduate 753 (64.7) 410 (35.3) Postgraduate 50 (65.8) 26 (34.2) Faculty Applied and Health Science 311 (64.9) 168 (35.1) 0.973 0.808 Computer Science, Engineering, Architectural Science 219 (66.6) 110 (33.4) Business and Law 203 (63.0) 119 (37.0) Social Science, Leisure Management, Education, Religious Study 160 (65.8) 83 (34.2) Living Arrangement Living with friends and housemate 371(67.2) 181(32.8) 3.490 0.177 Living with family 354 (65.1) 190 (34.9) Living alone 168 (60.6) 109 (39.4) Sleep Quality Good sleep quality 307 (78.3) 85 (21.7) 42.500 < 0.001 Poor sleep quality 586 (59.7) 395 (40.3) Note: B40 = RM 4,849 and less; M40 = RM 4,850 to RM 10,959; T20 = RM 10,960 and more. The analysis revealed a significant association between age and social media addiction (χ² = 11.380, p = 0.010). The largest number of addicted students came from the 20–21 age group, with 192 individuals. However, students aged 22–23 years has the highest proportion of social media addiction (44.0%) compared to other age groups. Academic performance showed a significant relationship (χ² = 8.730, p = 0.013), where students with a CGPA below 2.70 had the highest rate of addiction (51.6%). Notably, sleep quality reveals a statistically significant association with social media addiction (χ² = 42.500, p < 0.001). Students reporting poor sleep quality had a significantly higher rate of social media addiction compared to those with good sleep quality. No significant associations between social media addiction and gender, nationality, university type, year of study, household income, level of study, faculty, and living arrangements were reported. 3.6 Predictors of Social Media Addiction Table 4 shows the logistic regression analysis results identifying the predictors of social media addiction among university students. Upon variable selection based on bivariable logistic regression, age, CGPA, and sleep quality emerged as significant predictors, thus carried forward into the multivariable model. Table 4 Predictors of social media addiction among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia (N = 1373) using bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses. Variables Bivariable logistic regression Multivariable logistic regression OR CI 95% p- value AOR CI 96% p- value Lower Upper Lower Upper Gender Female 1.020 0.802 1.310 0.838 *Male - - - - Age 18–19 1.650 0.940 2.903 0.810 1.211 0.808 1.816 0.354 20–21 1.340 0.817 2.190 0.247 1.060 0.723 1.559 0.760 22–23 2.140 1.290 3.560 0.003 1.824 1.185 2.807 0.006 *24 and above - - - - - - - - Nationality Malaysian 1.030 0.773 1.380 0.823 *Non-Malaysian - - - - University Private 1.084 0.815 1.441 0.580 *Public - - - - Year of Study Year 1 0.837 0.464 1.515 0.554 Year 2 0.905 0.514 1.590 0.730 Year 3 1.156 0.642 2.070 0.629 *Year 4 or 5 - - - - CGPA *3.70–4.00 - - - - - - - - 2.70–3.69 1.030 0.813 1.310 0.782 1.037 0.819 1.313 0.761 < 2.69 2.010 1.175 3.450 0.010 2.019 1.188 3.420 0.009 Household income B40 0.839 0.626 1.124 0.240 M40 0.835 0.614 1.137 0.253 *T20 - - - - Level of Study Foundation 0.670 0.310 1.449 0.309 Undergraduate 0.695 0.363 1.334 0.274 *Postgraduate - - - - Faculty Applied and Health Science 0.985 0.696 1.395 0.935 Computer Science, Engineering, Architectural Science 0.914 0.626 1.334 0.641 Business and Law 1.027 0.712 1.483 0.887 *Social Science, Leisure Management, Education, Religious Study - - - - Living Arrangement Living with friends and housemate 1.320 0.964 1.825 0.083 Living with family 1.180 0.897 1.561 0.233 *Living alone - - - - Sleep Quality Poor sleep quality 2.460 1.868 3.250 < 0.001 2.420 1.844 3.191 < 0.001 *Good sleep quality - - - - - - - - *Comparison group Note: B40 = RM 4,849 and less; M40 = RM 4,850 to RM 10,959; T20 = RM 10,96 In the multivariable model, students aged 22–23 years (AOR = 1.824, 95% CI = 1.185–2.807, p = 0.006) was significantly more likely to be addicted to social media compared to those aged 18–19. Meanwhile, age groups 19–20 and 20–21 did not show a significant adjusted association. Students with a CGPA of less than 2.70 were more likely to be addicted to social media (AOR = 2.019, 95% CI = 1.188–3.420, p = 0.009) compared to those with a CGPA between 3.70–4.00. The strongest predictor was poor sleep quality, where students with poor sleep were more than twice as likely to report social media addiction (AOR = 2.420, 95% CI = 1.844–3.191, p < 0.001) compared to those with good sleep quality. Other factors such as gender, nationality, university type, year of study, household income, level of study, faculty, and living arrangement were not statistically significant predictors in the multivariate model. DISCUSSION 4.1 Prevalence of social media addiction The findings of this study revealed that more than one-third of university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia, were addicted to social media, exceeding the pooled global prevalence of 18.4% among university students [6]. A potential reason for Malaysia’s relatively high prevalence of social media addiction compared to other countries is its high internet penetration rate. According to the International Telecommunication Union (2023), 97.7% of the Malaysian population are internet users, ranking 12th globally and 2nd in Asia, just after Brunei [20]. However, when compared to previous local studies, the current prevalence appears relatively lower. For instance, Jafarkarimi et al. (2016) reported a prevalence of 46.71% using the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (BFAS), while Busalim et al. (2019) reported an even higher rate of 61.0% using the same instrument [21,22]. Azenal and Zaw (2021) found that 42.3% of nursing students at IIUM were addicted to social media [23]. More recently, Badawi et al. (2024) reported a prevalence of 73.71% among university students in Selangor [24]. The differences in prevalence rates may be attributed to methodological factors such as the measurement tools used, such as the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale, the Social Media Addiction Scale, the Social Media Disorder Scale. Additionally, the earlier studies are prone to selection bias due to the non-probability sampling method such as convenience sampling [21,23,24]. The studies recruited only among homogenous populations, such as students from a single institution or specific program, limiting the generalizability of the results [21–24]. 4.2 Factors associated social media addiction Age emerged as a significant predictor. Students aged 22–23 had higher odds of being addicted to social media compared to their older counterpart. This may reflect increased exposure to academic stress, social pressure, and greater independence, all of which could contribute to higher reliance on social media for emotional regulation or distraction. These findings are supported by previous research, which emphasizes that university-aged young adults are particularly at risk of digital addiction due to their extensive engagement with mobile technologies and social networking platforms [25]. Additionally, evidence suggests that different age groups not only consume social media at different frequency but also differ in how they use and respond to the content. For example, in a cross-sectional study, online social support was associated with greater symptoms of depression among emerging adults than adolescents, indicating that they are less susceptible to the beneficial effects of positive online interactions on mental health compared to their younger counterpart [26]. But compared to adults, young adults use social media more passively and frequently, which is linked with higher level of health worries [27]. Given the cross-sectional nature of this study, causal relationship cannot be established. Future research should explore how age influences social media use behaviors and their susceptibility to social media addiction. Academic performance emerged as a significant predictor of social media addiction, with students who scored a CGPA below 2.70 showing significantly higher odds of addiction. While the detrimental effects of social media addiction on academic achievement are well-documented, the reverse relationship (i.e., how poor academic performance may contribute to addiction) remains less explored [28]. One possible explanation aligns with theoretical model, the “stress-triggers-social-media-use hypothesis” proposed by Wolfers and Utz (2022), where social media acts coping mechanism by enabling students to seek social support, manage negative emotions through distraction, and engage in problem-solving to address stressors [29]. Specifically, students facing academic challenges may experience heightened stress, diminished self-esteem, and academic disengagement. In response, they may turn to social media to seek social support, distract themselves from negative emotions, or attempt problem-focused coping [29]. A study found a positive association between using social media more than two hours per day and maladaptive coping [30]. Over time, this coping behavior may become habitual, leading to compulsive use and eventual addiction. One notable finding of this study was the association between social media addiction and poor sleep quality. Among the 981 (71.4%) respondents who were classified as having poor sleep quality, about two fifths (40.3%) were addicted to social media. This relationship may be explained by neurobiological mechanisms observed in addiction. For example, in animal model, reduced sleep hours facilitates the consumption of addictive substances [31]. Additionally, a study found that poor sleep is strongly associated to susceptibility to addiction and experimentation with psychotropic substances [32]. While the existing studies only focus on substance addiction, it is hypothesized that the brain responds to behavioral addiction similarly to substance use. Neuroimaging studies reveal that internet gaming addiction activates brain regions involved in reward processing, like those in substance use disorders, suggesting shared dopaminergic mechanisms in both types of addiction [33]. Additionally, studies found that inadequate sleep among adolescents is associated with increased risk-taking behavior and disruptions in brain regions responsible for cognitive control and reward processing. These neurocognitive impairments may predispose individuals to engage in compulsive behaviors [12,34]. This evidence, paired with our findings, highlight the existing bidirectional relationship that warrants further investigation. Therefore, it is equally important to promote healthy sleep habits as a potential preventive strategy against social media addiction. 4.3 Study strengths, limitations, and recommendations This study possesses several strengths. The inclusion of a large and diverse sample, comprising students from both public and private universities, enhances the generalizability of the findings to the broader university students in Klang Valley. Secondly, the use of stratified sampling improves the representativeness of the sample by ensuring proportional inclusion across different types of institutions. The application of a validated measurement tool adds to the reliability of the results and allows for meaningful comparisons with findings from previous studies. While this study offers important insights, several limitations should be acknowledged. The cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causal relationships between variables. To address this, future research should adopt longitudinal designs that can better capture the directionality of these associations. The reliance on self-reported data may also introduce bias due to social desirability or recall inaccuracies. Thus, incorporating objective measures such as app usage tracking or sleep monitoring could enhance data validity. Additionally, as the sample was limited to students in the Klang Valley, the findings may not fully represent those in rural or East Malaysian contexts. Future studies should aim to include a broader geographic sample to improve generalizability. Lastly, using an internet-based survey may have excluded students with limited internet access or lower digital literacy. Offering both online and offline survey options in future research could help create a more inclusive and representative sample. CONCLUSION This study found that over one-third of university students in Klang Valley were addicted to social media, with significant associations observed between addiction, poor sleep quality, age, and academic performance. These findings emphasize the need to promote healthy digital habits, enhance time management and academic support, and incorporate sleep hygiene education into student wellness programs. Addressing social media addiction through education, counselling, and institutional support can play a crucial role in enhancing student well-being, academic success, and overall quality of life. Declarations 6.1 Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved Taylor’s University Human Ethics Committee (Reference No.: HEC 2024/302). All participants provided written informed consent digitally prior to participation. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. 6.2 Consent for publication All participants consented to the publication of anonymized data. 6.3 Availability of data and materials The datasets in this present study are available from the corresponding author upon request. 6.4 Competing interests The authors have no conflict of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. 6.5 Funding Not applicable 6.6 Authors’ contribution YHW, LHW, and SSP were responsible for conceptualization. Data curation was conducted by IMY, while formal analysis was carried out by IMY and YHW. Funding acquisition was undertaken by YHW, LHW, and SSP. The investigation was performed by IMY. Methodology was developed by IMY, YHW, SSP, PKAP, and LHW. Project administration was managed by YHW, LHW, and SSP, with supervision provided by the same contributors. The original draft was written by IMY, and review and editing were completed by YHW, SSP, PKAP, and LHW. 6.7 Acknowledgements The authors thank the key informants and all study participants for their involvement in this study. References Aichner, T., Grünfelder, M., Maurer, O., & Jegeni, D. (2021). Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking , 24 (4), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0134 Bishop, M. (2019). Healthcare Social Media for Consumer Informatics. In Consumer Informatics and Digital Health (pp. 61–86). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96906-0_4 Labudová, L. (2024). Current Leading Social Media Platforms Used by Marketers and its Benefits. European Conference on Social Media , 11 (1), 394–401. https://doi.org/10.34190/ecsm.11.1.2383 Mat Salleh, S., Hussin, S. N., Mohammed, N. H., Hamzah, S. F. M., Mohamad Yusof, H. 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Journal of Critical Reviews , 7 (13), 537–541. https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.13.97 The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. (2024). Sleep: a neglected public health issue. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology , 12 (6), 365. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00132-3 Alonzo, R., Hussain, J., Stranges, S., & Anderson, K. K. (2021). Interplay between social media use, sleep quality, and mental health in youth: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews , 56 , 101414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101414 Alimoradi, Z., Lin, C.-Y., Broström, A., Bülow, P. H., Bajalan, Z., Griffiths, M. D., Ohayon, M. M., & Pakpour, A. H. (2019). Internet addiction and sleep problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews , 47 , 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2019.06.004 Uccella, S., Cordani, R., Salfi, F., Gorgoni, M., Scarpelli, S., Gemignani, A., Geoffroy, P. A., De Gennaro, L., Palagini, L., Ferrara, M., & Nobili, L. (2023). Sleep Deprivation and Insomnia in Adolescence: Implications for Mental Health. Brain Sciences , 13 (4), 569. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13040569 Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. (2023). Macro Higher Education Institutions . https://mohe.gov.my/muat-turun/statistik/2023-3/1473-bab-1-makro-2023-pdf/file Zaw, C. C., & Azenal, N. A. (2021). Association between Social Media Addiction and Mental Health Among International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) Undergraduate Nursing Students. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CARE SCHOLARS , 4 (Supp1), 32–39. https://doi.org/10.31436/ijcs.v4iSupp1.216 Ministry of Economy Malaysia. (2020). Household Income & Basic Amenities Survey Report 2019 . Andreassen, C. S., Billieux, J., Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., Demetrovics, Z., Mazzoni, E., & Pallesen, S. (2016). The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors , 30 (2), 252–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000160 Bottaro, R., Griffiths, M. D., & Faraci, P. (2025). Meta-analysis of Reliability and Validity of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS). International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-025-01461-x Shahid, A., Wilkinson, K., Marcu, S., & Shapiro, C. M. (2011). Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). In STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales (pp. 279–283). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9893-4_67 Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (1989). The Pittsburgh sleep quality index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Research , 28 (2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4 Our World in Data. (2025, January 24). Share of the population using the Internet, 2023 . Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-individuals-using-the-internet?time=2023&mapSelect=~MYS#research-and-writing Jafarkarimi, H., Sim, A. T. H., Saadatdoost, R., & Hee, J. M. (2016). Facebook Addiction among Malaysian Students. International Journal of Information and Education Technology , 6 (6), 465–469. https://doi.org/10.7763/IJIET.2016.V6.733 Busalim, A. H., Masrom, M., & Binti Wan Zakaria, W. N. (2019). The impact of Facebook Addiction and self-esteem on students’ academic performance: A multi-group analysis. Computers & Education , 142 , 103651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103651 Zaw, C. C., & Azenal, N. A. (2021). Association between Social Media Addiction and Mental Health Among International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) Undergraduate Nursing Students. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CARE SCHOLARS , 4 (Supp1), 32–39. https://doi.org/10.31436/ijcs.v4iSupp1.216 Mohamed Badawi, M. A. E., Aminudin, N. S., Nodrin, M. H. I., Gunasegaran, G., Mohd Ridzuan, N. B., Alabed, A. A. A., & Abdalqader, M. A. (2024). A Cross-sectional Study on Social Media Addiction and its Relationship with Stress and Loneliness. Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine , 24 (2), 223–230. Leung, H., Pakpour, A. H., Strong, C., Lin, Y. C., Tsai, M. C., Griffiths, M. D., Lin, C. Y., & Chen, I. H. (2020). Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) (Study Part A). Addictive Behaviors , 101 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027 Politte‐Corn, M., Nick, E. A., & Kujawa, A. (2023). Age‐related differences in social media use, online social support, and depressive symptoms in adolescents and emerging adults. Child and Adolescent Mental Health , 28 (4), 497–503. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12640 Bonsaksen, T., Thygesen, H., Leung, J., Lamph, G., Kabelenga, I., & Østertun Geirdal, A. (2024). Patterns of Social Media Use across Age Groups during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Study across Four Countries. Social Sciences , 13 (4), 194. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13040194 Salari, N., Zarei, H., Rasoulpoor, S., Ghasemi, H., Hosseinian-Far, A., & Mohammadi, M. (2025). The impact of social networking addiction on the academic achievement of university students globally: A meta-analysis. Public Health in Practice , 9 , 100584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhip.2025.100584 Wolfers, L. N., & Utz, S. (2022). Social media use, stress, and coping. Current Opinion in Psychology , 45 , 101305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101305 Shiraly, R., Roshanfekr, A., Asadollahi, A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2024). Psychological distress, social media use, and academic performance of medical students: the mediating role of coping style. BMC Medical Education , 24 (1), 999. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05988-w López-Muciño, L. A., García-García, F., Cueto-Escobedo, J., Acosta-Hernández, M., Venebra-Muñoz, A., & Rodríguez-Alba, J. C. (2022). Sleep loss and addiction. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 141 , 104832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104832 Khazaie, H., Behrouz, B., Chehri, A., Gerber, M., Holsboer-Trachsler, E., Sadeghi Bahmani, D., & Brand, S. (2019). Among adolescents, addiction susceptibility and sleep-related dysfunction have a common cognitive-emotional base and predict poor sleep quantity. Journal of Substance Use , 24 (4), 426–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2019.1588405 Sharma, B., Kumar, P., & Sharma, P. (2021). Smartphone is it “behaviour addiction or substance abuse disorder”: A review to find chemistry behind. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research , 12 (1), 57–64. Telzer, E. H., Fuligni, A. J., Lieberman, M. D., & Galván, A. (2013). The effects of poor quality sleep on brain function and risk taking in adolescence. NeuroImage , 71 , 275–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.025 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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10:07:23\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":1850160,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7527272/v1/2062f4ed-0b33-4550-b31c-348b8068ea7e.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Factors Predicting Social Media Addiction among University Students in Klang Valley, Malaysia\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"INTRODUCTION\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe term \\u0026ldquo;social media\\u0026rdquo; was first introduced back in 1994, but the definition varied over landscapes and research background [1]. In this study, we adopted the definition by Bishop (2019), stating that \\u0026ldquo;social media as any online resource that is designed to facilitate engagement between individuals\\u0026rdquo;[2]. This includes websites and applications associated with forum activities, microblogging, and social networking. As of 2024, social media is dominated by platforms like Facebook (3.05\\u0026nbsp;billion users), YouTube (2.49\\u0026nbsp;billion users), Instagram and WhatsApp (2\\u0026nbsp;billion users), and TikTok (1.56\\u0026nbsp;billion users) [3]. Global social media usage has steadily grown since 2017 and is projected to reach 5.85\\u0026nbsp;billion users by 2027 [3].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWhile social media has become a vital part of modern life, its excessive use has led to the development of internet-related behavioral issues, particularly social media addiction [4]. Social media addiction refers to the excessive use of social networking sites that interferes daily functioning, interpersonal relationships, and mental wellbeing, thus leading to neglect of important aspects of life (e.g., work, health, social connection) [5]. Pooled global prevalence of social media addiction among university student population is 18.4% [6]. Studies have shown that the prevalence of social media addiction is significantly higher among teenagers and young adults, likely due to their earlier and more frequent exposure to these platforms and their greater digital competence [7]. The increased in screen time also increases the opportunities of young people addicted to social media [8].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSimultaneously, sleep problem, a universal yet understated public health issue, affects the health systemically, including increased risk of cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, dementia, and mental health conditions [9]. While it is well-established that social media addiction can negatively impact sleep quality, less is known about whether poor sleep quality may contribute to a heightened risk of social media addiction [10,11]. Research has shown that adolescents experiencing poor sleep exhibit heightened sensitivity to rewards and impaired cognitive control, which may contribute to poor decision-making and a higher risk of engaging in substance use [12]. This may suggest that poor sleep quality play a critical role in the development and maintenance of social media addiction.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTherefore, given emergence of social media addiction, it is important to evaluate students' sleep patterns and identify sociodemographic groups that may be more vulnerable, to better understand and address the development of addictive social media behaviors. In this study, we aim to assess the prevalence of social media addiction and examine its predictors, including sleep quality, among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Study design\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted among university students in the Klang Valley, Malaysia. Data collection was carried out from October 2024 to May 2025.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Study population and setting\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study was conducted among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The Klang Valley is a densely populated region in the central zone of the Peninsular Malaysia, comprising the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and several districts in the state of Selangor. Stratified sampling was used to recruit participants from four universities in the Klang Valley, respectively, with two representing public institutions and two representing private institutions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe inclusion criteria were: (1) individuals aged 18 years and above, (2) individuals formally enrolled in the selected universities, (3) individuals who use social media, and (4) individuals who volunteer to participate in the study. We exclude those who were currently receiving treatment for diagnosed mental health conditions, and those who are unable to communicate in English were excluded from participation.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe sample size for this study was calculated using the sample size formula for finite populations. According to the Ministry of Higher Education, the total population size of students enrolled in public and private universities in Klang Valley in 2023 was 1,593,597 [13]. Using the z-score of 1.96, margin of error of 0.05, and the population proportion of 42.3% [14], the minimum sample size for this study is 375 respondents.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.3 Instruments\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec6\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.3.1 Sociodemographic\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis section included items such as gender, age, nationality, university type (public or private), year of study, cumulative grade point average (CGPA), level of study, study field, current living arrangement, and household income as stratified according to income structure by the Department of Statistics Malaysia, namely the Bottom 40% (B40; RM4,849.00 and below), Middle 40% (M40; RM4,850.00 \\u0026ndash; RM10,959.00), and Top 20% (T20; RM10,960.00 and above) [15].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.3.2 Social Media Usage\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis section included questions about the types of social media platforms used, the time spent on social media each day and week, the main reasons for using these platforms, their preferred devices for access, how often they post, and how frequently they check their accounts. Participants also reported which activities take up most of their time on social media.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.3.3 Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) is a validated tool used to measure social media addiction.[16] It consists of six items reflecting the core components of addiction: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse [5]. The items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often). A higher total score indicates a higher level of social media addiction, and the cutoff score of 19 (out of 30) indicate individuals at risk of addictive social media use [16]. The BSMAS is unidimensional, demonstrated good reliability, and consistency (Cronbach\\u0026rsquo;s alpha\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.83) across 28 studies [17].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec9\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.3.4 Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) is used to measure sleep quality over the past month. It consists of 19 self-rated questions assessing seven components of sleep: subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleep medication, and daytime dysfunction. The scores for each component are summed to yield a global score ranging from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicating poorer sleep quality. A global PSQI score of less than 5 is indicative of good sleep quality, while a score of 5 or above suggests poor sleep quality. The initial evaluation of the global PSQI scale reported good reliability and validity, with a Cronbach\\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.83, test-retest reliability of 0.85, sensitivity of 89.6%, and specificity of 86.5% [18,19].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec10\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.4 Data Collection\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eData were collected using an online, self-administered structured questionnaire designed to collect sociodemographic, social media usage, social media addiction, and sleep quality among respondents. The English versions of the questionnaires were used in this study. On average, it took approximately 10 minutes for participants to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed using Google Forms and was distributed through both online and face-to-face methods to ensure wider reach and improved response rates.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFor online distribution, the survey link and QR code were shared via social media platforms such as WhatsApp and through email. In the face-to-face approach, the QR code linked to the questionnaire was displayed in high-traffic areas within university campuses, including lecture halls, cafeterias, and libraries. Students were invited to scan the QR code using their mobile devices to access the form instantly.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.5 Data Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e Data obtained was entered and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 27.0). The demographic backgrounds of the participants, such as age, gender, level of study, and current year, were analyzed using descriptive statistics.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe Chi-square test was used to examine the association between social media addiction and variables like gender, age group, academic performance (CGPA), university type, living arrangement, and sleep quality. A \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBinary logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with social media addiction. Variables with a \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e-value\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026le;\\u0026thinsp;0.05 in bivariate analysis were selected for inclusion in the multivariable logistic regression model. Results were reported as crude ratio (OR) and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence intervals and corresponding \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e-values.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.6 Ethical Consideration\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. Ethical approval for the study was granted by Taylor\\u0026rsquo;s University Human Ethics Committee (Reference No.: HEC 2024/302). All records from this study will be kept confidential, and individual identities were not disclosed in reports or publications.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"RESULTS\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec14\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.1. Sociodemographic and pattern of social media usage\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA total of 1373 university students participated in the study, with a majority being female, Malaysian, and undergraduate students from private universities. Most were aged between 20 to 21 years old. Participants came from various faculties, primarily Applied and Health Sciences, and reported a range of academic performances and household income levels. In terms of living arrangements, students mostly lived with friends and housemates. Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e summarizes the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSociodemographic of respondents involved in this study (N\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1373)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eVariable\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFrequency (n)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePercentage (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e845\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e61.5%\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e528\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e38.5%\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAge\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e18\\u0026ndash;19\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e378\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e27.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e20\\u0026ndash;21\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e595\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e43.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e22\\u0026ndash;23\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e241\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e17.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e24 and above\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e159\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e11.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNationality\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMalaysian\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e955\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e69.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNon-Malaysian\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e418\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e30.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eUniversity\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePrivate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e853\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e62.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePublic\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e520\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e37.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eYear of Study\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYear 1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e577\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e42.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYear 2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e492\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e35.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYear 3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e236\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e17.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYear 4 or 5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e68\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e5.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eCGPA\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.70\\u0026ndash;4.00\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e614\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e44.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.70\\u0026ndash;3.69\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e695\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e50.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;2.70\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e64\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eHousehold Income\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eB40\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e614\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e44.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eM40\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e405\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e29.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eT20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e354\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e25.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eLevel of Study\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eUndergraduate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1163\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e84.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFoundation\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e134\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e9.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePostgraduate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e76\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e5.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eFaculty\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eApplied and Health Science\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e479\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e34.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eComputer Science, Engineering, Architectural Science\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e329\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e24.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBusiness and Law\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e322\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e23.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSocial Science, Leisure Management, Education, Religious Study\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e243\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e17.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eLiving Arrangement\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLiving with family\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e544\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e39.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLiving with friends and housemate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e552\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e40.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLiving alone\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e277\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e20.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003ctfoot\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eNote: B40\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;RM 4,849 and less; M40\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;RM 4,850 to RM 10,959; T20\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;RM 10,960 and more\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tfoot\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTable\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e summarizes participants' social media usage patterns. Most reported spending 3\\u0026ndash;4 hours daily on social media, primarily using Instagram, WhatsApp, and YouTube. Common reasons for use included seeing what is going on in others\\u0026rsquo; lives, connecting with loved ones, and following political situations, with most time spent on social networking. While many reported posting only once every few months, a notable portion post on social media daily. Frequent checking was common, with many checking social media every 30, and over half reported it was the first thing they checked upon waking.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSocial media usage among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia (N\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1373)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eItem\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFrequency (n)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePercentage (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHow much time do you spend on social media per day?\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLess than 30 mins\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e26\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1\\u0026ndash;2 hours\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e217\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e15.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3\\u0026ndash;4 hours\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e491\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e35.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e5\\u0026ndash;6 hours\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e369\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e26.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e6\\u0026ndash;7 hours\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e120\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e8.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMore than 7 hours\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e150\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e10.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eWhat social media platform do you use the most? (choose up to 3)\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eInstagram\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e987\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e71.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWhatsApp\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e819\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e59.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYouTube\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e636\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e46.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTikTok\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e454\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e33.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFacebook\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e190\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e13.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eX\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e184\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e13.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSnapchat\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e158\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e11.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOthers\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e41\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTelegram\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e37\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eReddit\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e12\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eWhat do you personally use social media for?\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSeeing what is going on in everyone's lives\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1139\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e83.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTo connect with loved one(s)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e738\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e53.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePolitical situation in the country\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e242\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e17.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTo promote and run a business\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e51\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eFor which of the following do you spend most of your time?\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSocial networking\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e778\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e56.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLearning\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e234\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e17.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eGaming\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e170\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e12.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNews update\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e146\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e10.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOthers\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e45\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eWhat is your go-to device to access your social media feed?\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMobile\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1224\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e89.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTablet\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e71\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e5.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLaptop\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e64\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eDesktop\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e14\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eHow often do you use/post on social media?\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eDaily\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e308\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e22.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOnce in 2 to 3 days\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e193\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e14.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWeekly\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e169\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e12.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOnce every 2 weeks\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e146\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e10.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMonthly\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e159\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e11.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOnce every few months\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e398\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e29.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eHow often do you check on social media?\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEvery 5 minutes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e167\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e12.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEvery 15 minutes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e296\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e21.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEvery 30 minutes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e388\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e28.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEvery 45 minutes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e206\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e15.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEvery 60 minutes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e316\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e23.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eSocial media is the first thing I check when I get up from bed in the morning.\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eStrongly agree\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e327\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e23.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAgree\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e460\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e33.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMaybe\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e378\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e27.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eDisagree\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e147\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e10.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eStrongly disagree\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e61\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec15\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.2 Sleep quality\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe mean global PSQI score was 7.68 (SD\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;3.48), indicating that, on average, students experienced poor sleep quality, as scores above 5 reflect disturbed sleep. The distribution of sleep quality among the participants revealed that out of 1,373 respondents, most students (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;981, 71.4%) were classified as having poor sleep quality, while only 392 students (28.6%) reported good sleep quality. These findings suggest that more than two-thirds of university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia, experience poor sleep quality.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.3 Prevalence of social media addiction\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe mean total score for social media addiction was 17.01 (SD\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;4.63), with scores ranging from 6 to 30. Out of the total 1,373 respondents, 480 students (35.0%) were classified as addicted to social media, while 893 students (65.0%) were categorized as not addicted. These findings suggest that more than one-third of university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia, exhibit signs of social media addiction.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec17\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.4 Association between social media addiction and sociodemographic factors and sleep quality\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine the relationship between sociodemographic, sleep quality, and social media addiction, as presented in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e. The results indicated a statistically significant association between social media addiction and age, academic performance, and sleep quality (\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.05).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAssociation between social media addiction and sociodemographic factors among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia (N\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1373) using Chi-Squared test.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eVariable\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c3\\\" namest=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSocial media addiction\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eChi-square\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e(χ\\u0026sup2;)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e-value\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNot addicted\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003en (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAddicted\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003en (%)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eGender\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e553 (65.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e292 (34.6)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.158\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.691\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e340 (64.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e188 (35.6)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAge\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" 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namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNationality\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMalaysian\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e625 (65.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e330 (34.6)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.226\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.667\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNon-Malaysian\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e268 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colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e31(48.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e33 (51.6)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eHousehold income\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eB40\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e408 (66.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e206 (33.6)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.500\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.281\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eM40\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e267 (65.9)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e138 (34.1)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eT20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e218 (61.6)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e136(38.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eLevel of 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colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e410 (35.3)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePostgraduate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e50 (65.8)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e26 (34.2)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eFaculty\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eApplied and Health Science\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e311 (64.9)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e168 (35.1)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" morerows=\\\"3\\\" rowspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.973\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"3\\\" rowspan=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.808\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eComputer Science, Engineering, Architectural Science\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e219 (66.6)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e110 (33.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBusiness and Law\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e203 (63.0)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e119 (37.0)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSocial Science, Leisure Management, Education, Religious Study\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e160 (65.8)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e83 (34.2)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eLiving Arrangement\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLiving with friends and housemate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e371(67.2)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e181(32.8)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.490\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.177\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLiving with family\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e354 (65.1)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e190 (34.9)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLiving alone\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e168 (60.6)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e109 (39.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"5\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eSleep Quality\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eGood sleep quality\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e307 (78.3)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e85 (21.7)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e42.500\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePoor sleep quality\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e586 (59.7)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e395 (40.3)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003ctfoot\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eNote: B40\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;RM 4,849 and less; M40\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;RM 4,850 to RM 10,959; T20\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;RM 10,960 and more.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tfoot\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe analysis revealed a significant association between age and social media addiction (χ\\u0026sup2; = 11.380, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.010). The largest number of addicted students came from the 20\\u0026ndash;21 age group, with 192 individuals. However, students aged 22\\u0026ndash;23 years has the highest proportion of social media addiction (44.0%) compared to other age groups. Academic performance showed a significant relationship (χ\\u0026sup2; = 8.730, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.013), where students with a CGPA below 2.70 had the highest rate of addiction (51.6%). Notably, sleep quality reveals a statistically significant association with social media addiction (χ\\u0026sup2; = 42.500, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001). Students reporting poor sleep quality had a significantly higher rate of social media addiction compared to those with good sleep quality.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNo significant associations between social media addiction and gender, nationality, university type, year of study, household income, level of study, faculty, and living arrangements were reported.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec18\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.6 Predictors of Social Media Addiction\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTable\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e shows the logistic regression analysis results identifying the predictors of social media addiction among university students. Upon variable selection based on bivariable logistic regression, age, CGPA, and sleep quality emerged as significant predictors, thus carried forward into the multivariable model.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab4\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 4\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePredictors of social media addiction among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia (N\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1373) using bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" colnum=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eVariables\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBivariable logistic regression\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMultivariable logistic regression\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOR\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c4\\\" namest=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCI 95%\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep-\\u003c/em\\u003evalue\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAOR\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c8\\\" namest=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCI 96%\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003ep-\\u003c/em\\u003evalue\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLower\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eUpper\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLower\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eUpper\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eGender\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.020\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.802\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.310\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.838\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*Male\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAge\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e18\\u0026ndash;19\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.650\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.940\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.903\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.810\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.211\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.808\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.816\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.354\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e20\\u0026ndash;21\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.340\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.817\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.190\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.247\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.060\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.723\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.559\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.760\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e22\\u0026ndash;23\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.140\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.290\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.560\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0.003\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.824\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.185\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.807\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0.006\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*24 and above\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNationality\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMalaysian\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.030\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.773\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.380\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.823\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*Non-Malaysian\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eUniversity\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePrivate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.084\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.815\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.441\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.580\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*Public\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eYear of Study\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYear 1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.837\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.464\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.515\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.554\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYear 2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.905\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.514\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.590\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.730\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYear 3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.156\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.642\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.070\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.629\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*Year 4 or 5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eCGPA\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*3.70\\u0026ndash;4.00\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.70\\u0026ndash;3.69\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.030\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.813\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.310\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.782\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.037\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.819\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.313\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.761\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;2.69\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.010\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.175\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.450\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e0.010\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.019\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.188\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.420\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.009\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eHousehold income\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eB40\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.839\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.626\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.124\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.240\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eM40\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.835\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.614\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.137\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.253\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*T20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eLevel of Study\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFoundation\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.670\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.310\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.449\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.309\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eUndergraduate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.695\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.363\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.334\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.274\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*Postgraduate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eFaculty\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eApplied and Health Science\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.985\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.696\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.395\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.935\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eComputer Science, Engineering, Architectural Science\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.914\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.626\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.334\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.641\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBusiness and Law\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.027\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.712\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.483\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.887\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*Social Science, Leisure Management, Education, Religious Study\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eLiving Arrangement\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLiving with friends and housemate\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.320\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.964\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.825\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.083\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLiving with family\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.180\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.897\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.561\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.233\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*Living alone\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"9\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eSleep Quality\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePoor sleep quality\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.460\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.868\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.250\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.420\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.844\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.191\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e*Good sleep quality\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003ctfoot\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e*Comparison group\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tfoot\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eNote: B40 =\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eRM 4,849 and less; M40 = RM 4,850 to RM 10,959; T20 = RM 10,96\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn the multivariable model, students aged 22\\u0026ndash;23 years (AOR\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.824, 95% CI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.185\\u0026ndash;2.807, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.006) was significantly more likely to be addicted to social media compared to those aged 18\\u0026ndash;19. Meanwhile, age groups 19\\u0026ndash;20 and 20\\u0026ndash;21 did not show a significant adjusted association.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eStudents with a CGPA of less than 2.70 were more likely to be addicted to social media (AOR\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;2.019, 95% CI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.188\\u0026ndash;3.420, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.009) compared to those with a CGPA between 3.70\\u0026ndash;4.00.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe strongest predictor was poor sleep quality, where students with poor sleep were more than twice as likely to report social media addiction (AOR\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;2.420, 95% CI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.844\\u0026ndash;3.191, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001) compared to those with good sleep quality. Other factors such as gender, nationality, university type, year of study, household income, level of study, faculty, and living arrangement were not statistically significant predictors in the multivariate model.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"DISCUSSION\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec20\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.1 Prevalence of social media addiction\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe findings of this study revealed that more than one-third of university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia, were addicted to social media, exceeding the pooled global prevalence of 18.4% among university students [6]. A potential reason for Malaysia\\u0026rsquo;s relatively high prevalence of social media addiction compared to other countries is its high internet penetration rate. According to the International Telecommunication Union (2023), 97.7% of the Malaysian population are internet users, ranking 12th globally and 2nd in Asia, just after Brunei [20].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHowever, when compared to previous local studies, the current prevalence appears relatively lower. For instance, Jafarkarimi et al. (2016) reported a prevalence of 46.71% using the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (BFAS), while Busalim et al. (2019) reported an even higher rate of 61.0% using the same instrument [21,22]. Azenal and Zaw (2021) found that 42.3% of nursing students at IIUM were addicted to social media [23]. More recently, Badawi et al. (2024) reported a prevalence of 73.71% among university students in Selangor [24]. The differences in prevalence rates may be attributed to methodological factors such as the measurement tools used, such as the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale, the Social Media Addiction Scale, the Social Media Disorder Scale. Additionally, the earlier studies are prone to selection bias due to the non-probability sampling method such as convenience sampling [21,23,24]. The studies recruited only among homogenous populations, such as students from a single institution or specific program, limiting the generalizability of the results [21\\u0026ndash;24].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec21\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.2 Factors associated social media addiction\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAge emerged as a significant predictor. Students aged 22\\u0026ndash;23 had higher odds of being addicted to social media compared to their older counterpart. This may reflect increased exposure to academic stress, social pressure, and greater independence, all of which could contribute to higher reliance on social media for emotional regulation or distraction. These findings are supported by previous research, which emphasizes that university-aged young adults are particularly at risk of digital addiction due to their extensive engagement with mobile technologies and social networking platforms [25]. Additionally, evidence suggests that different age groups not only consume social media at different frequency but also differ in how they use and respond to the content. For example, in a cross-sectional study, online social support was associated with greater symptoms of depression among emerging adults than adolescents, indicating that they are less susceptible to the beneficial effects of positive online interactions on mental health compared to their younger counterpart [26]. But compared to adults, young adults use social media more passively and frequently, which is linked with higher level of health worries [27]. Given the cross-sectional nature of this study, causal relationship cannot be established. Future research should explore how age influences social media use behaviors and their susceptibility to social media addiction.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAcademic performance emerged as a significant predictor of social media addiction, with students who scored a CGPA below 2.70 showing significantly higher odds of addiction. While the detrimental effects of social media addiction on academic achievement are well-documented, the reverse relationship (i.e., how poor academic performance may contribute to addiction) remains less explored [28]. One possible explanation aligns with theoretical model, the \\u0026ldquo;stress-triggers-social-media-use hypothesis\\u0026rdquo; proposed by Wolfers and Utz (2022), where social media acts coping mechanism by enabling students to seek social support, manage negative emotions through distraction, and engage in problem-solving to address stressors [29]. Specifically, students facing academic challenges may experience heightened stress, diminished self-esteem, and academic disengagement. In response, they may turn to social media to seek social support, distract themselves from negative emotions, or attempt problem-focused coping [29]. A study found a positive association between using social media more than two hours per day and maladaptive coping [30]. Over time, this coping behavior may become habitual, leading to compulsive use and eventual addiction.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOne notable finding of this study was the association between social media addiction and poor sleep quality. Among the 981 (71.4%) respondents who were classified as having poor sleep quality, about two fifths (40.3%) were addicted to social media. This relationship may be explained by neurobiological mechanisms observed in addiction. For example, in animal model, reduced sleep hours facilitates the consumption of addictive substances [31]. Additionally, a study found that poor sleep is strongly associated to susceptibility to addiction and experimentation with psychotropic substances [32]. While the existing studies only focus on substance addiction, it is hypothesized that the brain responds to behavioral addiction similarly to substance use. Neuroimaging studies reveal that internet gaming addiction activates brain regions involved in reward processing, like those in substance use disorders, suggesting shared dopaminergic mechanisms in both types of addiction [33]. Additionally, studies found that inadequate sleep among adolescents is associated with increased risk-taking behavior and disruptions in brain regions responsible for cognitive control and reward processing. These neurocognitive impairments may predispose individuals to engage in compulsive behaviors [12,34]. This evidence, paired with our findings, highlight the existing bidirectional relationship that warrants further investigation. Therefore, it is equally important to promote healthy sleep habits as a potential preventive strategy against social media addiction.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec22\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.3 Study strengths, limitations, and recommendations\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study possesses several strengths. The inclusion of a large and diverse sample, comprising students from both public and private universities, enhances the generalizability of the findings to the broader university students in Klang Valley. Secondly, the use of stratified sampling improves the representativeness of the sample by ensuring proportional inclusion across different types of institutions. The application of a validated measurement tool adds to the reliability of the results and allows for meaningful comparisons with findings from previous studies.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWhile this study offers important insights, several limitations should be acknowledged. The cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causal relationships between variables. To address this, future research should adopt longitudinal designs that can better capture the directionality of these associations. The reliance on self-reported data may also introduce bias due to social desirability or recall inaccuracies. Thus, incorporating objective measures such as app usage tracking or sleep monitoring could enhance data validity. Additionally, as the sample was limited to students in the Klang Valley, the findings may not fully represent those in rural or East Malaysian contexts. Future studies should aim to include a broader geographic sample to improve generalizability. Lastly, using an internet-based survey may have excluded students with limited internet access or lower digital literacy. Offering both online and offline survey options in future research could help create a more inclusive and representative sample.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"CONCLUSION\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis study found that over one-third of university students in Klang Valley were addicted to social media, with significant associations observed between addiction, poor sleep quality, age, and academic performance. These findings emphasize the need to promote healthy digital habits, enhance time management and academic support, and incorporate sleep hygiene education into student wellness programs. Addressing social media addiction through education, counselling, and institutional support can play a crucial role in enhancing student well-being, academic success, and overall quality of life.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e6.1 Ethics approval and consent to participate\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThis study was approved Taylor\\u0026rsquo;s University Human Ethics Committee (Reference No.: HEC 2024/302). All participants provided written informed consent digitally prior to participation. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e6.2 Consent for publication\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAll participants consented to the publication of anonymized data.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e6.3 Availability of data and materials\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe datasets in this present study are available from the corresponding author upon request.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e6.4 Competing interests\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors have no conflict of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e6.5 Funding\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eNot applicable\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e6.6 Authors\\u0026rsquo; contribution\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eYHW, LHW, and SSP were responsible for conceptualization. Data curation was conducted by IMY, while formal analysis was carried out by IMY and YHW. Funding acquisition was undertaken by YHW, LHW, and SSP. The investigation was performed by IMY. Methodology was developed by IMY, YHW, SSP, PKAP, and LHW. Project administration was managed by YHW, LHW, and SSP, with supervision provided by the same contributors. The original draft was written by IMY, and review and editing were completed by YHW, SSP, PKAP, and LHW.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e6.7 Acknowledgements\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors thank the key informants and all study participants for their involvement in this study.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAichner, T., Grünfelder, M., Maurer, O., \\u0026amp; Jegeni, D. (2021). 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Social media use, stress, and coping. \\u003cem\\u003eCurrent Opinion in Psychology\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e45\\u003c/em\\u003e, 101305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101305 \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eShiraly, R., Roshanfekr, A., Asadollahi, A., \\u0026amp; Griffiths, M. D. (2024). Psychological distress, social media use, and academic performance of medical students: the mediating role of coping style. \\u003cem\\u003eBMC Medical Education\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e24\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 999. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05988-w \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eLópez-Muciño, L. A., García-García, F., Cueto-Escobedo, J., Acosta-Hernández, M., Venebra-Muñoz, A., \\u0026amp; Rodríguez-Alba, J. C. (2022). 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The effects of poor quality sleep on brain function and risk taking in adolescence. \\u003cem\\u003eNeuroImage\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e71\\u003c/em\\u003e, 275–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.025 \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Behavioral addiction, Malaysia, social media addiction, sleep quality, university students\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7527272/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7527272/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eBackground\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSocial media addiction is an emerging concern, particularly among university students, who represent a highly connected demographic. Sleep disturbances may contribute to increased social media use.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eObjective\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study aimed to assess the prevalence of social media addiction and examine its predictors, including sociodemographic factors and sleep quality, among university students in Klang Valley, Malaysia.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eMethods\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted among 1,373 students selected through stratified sampling from public and private universities in Klang Valley. Data were collected using a self-administered online questionnaire, including the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and binary logistic regression were used for data analysis.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eResults\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAbout 35.0% participants were classified as addicted to social media. Social media addiction was significantly associated with age (p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.010), academic performance (p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.013), and sleep quality (p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001). Logistic regression analysis identified poor sleep quality (AOR\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;2.42, 95% CI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.844\\u0026ndash;3.191, p\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001), CGPA\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;2.70 (AOR\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;2.019, 95% CI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.313\\u0026ndash;3.42, p\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.009), and aged 22\\u0026ndash;23 years (AOR\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.824, 95% CI\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.185\\u0026ndash;2.807, \\u003cem\\u003ep\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.006) as significant predictors of social media addiction.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eConclusion\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe findings indicate a high prevalence of social media addiction among university students in Klang Valley. Given that poor sleep quality predicted social media addiction, promoting good sleep hygiene may mitigate addiction risk, especially among those with older age and low academic performance.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Factors Predicting Social Media Addiction among University Students in Klang Valley, Malaysia\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-10-08 13:29:59\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7527272/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"861108eb-6a6e-44da-b4a8-746c1c6d7bc0\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"October 8th, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-11-07T12:53:52+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-10-08 13:29:59\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-7527272\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-7527272\",\"identity\":\"rs-7527272\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}