{"paper_id":"0dcb9dca-a064-49fb-8ae8-aac5c874cb6f","body_text":"The Amathus (Cyprus) Glass Workshop: Technology, Recycling, and Distribution of Glass in early Byzantine period | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Amathus (Cyprus) Glass Workshop: Technology, Recycling, and Distribution of Glass in early Byzantine period Artemios Oikonomou, Thilo Rehren This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6294622/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Excavations from 1976 to 1991 by the French School of Athens and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus at the Amathus archaeological site revealed a large number of glass objects and glass working remains. The glass assemblage dates mostly to the early Byzantine period (5th to 7th c. CE), a period of significant changes in Cyprus and the eastern Mediterranean. The rich assemblage consists of fragments of various objects (rims, foot bases, candela stems etc.) characteristic of the period; of particular interest is a significant number of fragments indicating glass working activities (moils, glass chunks, test drops, furnace wall fragments, etc.). This study highlights the importance of the workshop by presenting the assemblage, discussing the provenance of the glass, and tracing its movement from the large primary production site to a relatively small local workshop and beyond. The main objective of this study is to broaden our knowledge about how Byzantine societies organized glass production, working and distribution through this systematic interdisciplinary approach. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Introduction Cyprus' geographical position made it a crucial node in Mediterranean trade from the second millennium BCE onward (Toumazou and Counts, 2011; Toumazou et al., 1998, Toumazou et al., 2015). Located in the eastern end of the Mediterranean in close proximity to key trading regions, such as the Syro-Palestinian coast, Egypt, Asia Minor and Greece, Cyprus facilitated the exchange of goods particularly during the Cypro-Classical to Roman periods (ca. 480 BCE-330 CE) (Gomez et al., 2002; Lin et al., 2019). During the Early Christian period, Cyprus experienced periods of instability due to pirate raids, earthquakes in 332 and 342 CE, and a major famine at the end of the 4th century (Nikita et al., 2023). However, from the reign of Emperor Anastasius (491 to 518 CE) until the Arab invasions of the mid-7th century, the island enjoyed relative prosperity due to its strategic importance within the Byzantine Empire (Kazamias et al., 2013). This prosperity was based on and further facilitated economic growth, human mobility and the long-distance trade of goods. The integration of Cyprus into the trade network of glass is evident by the amounts of objects found on various excavations on the island, especially from the Cypro-Classical and especially during the Early Byzantine periods (ca. 480 BCE-647 CE). No primary glass production sites have ever been identified on Cyprus, and it has long been recognised that the island was supplied by both Egyptian and Syro-Palestinian primary glass producers (Freestone et al., 2002). While sites such as Yeroskipou (34°45'59.99\"N 32°27'59.99\"E) contain both Levantine and Egyptian glass, Egyptian glass is nearly absent in locations such as Kalavasos (34°45'30.2''N 33°18.479'E) and Maroni Petrera (34° 45'26.00\"N 33°21'21.00\"E) (Ceglia et al., 2015). This pattern partly reflects chronological changes in the location of the main primary glass producers, but also aligns with pottery distribution, which suggests that East Cyprus maintained stronger connections with the Syro-Palestinian coast, whereas West Cyprus was more oriented toward the Aegean and Egypt (Winther Jacobsen, 2004). Notably, Egyptian HIMT glass, which was prevalent up to the 5th century CE, ceased to appear in Cyprus and elsewhere at the latest by the mid-6th century, replaced by Foy série 2.1 glass, a newer Egyptian production (Foy et al., 2003; Cholakova et al., 2016). Conversely, Levantine glass continued to be supplied to Cyprus in consistent amounts throughout this period. Despite the island’s vital role in Mediterranean trade and its wealth of archaeological glass finds, studies on Cypriot glass have been primarily focused on Early Byzantine glass from coastal consumption sites (however, see Cosyns et al. (2018) and Fogarizzu et al. (under review) for studies of earlier glass from Cyprus). The investigation of glass workshops on the island is scarce (Cosyns et al., 2021) and this paper contributes fundamentally to the understanding of the production, distribution, and consumption of glass excavated in Amathus (34°42′45″N 33°08′30″E), Cyprus from a very rich secondary glass workshop which operated during the 5th to 7th centuries CE. Amathus (34°42′45″N 33°08′30″E) is an ancient city located on the southern coast of Cyprus, approximately 10 km east of Limassol; throughout antiquity it served as a prominent city-state and commercial hub. Its prosperity was particularly evident during the Archaic and Classical periods, when it played a significant role in Mediterranean trade networks. Excavations by the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus under the direction of the late M. Loulloupis in the forum area of ancient Amathus from 1976 until 1991 revealed large quantities of glass objects and glass working remains. The glass workshop assemblage and most of the other finds from the Agora date to the Early Byzantine period (5th to 7th century CE), a period of important political changes in Cyprus and the broad area of the eastern Mediterranean. The main focus of this study is to highlight the importance of the workshop by presenting the assemblage and by giving an insight into the composition and provenance of the Amathus glass. At the same time this project aspires to trace glass movement from large production sites to small local workshops in Cyprus and beyond. This paper will add new knowledge about how early Byzantine societies organized glass production and distribution. Materials and methods In the present study a set of 197 glass finds, mostly heavily fragmented finished objects (n = 163) and various working debris and raw glass fragments (n = 34) was analysed using SEM-EDS and LA-ICP-MS. The samples were initially divided visually into glass objects and glass working debris. Each of these two general categories can be further divided in subgroups according to their typology (Table 1). The material presented here is predominantly dated to the early Byzantine period (5th to 7th c. CE) from the Agora area. Some objects are earlier, particularly a few well-preserved vessels found as grave goods in the necropolis; these will be presented elsewhere. Table 1: Main groups and subgroups of the Amathus glass. AMATHUS ASSEMBLAGE Levantine I Série 2.1 Plant ash HIMT Roman Mn decol Unassigned Early modern TOTAL Objects Vessels 72 19 4 6 9 6 4 120 Stemmed lamps 11 3 1 15 Goblets 11 8 1 20 Window panes 4 4 8 Sub Total objects 98 34 5 6 10 6 4 163 Glassworking debris Furnace wall with glass 12 12 Chunks 2 5 Test drop 6 6 Moil 6 6 Stick/drip 2 2 Amorphous glass 3 3 3 Sub Total glass working debris 31 3 34 TOTAL 197 Small samples of about 2 mm size were cut from the original fragments using diamond cutting wheels and embedded in resin blocks, which were then ground and polished using various SiC papers and diamond pastes of 1–6 µm. Larger pieces of glass working debris were also embedded in resin blocks and followed similar sample preparation procedure. Τhe assemblage was analysed using a Zeiss Evo 15 scanning electron microscope (SEM), coupled with an Ultim Max EDS Detector (Oxford Instrument) housed at the Science and Technology in Archaeology and Culture Research Center (STARC) at the Cyprus Institute. The accelerating voltage was set at 20 kV, with a beam current of 1 nA and a working distance of 8.5 mm. Analyses was performed across multiple areas of c. 100 by 100 µm and the mean values calculated. The accuracy of the instrument calibration was tested using Corning A and B standard reference materials (Table 2). The detection limit for most of the oxides analysed is better than approximately 0.3 wt%. When the concentrations of the analysed samples are above this threshold, the analytical results have an error margin lower than 10% (and in most cases lower than 5%). Table 2: The measured, certified and relative error values in wt% for the standard reference materials as analysed by SEM-EDS. Published values for Corn A and B from Adlington (2017). Corn A (n=147) Na 2 O MgO Al 2 O 3 SiO 2 SO 3 K 2 O CaO TiO 2 MnO FeO CoO CuO Sb 2 O 5 BaO Measured 13.6 2.58 1.00 67.22 0.07 2.93 5.20 0.85 1.08 1.01 0.19 1.26 1.71 0.51 Published 14.3 2.66 1.00 66.56 0.14 2.87 5.03 0.79 1.00 0.98 0.17 1.17 1.75 0.46 Error -4.9 -3.0 0.3 1.0 -48.9 2.2 3.3 8.2 8.3 3.0 9.0 7.5 -2.4 10.9 Precision 0.1 0.03 0.02 0.1 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.05 Corn B (n=146) Na 2 O MgO Al 2 O 3 SiO 2 P 2 O 5 SO 3 Cl K 2 O CaO MnO FeO CuO ZnO Sb 2 O 5 PbO Measured 16.1 1.05 4.24 62.66 0.80 0.25 0.16 1.06 8.94 0.26 0.32 2.93 0.22 0.45 0.53 Published 17.0 1.03 4.36 61.55 0.82 0.49 0.16 1.00 8.56 0.25 0.31 2.66 0.19 0.46 0.61 Error -5.1 1.9 -2.8 1.8 -2.5 -49.0 1.8 6.1 4.4 5.4 4.5 10.1 16.1 -2.0 -13.7 Precision 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.04 Several of the samples (n = 45) were further analysed by LA-ICP-MS to determine their trace element composition using a Resonetics M50E excimer laser working at 193 nm coupled with a Thermo Fisher Scientific ELEMENT XR mass spectrometer at the Institut de recherche sur les archéomatériaux, Centre Ernest-Babelon (IRAMAT-CEB). The excimer laser was operated at 5 mJ with a repetition rate of 10 Hz. As a precaution, the beam diameter was adjusted from 40 µm to 100 µm to avoid saturation from elements such as manganese, copper, tin, antimony or lead. Even though no excessively high values for any of these elements were expected, they could be concentrated locally as small inclusions. A pre-ablation time of 20 s was set and the signal was acquired for 27 s corresponding to 9 mass scans from Li to U. One to three ablations were carried out on each sample. Calibration for trace elements was performed using the NIST 612 standard reference material. Results Τhe analysed samples belong to the general soda-lime-silica category based on mineral natron flux which is typical for the late Roman and early Byzantine period. The compositional data and the variation of the main components of glass (main, minor oxides and trace elements) are presented in the full table provided at the OSM. Table 3 Mean values of the different compositional groups identified in the Amathus assemblage. SEM-EDS data, in wt%, normalised to 100. Compositional group Type of glass Na 2 O MgO Al 2 O 3 SiO 2 P 2 O 5 SO 3 Cl K 2 O CaO TiO 2 MnO FeO LEV I Objects (n = 98) 14.5 0.7 3.1 69.5 0.1 0.1 0.8 0.7 9.4 0.1 0.1 0.6 LEV I Working debris (n = 17) 13.8 0.9 2.9 71.6 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.6 8.6 0.1 0.1 0.4 LEV I Chunks, furnace wall (n = 14) 12.0 0.8 3.1 71.5 0.1 0.1 0.7 1.0 10.0 0.1 0.1 0.5 Série 2.1 Objects (n = 34) 17.7 1.1 2.5 66.3 0.1 0.2 0.9 0.7 7.9 0.2 1.5 1.0 Série 2.1 Chunks of intentionally coloured glass (n = 3) 16.3 1.1 2.5 64.4 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.8 8.4 0.1 0.9 1.0 Plant Ash (PA) Objects (n = 5) 16.8 1.5 2.4 66.5 0.3 0.2 0.8 1.2 7.6 0.2 1.4 1.1 HIMT Objects (n = 6) 17.5 1.1 3.0 65.7 0.1 0.1 0.9 0.6 5.9 0.5 1.7 2.8 Roman Mn decol Objects (n = 10) 16.8 0.6 2.5 69.0 0.1 0.1 1.1 0.5 7.2 0.1 1.4 0.5 Unassigned Objects (n = 6) 17.2 0.6 2.2 70.4 0.1 0.1 1.1 0.6 7.2 0.1 0.2 0.4 Early Modern Objects (n = 4) 14.7 1.3 1.2 74.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 2.6 5.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 The main compositional groups for glass from this period identified so far have been manufactured either in the Levantine coast or in Egypt. In particular, these are: a. Levantine I and II, manufactured in large primary glass production sites such as Apollonia, Bet Eli’ezer etc. (Freestone et al., 2000); b. Egypt I and II, manufactured in Egypt (Gratuze, 1988); c. Série 2.1 and Série 3.2, also thought to be manufactured in Egypt (Foy et al., 2003); glass with high iron, manganese, and titanium content, the so-called HIMT glass (Freestone, 1994; Freestone et al., 2018), also manufactured in Egypt. A number of other compositional groups were used during this period, too, but are mostly only of local or regional significance. These groups can be easily distinguished in an Al 2 O 3 /SiO 2 vs TiO 2 /Al 2 O 3 biplot (Fig. 1 ). These three oxides are incorporated in the glass as part of the sand and, therefore, their correlation can show possible distinctive different glassmaking regions through the use of different sands. According to this graph and the composition of major and minor elements, the glass from Amathus falls into 7 groups. The vast majority match the composition of Levantine I and Série 2.1 glass. A few samples match more closely Levantine II, and others are either HIMT (n = 5), Roman (Mn decolourised, n = 10), plant ash (PA, n < = 4), early modern industrial glass (n = 4), and another group of analyses which we were unable to assign to a specific compositional group (n = 6). The Roman (Mn decolourised), the early modern glass and the unassigned group will not be discussed any further, since the focus of this paper is on the early Byzantine glass from Amathus. They are, however, included in the overall table in the OSM. More than 2/3 of the analysed Early Byzantine glass in Amathus matches Levantine glass, mostly Levantine I with a few potential Levantine II objects (Fig. 2 ). About a quarter of all analysed finds are close in composition to Foy’s Série 2.1. All the glassworking debris falls into the Levantine I category. There are only three chunks of glass from Série 2.1 glass; however, based on their appearance and chemical composition, we believe they are not glassworking debris ( see below ). While the vast majority of the Amathus glass was manufactured using mineral natron, there is at least one sample, from a small dark green unguentarium with a thick base, and potentially up to three other samples that appear to be based on plant ash, or at least made with a noticeable amount of plant ash as part of the batch (Fig. 3 ). These not only show elevated amount of magnesia and potash compared to the compositionally closest mineral natron group, Foy Série 2.1, but also higher phosphate. With nearly 0.9 wt% P 2 O 5 , the unguentarium closely resembles in its composition, shape and appearance a small group of such vessels from 1st to 2nd century CE Bubastis in the Nile Delta (Rosenow and Rehren, 2014). A recent study (Govantes-Edwards et al., submitted ) has shown the persistent occurrence of plant-ash based glass across the Mediterranean during much of the 1st millennium CE, albeit at very low relative quantities. The plant ash glass seen here matches the composition of those other reported plant ash glasses from the Mediterranean region, which differ from the plant ash glass routinely produced further East, in the lands beyond the Euphrates. Notably, none of the glass working debris found at Amathus falls into this group. In contrast, the contemporary workshop from Argyropoulis on Crete has both, objects and working debris, matching this composition, indicating that such plant-ash rich glass was worked in Byzantine regional workshops (Oikonomou et al., 2021). Their occurrence here is noted as adding to the wide geographic distribution of this glass type across the Mediterranean, but they will not be further discussed here; instead, we refer to the recent comprehensive discussion of plant ash glass in areas otherwise dominated by mineral natron glass in Govantes-Edwards et al. (submitted). Levantine glass Earlier studies of early Byzantine glass assemblages from Cyprus were almost exclusively based on consumption sites, i.e. analysed fragmented objects. The Amathus assemblages is remarkable for its large presence of working waste and several kilograms of raw glass chunks, almost all of which have furnace wall material adhering to them. The analysed debris (n = 31) can be visually distinguished in 5 different categories: the chunks with attached material from the furnace and a few pieces of clean raw glass chunks (n = 12), test drops, moils, some sticks/drips, and a few fragments of amorphous glass (Fig. 4 , together n = 19). Given the importance of this workshop evidence, and the logical workflow from raw glass to working waste to object, we will discuss this material first, before addressing the finished objects. Our initial hypothesis was that there should be a close compositional association among the different types of glass working debris, since they should all be part of the same process of glass working. Especially, one would expect that at least the moils and the test drops could be associated with the chunks of raw glass. However, this is not the case. As it is clearly demonstrated in various graphs (Fig. 5 a-d) the chunks and the rest of the glass working debris form two distinctive groups: a. the chunks and b. the moils and test drops. The other two categories (amorphous glass and the stick/drips) are not clearly linked to the rest. Especially the two samples of the stick/drips seem to have very similar composition and therefore we may assume are coming from the same object, or at least the same batch (Freestone et al., 2009). Interestingly, the raw glass chunks have distinctly higher amounts of the typical fuel ash oxides phosphate and potash (Fig. 6 ) compared to the rest of the glass working debris, and especially from the moils and the test drops which we assumed correspond to the objects manufactured in Amathus. Paynter (2008) has shown experimentally that the longer molten glass is exposed to the furnace environment the more is it contaminated by fuel ash and vapour, resulting in an increase of these two oxides. This phenomenon has been also observed in several archaeological assemblages (e.g. Rehren et al. 2010, 2016; Oikonomou et al., 2021); however, here we see the opposite trend, with the raw glass chunks having significantly higher fuel ash oxides than the working waste, or the majority of the finished objects. This is counter-intuitive, and needs an explanation. One possible explanation for this is linked to the fact that the majority of the raw glass chunks have a thick crust of furnace wall material attached to them. We know from excavations in Israel that the furnace structure was built using mudbricks/ceramics (Gorin-Rosen, 2000). Usually, mortar of a calcareous material was applied either to fill the gaps between the foundation materials or to line the inside of the furnace as a parting layer between the ceramic wall and the molten glass (Chen et al., 2021). The latter has been also noticed in earlier examples of primary glassmaking in LBA Egypt where a parting layer was used in ceramic crucibles, facilitating the smooth removal of the glass ingots from their ceramic moulds (Turner, 1954; Merkel and Rehren, 2007; Smirniou and Rehren, 2016). During the heating of the furnace the clay transforms into ceramic and any CaCO 3 decomposes at around 800 to 850 o C. Both are endothermic reactions, i.e. it consume energy. Since during glass making a lot of energy needs to be put into the furnace, and projected down onto the charge which as a white powder is insulating and hinders heat transmission towards the bottom, it would make good sense to thoroughly pre-fire the empty furnace to calcine the CaCO 3 of the inner furnace structure, so that a) there is a parting layer towards the forming glass melt, and b) no energy gets absorbed during glassmaking for those endothermic reactions, which would lead to ‘cold’ corners and bottoms in the furnace which should be avoided. Assuming that such pre-firing procedure took place in an empty furnace, then a certain superficial vitrification and ash deposition on the furnace floor and walls would be expected before the charge of mineral natron and sand is added into the already red-hot furnace. This initial vitrification and ash layer would be very rich in K 2 O, P 2 O 5 and MgO, depending on the fuel used and its ash composition. This may explain some of the high MgO observations from the chunks with the attached furnace wall (or floor?) material, while the K 2 O and P 2 O 5 from that layer would likely be absorbed into the fresh forming glass near the furnace walls / floor. This contamination would not affect the main body of glass subsequently forming in the huge volume of an approximately 8-ton slab. Thus, a higher K 2 O and P 2 O 5 concentration just at the interface between furnace wall / floor and glass melt would be expected. In addition, the chunks show another compositional peculiarity. It seems that they significant amounts of elements which serve as recycling markers such as Pb, Co, Cu and Sn (Fig. 7 ). Compared to the rest of the glass working debris they give the impression that they have been recycled more than the rest of the material, which is unlikely since the chunks are the primary product, thought to originate fresh from the furnace. A possible explanation for this could be the use of cullet as an initiation of the charge melt formation. Adding crushed recycled glass cullet to the bottom of the furnace would facilitate the fusion of the raw materials (sand and natron), as the cullet would melt more easily and act as a catalyst for new glass formation from the raw materials. The melting process would be faster and economically more efficient (in terms of the fuel needed and the time that the whole fusion lasts) when the huge amounts of raw materials were added to the furnace in batches and not all at once. Assuming that the furnace was pre-fired (see above), the first layer of glass at the bottom of the furnace would be a combination of glass cullet (fragments of broken glass objects collected for recycling) together with the first batch of the raw materials. As any recycled glass, the cullet most likely contained various mostly naturally-coloured fragments, but also some coloured glass, such as fragments of vessels with dark blue decorative trails which would not have been avoided or separated from the clear glass cullet. This would result in the first-formed glass of the lower part of the furnace to have an excess of recycling indicators such as Co, Cu, Sn and Pb, as well as the previously discussed increased fuel ash components. Then the glassmakers would add more raw materials onto the already-formed glass melt, without the need of adding more cullet; therefore, this contamination effect would fade away as we reach the main part of the melt. Stirring and mixing of the melt while still hot would not be possible, and therefore the “recycling” indicators would remain mostly at the bottom layer of the glass melt. This would explain the observation (Fig. 7 ) that the raw glass chunks with adhering furnace wall material, which in this model would come from the bottom of the furnace, exhibit higher amounts of the recycling indicators (due to the use of cullet and the pre-firing of the furnace structure), while the test drops and moils have a “normal” fresh primary glass composition, since they were probably made using cleaner raw glass from the upper part of the furnace. The chunks of glass with furnace wall material would have been part of a shipment of fresh raw glass chunks, but were deemed not suitable to be remelted due to the adhering material and instead discarded in the workshop. More than half of the glass working debris, namely some moils, test drops and stick/drips (9 out of 14 samples) have an excessive MgO content compared to the rest (0.9 < MgO < 1.69 wt.%), while their K 2 O content is rather stable around 0.4–0.5 wt. % (Fig. 8 ). A possible explanation for this feature could be searched again in the type of the fuels used for the melting and working of the glass once it has reached the workshop in Amathus. The Troodos mountain range, just north of Amathus, has a very ‘basic’ MgO rich geology, and hence likely soil chemistry. Trees normally accumulate CaO in their ash, but given the similarity of Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ in their chemical behaviour, and the high excess of MgO over CaO in many Troodos rocks, one could envisage an MgO-rich fuel ash effect which affects the MgO content of the specific glass working debris. A similar behaviour is noticed when testing glass working debris from Palaepaphos, located in the western end of the island (Cosyns et al., 2021). In this case we see that some of the raw glass has an elevated amount of phosphorus, suggesting more exposure to fuel ash contamination (Fig. 9 ). In addition, we notice that the raw glass has higher values of the elements that serve as recycling indicators as discussed previously (Fig. 10). Levantine glass objects The production of the main Levantine glass compositions peaked in the 6th and 7th century CE in the region around modern-day Haifa, as demonstrated by numerous excavated furnace sites (Gorin-Rosen 2000). Freestone et al. (2000) has proposed to separate the Levantine glass in two groups, Levantine I and Levantine II, according to their CaO/Al 2 O 3 and Na 2 O/SiO 2 ratios (Fig. 11 ). The Amathus assemblage belongs overwhelmingly to the Levantine I group and clusters well with Jalame and Apollonia glass (comparative data from: Brill, 1988; Freestone et al., 2000, 2008; Tal et al., 2004). Α differentiation appears when specific trace elements associated with natron, such as lithium and boron, are plotted (Fig. 12 ). The objects can be classified into three groups: (a) a single beaker exhibiting lithium concentrations exceeding 4 ppm, (b) objects with intermediate lithium values ranging between 2 and 4 ppm, comprising almost exclusively vessels, and (c) items with lithium content lower than 1 ppm, including only the window panes. This differentiation may indicate distinct natron sources for these objects, varying glassmaking recipes or/and seasonal variation in Li content in the natron. Remarkably, the glassmaking debris follows a similar pattern, with three distinguishable groups. Particularly noteworthy is the discrepancy among the chunks, which are supposed potentially originating from a single batch, but as they appear here, probably originate from two distinct batches distinguished by their differing lithium content. The trace element distributions demonstrate that in most cases the objects and the glass working debris are close geochemically (Fig. 13 ). There are various differences, as noticed previously in the text, in elements which are associated with recycling phenomena such as Pb, Sn and the colorants Co, Cu, Ni. When looking in more detail at the trace elements associated to recycling we see that the lamps and the test drops show very close similarities in terms of specific trace elements (Fig. 14 a-c). The same is also noticed between the beakers and the vessels and we can see also a tendency that the chunks and window panes follow a similar pattern. Among the assemblage there are 16 fragments coming from vessels bearing trailed-on glass decoration which is typical for vessels in the early Byzantine period (Table XX). The analyses of these pairs of glass (body and trails) have shown that 15 out of the 16 pairs belong to the Levantine I group, while there is only one pair belonging to HIMT group and no such glass type belonging to the Série 2.1 category. The body of the vessels is mostly pale aqua with greenish and blueish tints (except for the HIMT sample which, as expected, has a yellowish tint) and there is only one example having dark blue colour of the main body and a colourless decoration. Most of the trailed glass is of dark blue colour, while there are two examples of red glass, two of turquoise blue-green glass and three examples almost colourless. Regarding the coloured trails it seems that some of them are coloured by high CuO and varying amount of PbO, and others that are clearly coloured by Co with a smaller amount of CuO (around ¼ percent). FeO is also routinely elevated in these. According to the presented data it seems that the trailed-on coloured glass is based on the same glass batch as the vessel body, allowing for some minor variation in the colouration process. This is evident by plotting the pairs into the graph showing very good correspondence (Fig. 15 ). The data used for the coloured glass has been normalised without any colorants to 100%. Table 4 The 16 pairs of fragments of glass vessels bearing trailed-on decorative glass. Sample ID Main body Trailed-on decoration AM77-28j aqua Turquoise AM77-42a aqua Dark blue AM77-60a3 aqua (blue tint) Turquoise AM77-60a4 aqua (blue tint) Red AM77-62a1 aqua Dark blue AM77-62a2 aqua Dark blue AM77-62a3 aqua Dark blue AM77-62a4 aqua Dark blue AM77-62c aqua (green tint) Red AM78-604b aqua (blue tint) Dark blue AM83-34a Yellowish ?? AM84-4f5 aqua (blue tint) Dark blue AM85-124c2 aqua (blue tint) Red AM85-125.1 aqua (blue tint) Dark blue AM88-39.1 aqua Colourless AM83-34b Yellowish Yellowish AM77-53b aqua Colourless AM85-149.5 Dark blue Colourless Série 2.1 glass Three of the 37 samples identified as Série 2.1 glass are amorphous lumps of unclear function, and no proper glass working debris such as moils, test drops etc. were noticed. Therefore, taken also into consideration the fact that we have far fewer Série 2.1 objects compared to the Levantine glass, we may assume that this group of glass was minimally worked in Amathus, if at all. We notice that these glass lumps are at the higher end of phosphorus oxide and potash concentrations, suggesting that they have been subjected to fuel ash contamination for longer period than the objects (Fig. 16 ). In addition, the Foy Série 2.1 formless lumps have significantly elevated levels of lead, ranging from 0.5 to more than 5 wt% PbO, around 0.2 to 0.3 wt% CuO, and also significantly elevated tin contents, from 450 to 4,000 ppm. The small fragmented nature of these finds makes it difficult to assign a function to them. They are clearly not fresh glass, and their shape also does not match the Levantine I chunk fragments with adhering furnace wall material and elevated – but still much lower – trace metal contents. In the following figure (Fig. 17 ) we test Nb against Ti; Nb could be an intriguing element to use for identifying the origin of ancient glass since its quantity is determined by the type, quantity, and origin of Ti minerals that are included in the glass mixture as sand impurities (Ceglia et al., 2019). In this graph we see the correlation of different types of glass found in Cyprus from the 1st millennium AD. We see that the glasses can be distinguished in two groups with variations in the Nb/Ti ratio. The first group consisting of glass groups Levantine, Foy série 2.1 and Roman Mn decolorized have the same Nb/Ti ratio, despite their vastly different chemical compositions. In contrast, the second group consisting of Egypt 1, HIMT and HIT glass has a lower Nb/Ti ratio. In this second group there are only two samples from Amathus; both belong to the HIMT group. This may indicate that the Foy série 2.1 glass group, according to the outcomes of Fig. 17 , should be a Levantine production and not an Egyptian one, as previously believed (e.g., Foy et al., 2003). There is a clear distinction between the Foy série 2.1 group from Amathus and other Cypriot sites (namely Kalavasos-Kopetra, Maroni-Petrera and Yeroskipou) which form part of the left trend line dominated by Levantine glasses, and the confirmed Egyptian compositions (HIMT, HIT, Egypt 1), all of which fall in the right trendline. Otherwise, we would expect that Foy série 2.1 glass would fall on the same trendline. Having the same Nb/Ti ratio does not necessarily mean that the glass originated from the same source, but it does imply that the minerals that contributed these elements to the glass mixture are similar and probably originated from the same type of rock or sand (Ceglia et al. 2019). As a result, the first group of samples employed sand sources with the same Nb-Ti bearing minerals, which differed from the minerals present in the sands used for the second group. Conclusions The study of nearly 200 samples from the large quantity of glass retrieved in the secondary workshop in Amathus provides crucial insights into the technological, economic, and trade dynamics of glass production and distribution in the eastern Mediterranean during the Early Byzantine period. We identified a diverse range of glass fragments in the Amathus assemblage, primarily finished objects, a large amount of glass chunks, mostly with adhering furnace wall material and therefore likely discarded by the glassworkers rather than being remelted and worked into objects, and a wide range of glass working debris such as moils and test drips which demonstrate this reworking of glass. The material suggests that the Amathus workshop played a significant role in the working and distribution of glass in Cyprus, as a place where imported raw glass chunks were processed and shaped into finished objects. The compositional analyses confirm that the vast majority of the glass in Amathus originated from the Levantine coast, primarily as Levantine I glass, but also including a smaller but notable presence of the Foy Série 2.1 glass. We assume this to be of Levantine origin, too, based on the Nb/Ti graph (see above). According to the glass working debris, only Levantine I glass was imported into and work in Amathus by the glassworkers. Other smaller compositional groups of glass were also identified in the finished objects, suggesting a variability in glass consumption and the possible import of finished objects, e.g. such as the dark green unguentarium of likely Egyptian manufacture. The predominance of Levantine glass aligns with broader regional trade patterns, as already noticed in other sites in Cyprus. Apparently, Cyprus maintained strong connections with the Syro-Palestinian primary glass production centers. In particular, the study of the glassworking debris has provided a deeper understanding of the operational processes within the Amathus workshop. Interestingly, the debris, especially the raw glass fragments, show unusually higher concentrations of specific elements commonly acting as recycling markers. We interpret this feature to indicate the initial fusion of cullet glass fragments together with raw materials, in a thoroughly pre-fired furnace which therefore has a fuel ash-enriched base layer of glass. Moreover, the presence of a variety of glassworking debris such as test drops, moils, cullet, and furnace wall fragments indicate an active glassworking workshop. The identification of high MgO and P 2 O 5 concentrations in some samples points to fuel ash contamination from local Troodos wood, providing indirect evidence for multiple production phases. The evidence of recycling noticed in the Amathus assemblage, indicated by the presence of trace elements such as Pb, Cu, and Sn, was a common practice in the workshop and typical for glass production during the 1st mil. AD. Recycling suggests a level of sustainability in glass production since the idea of remelting and reshaping glass enhanced material resources in a period of instability, especially during the 5th c. AD. Possibly the difficulties in trade of raw glass from either the Syro-Palestinian coast or Egypt due to the raids of pirates in the area and the socioeconomic status of Cyprus and Amathus in particular, required adaptive reuse of available materials. This aspect aligns with broader trends observed in Late Antique economies and is reflected in their material culture. In addition, the presence of a limited number of plant-ash glasses has been noted in the Amathus assemblage. These glasses have elevated amounts of magnesia, potash and phosphate suggesting different compositional patterns which differentiate them form the dominant natron glass. Their relationship to other similar glasses from around the Mediterranean reinforces the idea of localized variations in glass-making traditions. Declarations Author Contribution A.O. and Th. R. wrote the main manuscript textA.O. prepared the figures and the tables and Th. R. reviewed them.All authors reviewed the manuscript Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the late Dr P. Flourentzos who has initiated this project; we dedicate this work to his memory. Dr Bernard Gratuze is highly appreciated for providing the trace element data. The Department of Antiquities in Cyprus kindly provided the necessary permits to study and analyse the material, and we extend our sincere thanks. Finally, this research would not be feasible without the substantial and kind support of the A. G. Leventis Foundation. Data Availability Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files. References Brill, R.H., 1988. Scientific investigations of the Jalame glass and related finds. In: Weinberg, G.D., (Ed.), Excavations at Jalame: site of a glass factory in late Roman Palestine , Columbia: University of Missouri, pp. 257-294. Ceglia, A., Cosyns, P., Schibille, N., Meulebroeck, W., 2019. Unravelling provenance and recycling of late antique glass from Cyprus with trace elements, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 11, 279-291, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-017-0542-1 Ceglia, A., Cosyns, P., Nys, K., Terryn, H., Thienpont, H., Meulebroeck, W., 2016. Light through glass: The spectrum of Late Antique glass from Cyprus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , Vol. 7, pp. 614-624, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.09.024 Ceglia, A., Cosyns, P., Nys, K., Terryn, H., Thienpont, H., Meulebroeck, W., 2015. Late antique glass distribution and consumption in Cyprus: a chemical study, Journal of Archaeological Science , 61, pp. 213-222 Chen, C., Freestone, I.C., Gorin-Rosen, Y., Quinn, P.S., 2021. A glass workshop in ‘Aqir, Israel and a new type of compositional contamination, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , Vol. 35, 102786, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102786 Cholakova, A., Rehren, Th., Freestone, I.C., 2016. Compositional identification of 6th c. AD glass from the Lower Danube, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , Vol. 7, pp. 625-632, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.08.009 Cosyns, P., Ceglia, A., Thienpont, H., von Wartburg, M-L., 2021. A late Antique glass workshop at the Aphrodite sanctuary of Palaepaphos, Kouklia (Cyprus). In: Sevindik, O., (ed.), Annales du 21e Congrès de l’ Association Internationale pour l’ Histoire du Verre , İstanbul 2018, Istanbul. Cosyns, P., Oikonomou, A., Ceglia, A., Michaelides, D., 2018. Late Hellenistic and early Roman slumped and cast glass vessels from the House of Orpheus at Paphos, Cyprus. An interim report, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , Vol. 22, pp. 524-539, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.09.030 Fogarizzu, G., Gaber, P., Wright, A.M. and Rehren, Th. (under review). Glass as a chronological indicator. Macroscopic and compositional features of Hellenistic, Roman and modern glass fragments from Idalion (Cyprus), submitted in Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports . Foy, D., Picon, M., Vichy, M., Thirion-Merle, V., 2003. Charactérisation des verres de la fin de l’Antiquité en Méditerranée occidentale: l’émergence de nouveaux courants commerciaux. 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MOM Éditions 33, 49-63. https://www.persee.fr/doc/mom_1274-6525_2000_act_33_1_1873. Govantes-Edwards, D., Cosyns, P., Degryse, P., Duckworth, Ch., Freestone, I., Frenken, M., Jackson, C., Oikonomou, A., Rehren, Th., Retamosa, J.A., Rosenow, D., Shortland, A., Zimmermann, M., (under review). Plant-ash glass in natronland: a review of the use of plant-based fluxes in glassmaking from the 1st to the 9th century CE in Europe and the Mediterranean basin, submitted in Journal of Archaeological Science . Gratuze, B., 1988. Analyse non destructive d’objets en verre par des méthods nucléaires. Application à l’étude des estampilles et poids monétaires islamiques . Unpubl. Diss. University of Orleans. Kazamias, G., Petrides, A.K., Koumas, E., (Eds), 2013. Introduction to the History of Cyprus , Nicosia: Open University of Cyprus. Lin, Y., Liu, T., Toumazou, M.K., Counts, D.B., Kakoulli, I., 2019. Chemical analyses and production technology of archaeological glass from Athienou-Malloura, Cyprus, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , Vol. 23, pp. 700-713, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.08.011 Merkel, S., Rehren, Th., 2007. Parting layers, ash trays, and Ramesside glassmaking: an experimental study. In: Pusch, E.B., Rehren, Th., (Eds.), Rubinglas für den Pharao-Hochtemperatur-Technologie in der Ramses-Stadt (=Forschungen in der Ramsesstadt, 6) , Gerstenberg-Verlag, Hildesheim, pp. 201-221. Nikita, E., Mutri, G., Le Roux, P., Pilides, D., 2023. Human mobility in Byzantine Cyprus: A case study from the Hill of Agios Georgios, Nicosia, Quaternary International , Vol. 653-654, pp. 103-113, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2021.12.015 Oikonomou, A., Rehren, Th. Fiolitaki, A., 2021. An early Byzantine glass workshop at Argyroupolis, Crete: Insights into complex glass supply networks, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , Vol. 35, 102766, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102766 Paynter, S., 2008. Experiments in the reconstruction of Roman wood-fired glassworking furnaces: waste products and their formation processes, Journal of Glass Studies , 50 (2008), pp. 271-290. Rehren, Th., Marii, F., Schibille, N., Stanford, L., Swan, C., 2010. Glass supply and circulation in early Byzantine southern Jordan. In: Drauschke, J., Keller, D., (Eds.), Glass in Byzantium - Production, Usage, Analyses , RGZM, Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz, pp. 65-81 Smirniou, M. and Rehren, Th., 2016. The use of technical ceramics in early Egyptian glass-making, Journal of Archaeological Science , Vol. 67, pp. 52-63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2016.01.009 Tal, O., Jackson-Tal, R.E., Freestone, I., 2004. New evidence of the production of raw glass at Late Byzantine Apollonia-Arsuf, Israel, Journal of Glass Studies , 46, pp. 51-66. Toumazou, M., Counts, D., 2011. Excavations at Malloura (1990–2010): context, methods, and results. In: Toumazou, M., Kardulias, P., Counts, D., (Eds .), Crossroads and Boundaries: The Archaeology of Past and Present in the Malloura Valley, Cyprus , (Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 65), pp. 67-86. Toumazou, M.K., Counts, D.B., Averett, E.W., Gordon, J.M., Nick Kardulias, P., 2015. Shedding light on the Cypriot rural landscape: investigations of the Athienou Archaeological Project in the Malloura Valley, Cyprus, 2011-2013, Journal of Field Archaeology , 40, pp. 204-220. Toumazou, M.K., Yerkes, R.W., Kardulias, P.N., 1998. Athienou archaeological project: investigations in the Malloura Valley, Cyprus, 1990-1995, Journal of Field Archaeology , 25, pp. 163-182. Winther Jacobsen, K., 2004. Regional distribution of transport of amphorae in Cyprus in the Late Roman period, In: Eiring, J., Lund, J., (Eds.), Transport Amphorae and Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean: Acts of the International Colloquium at the Danish Institute at Athens , September 26-29, 2002, vol. 5, Aarhus Universitetsforlag, pp. 143-148. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files AmathusglasstableforOSMOikonomouRehrennew.xlsx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-6294622\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":439607525,\"identity\":\"b5bdc108-973f-4d5f-8318-225305dfe16a\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Artemios Oikonomou\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCgw0QmvEBA4MEaVqYDYjWwgjVwkacev4G5oMHZ1TckdNt7zGr+NlmwcDffoDxMw8eLRIH2BIObjjzzNjszBmzm71tEgwSZxKYpfFpYTjAY3DwYdvhxG03csxuMwK1MNxgYGPGp0UeWUsxSIs8IS0GIC0boVqYQVoMCGkxPAz0y4wzh4F+OVYs2XNOgsfwTGKz5Bw8WuSONx/+2FNxWM7sePPGDz/K6uTkjh8++OENPu8zI3MY2Rh4QPHEhDfEUMEfqNYfxGsZBaNgFIyC4Q8A6TROPF/rzxQAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"STARC, The Cyprus Institute\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Artemios\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Oikonomou\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":439607526,\"identity\":\"09a54df8-ed59-478f-8aa3-913d18733943\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Thilo Rehren\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"STARC, The Cyprus Institute\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Thilo\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Rehren\",\"suffix\":\"\"}],\"badges\":[],\"createdAt\":\"2025-03-24 11:08:17\",\"currentVersionCode\":1,\"declarations\":\"\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6294622/v1\",\"doiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6294622/v1\",\"draftVersion\":[],\"editorialEvents\":[],\"editorialNote\":\"\",\"failedWorkflow\":false,\"files\":[{\"id\":80524563,\"identity\":\"99543380-c427-49a2-93d4-3958e3fbc979\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:56\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":43082,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCorrelation between the ratios of major and minor oxides associated with the sand.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"1.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/d064cdc5350acf6346cae749.jpg\"},{\"id\":80525240,\"identity\":\"ef1dcb7c-d0f9-4878-bbd8-b532e7a28d1b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:47:02\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":18322,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003ePie chart showing the distribution of glass objects from Amathus to the corresponding main compositional groups.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"2.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/c79aac05870b3fe31e111aba.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524671,\"identity\":\"8509e119-8f9a-49fd-a990-dea171e971ff\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:39:02\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":44082,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCorrelation between potash and magnesia for the Amathus assemblage. Note the elevated concentrations of these two oxides in the glasses with a suggested plant ash component.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"3.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/66b859098acfb743bc9814ac.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524672,\"identity\":\"31d577a1-965f-479b-8dc6-e51093a8e457\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:39:02\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"Figure 4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":20478,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003ePie chart showing the distribution of the glass working debris and its corresponding categories. The total number of analysed finds is 31 fragments.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"4.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/5e2aa3cfafdf3aabbad604de.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524655,\"identity\":\"8bfeac16-9197-4c07-b9b8-3f44c516260a\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:59\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":78344,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eVarious graphs showing that the glass working debris is not a compositionally tight group.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"5.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/c6bde70ad87fb980c52c2489.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524680,\"identity\":\"599f7467-10ff-43ea-a052-70918aeea07f\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:39:03\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":40211,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCorrelation between potash (K\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO) and phosphorus oxide (P\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e5\\u003c/sub\\u003e). On average the raw glass chunks have higher levels of both oxides compared to the other glass working debris, which can be interpreted as contamination from fuel ashes after a series of recycling events.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"6.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/d70476986ec3642e700da857.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524569,\"identity\":\"d70cf722-6725-45c7-90e3-c4fa0078a9f0\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:56\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":27950,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCorrelation elements which serve as recycling markers. The chunks are clearly distinguished from the test drops and moils.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"7.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/d3d9b43129b07137eb52bf5b.jpg\"},{\"id\":80525233,\"identity\":\"2d2beb16-d8b4-4972-9d11-748eae0f9de3\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:46:59\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":8,\"title\":\"Figure 8\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":39637,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eCorelation between phosphate and magnesia for the glass working debris.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"8.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/76a7a5c7e6bd0ea3f54c1be6.jpg\"},{\"id\":80525987,\"identity\":\"df358a80-1455-49d5-b731-c11afe1e64bb\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:55:02\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":9,\"title\":\"Figure 9\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":48275,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eThe majority of raw glass from Palaepaphos shows higher amounts of both phosphate and potash compared to the Palaepaphos moils.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"9.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/20d464590e86314c93b5bd20.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524658,\"identity\":\"e0fcacd2-620a-4071-8d57-594db099e86e\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:59\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":10,\"title\":\"Figure 10\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":34748,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eThe glass from Palaepaphos shows similar behaviour to the Amathus glass regarding the elements which serve as recycling markers even though Amathus glass is much better distinguished.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"10.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/409590f12003d01b8ac215a1.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524581,\"identity\":\"b7bdf384-2ab1-4c1d-8dad-b80587ae0994\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:57\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":11,\"title\":\"Figure 11\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":64078,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eDistinction of Amathus Levantine glass into the two main categories of LEV I and II. Four fragments fall marginally into the field for Lev II (Beth Eliezer), but might also be seen as an extension of the majority group of Lev I glass fragments.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"11.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/55ef958a9ee679bbbc92d3af.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524681,\"identity\":\"80e743e1-aa96-4431-b235-9c5506b57d2b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:39:03\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":12,\"title\":\"Figure 12\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":44599,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eCorelation between Li and B for the different categories of Levantine glass. There is a clear differentiation between these groups.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"12.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/056717ef0f25b45b34567566.jpg\"},{\"id\":80525227,\"identity\":\"edc4d865-c659-4ce4-9134-d521fa672014\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:46:58\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":13,\"title\":\"Figure 13\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":69205,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTrace element distributions among different types of objects and the glass working debris.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"13.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/d51ff6d2494c6ae239bdf93b.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524676,\"identity\":\"bf544a1b-0c71-4314-8c03-cea9a4f18c43\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:39:02\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":14,\"title\":\"Figure 14\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":150045,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ea-c\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e. Close up for the elements associated with recycling.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"14.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/ca28224d2bc90af07f1cbcb4.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524570,\"identity\":\"b1091094-8f8e-442c-a7f1-6bfad2c1a1cc\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:56\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":15,\"title\":\"Figure 15\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":34213,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eCorrelation between the glass of the main body and the decorative trails.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"15.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/3786b0d14c7e8aaa43adc36d.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524588,\"identity\":\"d2dd00f5-4905-4133-9b7f-b09f0eae3f7d\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:57\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":16,\"title\":\"Figure 16\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":39136,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eCorelation between phosphate and potash for the Série 2.1 objects and “glassworking debris”.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"16.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/6843c6d3514ef8abb2ec4cf2.jpg\"},{\"id\":80524566,\"identity\":\"8e056ef8-f6cd-4a8e-8962-18d85a43352c\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:56\",\"extension\":\"jpg\",\"order_by\":17,\"title\":\"Figure 17\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":59218,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eDifferent trend lines for Egyptian (right) and Levantine glass (left). Notice that the Série 2.1 glass correlates with the Levantine trend line.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"17.jpg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/d38528ee5ad52ea6c624892a.jpg\"},{\"id\":97895347,\"identity\":\"d7806bb2-f6b3-4599-b5a4-d22ce0eb1bd5\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-10 15:34:02\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":1792998,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/0ab1a917-e31e-44f5-829a-296b0e6c32c0.pdf\"},{\"id\":80524565,\"identity\":\"91d8ce02-8949-4b43-8458-941b4485005b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:56\",\"extension\":\"xlsx\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"supplement\",\"size\":761173,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"AmathusglasstableforOSMOikonomouRehrennew.xlsx\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6294622/v1/a5493f0118f05e446d409e77.xlsx\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"The Amathus (Cyprus) Glass Workshop: Technology, Recycling, and Distribution of Glass in early Byzantine period\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCyprus' geographical position made it a crucial node in Mediterranean trade from the second millennium BCE onward (Toumazou and Counts, 2011; Toumazou et al., 1998, Toumazou et al., 2015). Located in the eastern end of the Mediterranean in close proximity to key trading regions, such as the Syro-Palestinian coast, Egypt, Asia Minor and Greece, Cyprus facilitated the exchange of goods particularly during the Cypro-Classical to Roman periods (ca. 480 BCE-330 CE) (Gomez et al., 2002; Lin et al., 2019).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDuring the Early Christian period, Cyprus experienced periods of instability due to pirate raids, earthquakes in 332 and 342 CE, and a major famine at the end of the 4th century (Nikita et al., 2023). However, from the reign of Emperor Anastasius (491 to 518 CE) until the Arab invasions of the mid-7th century, the island enjoyed relative prosperity due to its strategic importance within the Byzantine Empire (Kazamias et al., 2013). This prosperity was based on and further facilitated economic growth, human mobility and the long-distance trade of goods.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe integration of Cyprus into the trade network of glass is evident by the amounts of objects found on various excavations on the island, especially from the Cypro-Classical and especially during the Early Byzantine periods (ca. 480 BCE-647 CE). No primary glass production sites have ever been identified on Cyprus, and it has long been recognised that the island was supplied by both Egyptian and Syro-Palestinian primary glass producers (Freestone et al., 2002). While sites such as Yeroskipou (34\\u0026deg;45'59.99\\\"N 32\\u0026deg;27'59.99\\\"E) contain both Levantine and Egyptian glass, Egyptian glass is nearly absent in locations such as Kalavasos (34\\u0026deg;45'30.2''N 33\\u0026deg;18.479'E) and Maroni Petrera (34\\u0026deg; 45'26.00\\\"N 33\\u0026deg;21'21.00\\\"E) (Ceglia et al., 2015). This pattern partly reflects chronological changes in the location of the main primary glass producers, but also aligns with pottery distribution, which suggests that East Cyprus maintained stronger connections with the Syro-Palestinian coast, whereas West Cyprus was more oriented toward the Aegean and Egypt (Winther Jacobsen, 2004). Notably, Egyptian HIMT glass, which was prevalent up to the 5th century CE, ceased to appear in Cyprus and elsewhere at the latest by the mid-6th century, replaced by Foy \\u003cem\\u003es\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 glass, a newer Egyptian production (Foy et al., 2003; Cholakova et al., 2016). Conversely, Levantine glass continued to be supplied to Cyprus in consistent amounts throughout this period.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDespite the island\\u0026rsquo;s vital role in Mediterranean trade and its wealth of archaeological glass finds, studies on Cypriot glass have been primarily focused on Early Byzantine glass from coastal consumption sites (however, see Cosyns et al. (2018) and Fogarizzu et al. (under review) for studies of earlier glass from Cyprus). The investigation of glass workshops on the island is scarce (Cosyns et al., 2021) and this paper contributes fundamentally to the understanding of the production, distribution, and consumption of glass excavated in Amathus (34\\u0026deg;42\\u0026prime;45\\u0026Prime;N 33\\u0026deg;08\\u0026prime;30\\u0026Prime;E), Cyprus from a very rich secondary glass workshop which operated during the 5th to 7th centuries CE.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAmathus (34\\u0026deg;42\\u0026prime;45\\u0026Prime;N 33\\u0026deg;08\\u0026prime;30\\u0026Prime;E) is an ancient city located on the southern coast of Cyprus, approximately 10 km east of Limassol; throughout antiquity it served as a prominent city-state and commercial hub. Its prosperity was particularly evident during the Archaic and Classical periods, when it played a significant role in Mediterranean trade networks. Excavations by the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus under the direction of the late M. Loulloupis in the forum area of ancient Amathus from 1976 until 1991 revealed large quantities of glass objects and glass working remains. The glass workshop assemblage and most of the other finds from the Agora date to the Early Byzantine period (5th to 7th century CE), a period of important political changes in Cyprus and the broad area of the eastern Mediterranean.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe main focus of this study is to highlight the importance of the workshop by presenting the assemblage and by giving an insight into the composition and provenance of the Amathus glass. At the same time this project aspires to trace glass movement from large production sites to small local workshops in Cyprus and beyond. This paper will add new knowledge about how early Byzantine societies organized glass production and distribution.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Materials and methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eIn the present study a set of 197 glass finds, mostly heavily fragmented finished objects (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;163) and various working debris and raw glass fragments (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;34) was analysed using SEM-EDS and LA-ICP-MS. The samples were initially divided visually into glass objects and glass working debris. Each of these two general categories can be further divided in subgroups according to their typology (Table 1). The material presented here is predominantly dated to the early Byzantine period (5th to 7th c. CE) from the Agora area. Some objects are earlier, particularly a few well-preserved vessels found as grave goods in the necropolis; these will be presented elsewhere.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTable 1: Main groups and subgroups of the Amathus glass.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable style=\\\"border-collapse: collapse;border: none;width: 100px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd colspan=\\\"10\\\" style=\\\"width: 100%;border-width: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1pt;border-style: solid;border-color: windowtext;border-image: initial;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAMATHUS 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normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.54%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003eLevantine I\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 7.04%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp 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none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.3%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.46%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd colspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 29.48%;border-top: none;border-left: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003eSub Total objects\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.54%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e98\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 7.04%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e34\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 6.78%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 7.48%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 9.68%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.24%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.3%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n 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windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e12\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 7.04%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 6.78%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 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5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.24%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.3%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 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none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.24%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.3%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.46%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n 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style=\\\"width: 7.48%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 9.68%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.24%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.3%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.46%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 21.16%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003eStick/drip\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.54%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 7.04%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan 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style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.3%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.46%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp 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1.5pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003eSub Total glass working debris\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.54%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e31\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 7.04%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 6.78%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 7.48%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 9.68%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.24%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 11.3%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.46%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e34\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd colspan=\\\"9\\\" style=\\\"width: 91.54%;border-top: none;border-left: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003eTOTAL\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 8.46%;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;vertical-align: top;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:12px;color:red;\\\"\\u003e197\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSmall samples of about 2 mm size were cut from the original fragments using diamond cutting wheels and embedded in resin blocks, which were then ground and polished using various SiC papers and diamond pastes of 1\\u0026ndash;6 \\u0026micro;m. Larger pieces of glass working debris were also embedded in resin blocks and followed similar sample preparation procedure.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026Tau;he assemblage was analysed using a Zeiss Evo 15 scanning electron microscope (SEM), coupled with an Ultim Max EDS Detector (Oxford Instrument) housed at the Science and Technology in Archaeology and Culture Research Center (STARC) at the Cyprus Institute. The accelerating voltage was set at 20 kV, with a beam current of 1 nA and a working distance of 8.5 mm. Analyses was performed across multiple areas of c. 100 by 100 \\u0026micro;m and the mean values calculated. The accuracy of the instrument calibration was tested using Corning A and B standard reference materials (Table 2). The detection limit for most of the oxides analysed is better than approximately 0.3 wt%. When the concentrations of the analysed samples are above this threshold, the analytical results have an error margin lower than 10% (and in most cases lower than 5%).\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eTable 2: The measured, certified and relative error values in wt% for the standard reference materials as analysed by SEM-EDS. Published values for Corn A and B from Adlington (2017).\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv\\u003e\\n \\u003ctable style=\\\"float: left;border: none;border-collapse: collapse;margin-left: 6.75pt;margin-right: 6.75pt;width: 95px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width:10.16%;border-top:solid windowtext 2.25pt;border-left:solid windowtext 2.25pt;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.5pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:13px;font-family:Calibri;color:black;\\\"\\u003eCorn A (n=147)\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width:6.34%;border-top:solid windowtext 2.25pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid 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style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:13px;font-family:Calibri;color:black;\\\"\\u003e0.02\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width:5.44%;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 2.25pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:13px;font-family:Calibri;color:black;\\\"\\u003e0.04\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width:5.44%;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 2.25pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:13px;font-family:Calibri;color:black;\\\"\\u003e0.04\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width:7.22%;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 2.25pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:13px;font-family:Calibri;color:black;\\\"\\u003e0.06\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width:6.04%;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 2.25pt;border-right:solid windowtext 2.25pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\\\"Calibri\\\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\\u003e\\u003cspan style=\\\"font-size:13px;font-family:Calibri;color:black;\\\"\\u003e0.04\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n \\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSeveral of the samples (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;45) were further analysed by LA-ICP-MS to determine their trace element composition using a Resonetics M50E excimer laser working at 193 nm coupled with a Thermo Fisher Scientific ELEMENT XR mass spectrometer at the Institut de recherche sur les arch\\u0026eacute;omat\\u0026eacute;riaux, Centre Ernest-Babelon (IRAMAT-CEB). The excimer laser was operated at 5 mJ with a repetition rate of 10 Hz. As a precaution, the beam diameter was adjusted from 40 \\u0026micro;m to 100 \\u0026micro;m to avoid saturation from elements such as manganese, copper, tin, antimony or lead. Even though no excessively high values for any of these elements were expected, they could be concentrated locally as small inclusions. A pre-ablation time of 20 s was set and the signal was acquired for 27 s corresponding to 9 mass scans from Li to U. One to three ablations were carried out on each sample. Calibration for trace elements was performed using the NIST 612 standard reference material.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eΤhe analysed samples belong to the general soda-lime-silica category based on mineral natron flux which is typical for the late Roman and early Byzantine period. The compositional data and the variation of the main components of glass (main, minor oxides and trace elements) are presented in the full table provided at the OSM.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMean values of the different compositional groups identified in the Amathus assemblage. SEM-EDS data, in wt%, normalised to 100.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" colnum=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\" colnum=\\\"10\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\" colnum=\\\"11\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\" colnum=\\\"12\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\" colnum=\\\"13\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\" colnum=\\\"14\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCompositional group\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eType of glass\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNa\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMgO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAl\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eP\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e5\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCl\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eK\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCaO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMnO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFeO\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLEV I\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eObjects (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;98)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e14.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e69.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e9.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLEV I\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWorking debris (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;17)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e13.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e71.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e8.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLEV I\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eChunks, furnace wall (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;14)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e12.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e71.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie 2.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eObjects (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;34)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e17.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e66.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie 2.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eChunks of intentionally coloured glass (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;3)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e16.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e64.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e8.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePlant Ash (PA)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eObjects (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;5)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e16.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e66.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHIMT\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eObjects (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;6)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e17.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e65.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRoman Mn decol\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eObjects (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;10)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e16.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e69.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eUnassigned\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eObjects (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;6)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e17.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e70.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eEarly Modern\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eObjects (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;4)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e14.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e74.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe main compositional groups for glass from this period identified so far have been manufactured either in the Levantine coast or in Egypt. In particular, these are: a. Levantine I and II, manufactured in large primary glass production sites such as Apollonia, Bet Eli\\u0026rsquo;ezer etc. (Freestone et al., 2000); b. Egypt I and II, manufactured in Egypt (Gratuze, 1988); c. \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 and \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 3.2, also thought to be manufactured in Egypt (Foy et al., 2003); glass with high iron, manganese, and titanium content, the so-called HIMT glass (Freestone, 1994; Freestone et al., 2018), also manufactured in Egypt. A number of other compositional groups were used during this period, too, but are mostly only of local or regional significance.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThese groups can be easily distinguished in an Al\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e/SiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e vs TiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e/Al\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e biplot (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e). These three oxides are incorporated in the glass as part of the sand and, therefore, their correlation can show possible distinctive different glassmaking regions through the use of different sands. According to this graph and the composition of major and minor elements, the glass from Amathus falls into 7 groups. The vast majority match the composition of Levantine I and \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 glass. A few samples match more closely Levantine II, and others are either HIMT (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;5), Roman (Mn decolourised, n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;10), plant ash (PA, n\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;4), early modern industrial glass (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;4), and another group of analyses which we were unable to assign to a specific compositional group (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;6). The Roman (Mn decolourised), the early modern glass and the unassigned group will not be discussed any further, since the focus of this paper is on the early Byzantine glass from Amathus. They are, however, included in the overall table in the OSM.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMore than 2/3 of the analysed Early Byzantine glass in Amathus matches Levantine glass, mostly Levantine I with a few potential Levantine II objects (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). About a quarter of all analysed finds are close in composition to Foy\\u0026rsquo;s \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1. All the glassworking debris falls into the Levantine I category. There are only three chunks of glass from \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 glass; however, based on their appearance and chemical composition, we believe they are not glassworking debris (\\u003cem\\u003esee below\\u003c/em\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhile the vast majority of the Amathus glass was manufactured using mineral natron, there is at least one sample, from a small dark green unguentarium with a thick base, and potentially up to three other samples that appear to be based on plant ash, or at least made with a noticeable amount of plant ash as part of the batch (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e). These not only show elevated amount of magnesia and potash compared to the compositionally closest mineral natron group, Foy \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1, but also higher phosphate. With nearly 0.9 wt% P\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e5\\u003c/sub\\u003e, the unguentarium closely resembles in its composition, shape and appearance a small group of such vessels from 1st to 2nd century CE Bubastis in the Nile Delta (Rosenow and Rehren, 2014). A recent study (Govantes-Edwards et al., \\u003cem\\u003esubmitted\\u003c/em\\u003e) has shown the persistent occurrence of plant-ash based glass across the Mediterranean during much of the 1st millennium CE, albeit at very low relative quantities. The plant ash glass seen here matches the composition of those other reported plant ash glasses from the Mediterranean region, which differ from the plant ash glass routinely produced further East, in the lands beyond the Euphrates. Notably, none of the glass working debris found at Amathus falls into this group. In contrast, the contemporary workshop from Argyropoulis on Crete has both, objects and working debris, matching this composition, indicating that such plant-ash rich glass was worked in Byzantine regional workshops (Oikonomou et al., 2021). Their occurrence here is noted as adding to the wide geographic distribution of this glass type across the Mediterranean, but they will not be further discussed here; instead, we refer to the recent comprehensive discussion of plant ash glass in areas otherwise dominated by mineral natron glass in Govantes-Edwards et al. (submitted).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eLevantine glass\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eEarlier studies of early Byzantine glass assemblages from Cyprus were almost exclusively based on consumption sites, i.e. analysed fragmented objects. The Amathus assemblages is remarkable for its large presence of working waste and several kilograms of raw glass chunks, almost all of which have furnace wall material adhering to them. The analysed debris (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;31) can be visually distinguished in 5 different categories: the chunks with attached material from the furnace and a few pieces of clean raw glass chunks (n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;12), test drops, moils, some sticks/drips, and a few fragments of amorphous glass (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e, together n\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;19). Given the importance of this workshop evidence, and the logical workflow from raw glass to working waste to object, we will discuss this material first, before addressing the finished objects.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOur initial hypothesis was that there should be a close compositional association among the different types of glass working debris, since they should all be part of the same process of glass working. Especially, one would expect that at least the moils and the test drops could be associated with the chunks of raw glass. However, this is not the case. As it is clearly demonstrated in various graphs (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003ea-d) the chunks and the rest of the glass working debris form two distinctive groups: a. the chunks and b. the moils and test drops. The other two categories (amorphous glass and the stick/drips) are not clearly linked to the rest. Especially the two samples of the stick/drips seem to have very similar composition and therefore we may assume are coming from the same object, or at least the same batch (Freestone et al., 2009).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eInterestingly, the raw glass chunks have distinctly higher amounts of the typical fuel ash oxides phosphate and potash (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e) compared to the rest of the glass working debris, and especially from the moils and the test drops which we assumed correspond to the objects manufactured in Amathus. Paynter (2008) has shown experimentally that the longer molten glass is exposed to the furnace environment the more is it contaminated by fuel ash and vapour, resulting in an increase of these two oxides. This phenomenon has been also observed in several archaeological assemblages (e.g. Rehren et al. 2010, 2016; Oikonomou et al., 2021); however, here we see the opposite trend, with the raw glass chunks having significantly higher fuel ash oxides than the working waste, or the majority of the finished objects. This is counter-intuitive, and needs an explanation.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOne possible explanation for this is linked to the fact that the majority of the raw glass chunks have a thick crust of furnace wall material attached to them. We know from excavations in Israel that the furnace structure was built using mudbricks/ceramics (Gorin-Rosen, 2000). Usually, mortar of a calcareous material was applied either to fill the gaps between the foundation materials or to line the inside of the furnace as a parting layer between the ceramic wall and the molten glass (Chen et al., 2021). The latter has been also noticed in earlier examples of primary glassmaking in LBA Egypt where a parting layer was used in ceramic crucibles, facilitating the smooth removal of the glass ingots from their ceramic moulds (Turner, 1954; Merkel and Rehren, 2007; Smirniou and Rehren, 2016). During the heating of the furnace the clay transforms into ceramic and any CaCO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e decomposes at around 800 to 850 \\u003csup\\u003eo\\u003c/sup\\u003eC. Both are endothermic reactions, i.e. it consume energy. Since during glass making a lot of energy needs to be put into the furnace, and projected down onto the charge which as a white powder is insulating and hinders heat transmission towards the bottom, it would make good sense to thoroughly pre-fire the empty furnace to calcine the CaCO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e of the inner furnace structure, so that a) there is a parting layer towards the forming glass melt, and b) no energy gets absorbed during glassmaking for those endothermic reactions, which would lead to \\u0026lsquo;cold\\u0026rsquo; corners and bottoms in the furnace which should be avoided. Assuming that such pre-firing procedure took place in an empty furnace, then a certain superficial vitrification and ash deposition on the furnace floor and walls would be expected before the charge of mineral natron and sand is added into the already red-hot furnace. This initial vitrification and ash layer would be very rich in K\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO, P\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e5\\u003c/sub\\u003e and MgO, depending on the fuel used and its ash composition. This may explain some of the high MgO observations from the chunks with the attached furnace wall (or floor?) material, while the K\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO and P\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e5\\u003c/sub\\u003e from that layer would likely be absorbed into the fresh forming glass near the furnace walls / floor. This contamination would not affect the main body of glass subsequently forming in the huge volume of an approximately 8-ton slab. Thus, a higher K\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO and P\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e5\\u003c/sub\\u003e concentration just at the interface between furnace wall / floor and glass melt would be expected.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn addition, the chunks show another compositional peculiarity. It seems that they significant amounts of elements which serve as recycling markers such as Pb, Co, Cu and Sn (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e). Compared to the rest of the glass working debris they give the impression that they have been recycled more than the rest of the material, which is unlikely since the chunks are the primary product, thought to originate fresh from the furnace.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eA possible explanation for this could be the use of cullet as an initiation of the charge melt formation. Adding crushed recycled glass cullet to the bottom of the furnace would facilitate the fusion of the raw materials (sand and natron), as the cullet would melt more easily and act as a catalyst for new glass formation from the raw materials. The melting process would be faster and economically more efficient (in terms of the fuel needed and the time that the whole fusion lasts) when the huge amounts of raw materials were added to the furnace in batches and not all at once. Assuming that the furnace was pre-fired (see above), the first layer of glass at the bottom of the furnace would be a combination of glass cullet (fragments of broken glass objects collected for recycling) together with the first batch of the raw materials. As any recycled glass, the cullet most likely contained various mostly naturally-coloured fragments, but also some coloured glass, such as fragments of vessels with dark blue decorative trails which would not have been avoided or separated from the clear glass cullet. This would result in the first-formed glass of the lower part of the furnace to have an excess of recycling indicators such as Co, Cu, Sn and Pb, as well as the previously discussed increased fuel ash components. Then the glassmakers would add more raw materials onto the already-formed glass melt, without the need of adding more cullet; therefore, this contamination effect would fade away as we reach the main part of the melt. Stirring and mixing of the melt while still hot would not be possible, and therefore the \\u0026ldquo;recycling\\u0026rdquo; indicators would remain mostly at the bottom layer of the glass melt.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis would explain the observation (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e) that the raw glass chunks with adhering furnace wall material, which in this model would come from the bottom of the furnace, exhibit higher amounts of the recycling indicators (due to the use of cullet and the pre-firing of the furnace structure), while the test drops and moils have a \\u0026ldquo;normal\\u0026rdquo; fresh primary glass composition, since they were probably made using cleaner raw glass from the upper part of the furnace. The chunks of glass with furnace wall material would have been part of a shipment of fresh raw glass chunks, but were deemed not suitable to be remelted due to the adhering material and instead discarded in the workshop.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMore than half of the glass working debris, namely some moils, test drops and stick/drips (9 out of 14 samples) have an excessive MgO content compared to the rest (0.9\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;MgO\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;1.69 wt.%), while their K\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO content is rather stable around 0.4\\u0026ndash;0.5 wt. % (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e). A possible explanation for this feature could be searched again in the type of the fuels used for the melting and working of the glass once it has reached the workshop in Amathus. The Troodos mountain range, just north of Amathus, has a very \\u0026lsquo;basic\\u0026rsquo; MgO rich geology, and hence likely soil chemistry. Trees normally accumulate CaO in their ash, but given the similarity of Mg\\u003csup\\u003e2+\\u003c/sup\\u003e and Ca\\u003csup\\u003e2+\\u003c/sup\\u003e in their chemical behaviour, and the high excess of MgO over CaO in many Troodos rocks, one could envisage an MgO-rich fuel ash effect which affects the MgO content of the specific glass working debris.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eA similar behaviour is noticed when testing glass working debris from Palaepaphos, located in the western end of the island (Cosyns et al., 2021). In this case we see that some of the raw glass has an elevated amount of phosphorus, suggesting more exposure to fuel ash contamination (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e). In addition, we notice that the raw glass has higher values of the elements that serve as recycling indicators as discussed previously (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;10).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\n\\u003ch3\\u003eLevantine glass objects\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe production of the main Levantine glass compositions peaked in the 6th and 7th century CE in the region around modern-day Haifa, as demonstrated by numerous excavated furnace sites (Gorin-Rosen 2000). Freestone et al. (2000) has proposed to separate the Levantine glass in two groups, Levantine I and Levantine II, according to their CaO/Al\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e and Na\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO/SiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e ratios (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig10\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e11\\u003c/span\\u003e). The Amathus assemblage belongs overwhelmingly to the Levantine I group and clusters well with Jalame and Apollonia glass (comparative data from: Brill, 1988; Freestone et al., 2000, 2008; Tal et al., 2004).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΑ differentiation appears when specific trace elements associated with natron, such as lithium and boron, are plotted (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig11\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e12\\u003c/span\\u003e). The objects can be classified into three groups: (a) a single beaker exhibiting lithium concentrations exceeding 4 ppm, (b) objects with intermediate lithium values ranging between 2 and 4 ppm, comprising almost exclusively vessels, and (c) items with lithium content lower than 1 ppm, including only the window panes. This differentiation may indicate distinct natron sources for these objects, varying glassmaking recipes or/and seasonal variation in Li content in the natron.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRemarkably, the glassmaking debris follows a similar pattern, with three distinguishable groups. Particularly noteworthy is the discrepancy among the chunks, which are supposed potentially originating from a single batch, but as they appear here, probably originate from two distinct batches distinguished by their differing lithium content.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe trace element distributions demonstrate that in most cases the objects and the glass working debris are close geochemically (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig12\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e13\\u003c/span\\u003e). There are various differences, as noticed previously in the text, in elements which are associated with recycling phenomena such as Pb, Sn and the colorants Co, Cu, Ni.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhen looking in more detail at the trace elements associated to recycling we see that the lamps and the test drops show very close similarities in terms of specific trace elements (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig13\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e14\\u003c/span\\u003ea-c). The same is also noticed between the beakers and the vessels and we can see also a tendency that the chunks and window panes follow a similar pattern.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAmong the assemblage there are 16 fragments coming from vessels bearing trailed-on glass decoration which is typical for vessels in the early Byzantine period (Table XX). The analyses of these pairs of glass (body and trails) have shown that 15 out of the 16 pairs belong to the Levantine I group, while there is only one pair belonging to HIMT group and no such glass type belonging to the \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 category. The body of the vessels is mostly pale aqua with greenish and blueish tints (except for the HIMT sample which, as expected, has a yellowish tint) and there is only one example having dark blue colour of the main body and a colourless decoration. Most of the trailed glass is of dark blue colour, while there are two examples of red glass, two of turquoise blue-green glass and three examples almost colourless.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRegarding the coloured trails it seems that some of them are coloured by high CuO and varying amount of PbO, and others that are clearly coloured by Co with a smaller amount of CuO (around \\u0026frac14; percent). FeO is also routinely elevated in these. According to the presented data it seems that the trailed-on coloured glass is based on the same glass batch as the vessel body, allowing for some minor variation in the colouration process. This is evident by plotting the pairs into the graph showing very good correspondence (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig14\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e15\\u003c/span\\u003e). The data used for the coloured glass has been normalised without any colorants to 100%.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab4\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 4\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe 16 pairs of fragments of glass vessels bearing trailed-on decorative glass.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSample ID\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMain body\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTrailed-on decoration\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-28j\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTurquoise\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-42a\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-60a3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua (blue tint)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTurquoise\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-60a4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua (blue tint)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRed\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-62a1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-62a2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-62a3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-62a4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-62c\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua (green tint)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRed\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM78-604b\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua (blue tint)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM83-34a\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eYellowish\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e??\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM84-4f5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua (blue tint)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM85-124c2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua (blue tint)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRed\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM85-125.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua (blue tint)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM88-39.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eColourless\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM83-34b\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eYellowish\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eYellowish\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM77-53b\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eaqua\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eColourless\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAM85-149.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDark blue\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eColourless\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003eSérie 2.1 glass\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThree of the 37 samples identified as \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 glass are amorphous lumps of unclear function, and no proper glass working debris such as moils, test drops etc. were noticed. Therefore, taken also into consideration the fact that we have far fewer \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 objects compared to the Levantine glass, we may assume that this group of glass was minimally worked in Amathus, if at all.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWe notice that these glass lumps are at the higher end of phosphorus oxide and potash concentrations, suggesting that they have been subjected to fuel ash contamination for longer period than the objects (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig15\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e16\\u003c/span\\u003e). In addition, the Foy S\\u0026eacute;rie 2.1 formless lumps have significantly elevated levels of lead, ranging from 0.5 to more than 5 wt% PbO, around 0.2 to 0.3 wt% CuO, and also significantly elevated tin contents, from 450 to 4,000 ppm. The small fragmented nature of these finds makes it difficult to assign a function to them. They are clearly not fresh glass, and their shape also does not match the Levantine I chunk fragments with adhering furnace wall material and elevated \\u0026ndash; but still much lower \\u0026ndash; trace metal contents.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn the following figure (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig16\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e17\\u003c/span\\u003e) we test Nb against Ti; Nb could be an intriguing element to use for identifying the origin of ancient glass since its quantity is determined by the type, quantity, and origin of Ti minerals that are included in the glass mixture as sand impurities (Ceglia et al., 2019).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn this graph we see the correlation of different types of glass found in Cyprus from the 1st millennium AD. We see that the glasses can be distinguished in two groups with variations in the Nb/Ti ratio. The first group consisting of glass groups Levantine, Foy \\u003cem\\u003es\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 and Roman Mn decolorized have the same Nb/Ti ratio, despite their vastly different chemical compositions. In contrast, the second group consisting of Egypt 1, HIMT and HIT glass has a lower Nb/Ti ratio. In this second group there are only two samples from Amathus; both belong to the HIMT group.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis may indicate that the Foy \\u003cem\\u003es\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 glass group, according to the outcomes of Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig16\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e17\\u003c/span\\u003e, should be a Levantine production and not an Egyptian one, as previously believed (e.g., Foy et al., 2003). There is a clear distinction between the Foy \\u003cem\\u003es\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 group from Amathus and other Cypriot sites (namely Kalavasos-Kopetra, Maroni-Petrera and Yeroskipou) which form part of the left trend line dominated by Levantine glasses, and the confirmed Egyptian compositions (HIMT, HIT, Egypt 1), all of which fall in the right trendline. Otherwise, we would expect that Foy \\u003cem\\u003es\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 glass would fall on the same trendline.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHaving the same Nb/Ti ratio does not necessarily mean that the glass originated from the same source, but it does imply that the minerals that contributed these elements to the glass mixture are similar and probably originated from the same type of rock or sand (Ceglia et al. 2019). As a result, the first group of samples employed sand sources with the same Nb-Ti bearing minerals, which differed from the minerals present in the sands used for the second group.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Conclusions\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe study of nearly 200 samples from the large quantity of glass retrieved in the secondary workshop in Amathus provides crucial insights into the technological, economic, and trade dynamics of glass production and distribution in the eastern Mediterranean during the Early Byzantine period. We identified a diverse range of glass fragments in the Amathus assemblage, primarily finished objects, a large amount of glass chunks, mostly with adhering furnace wall material and therefore likely discarded by the glassworkers rather than being remelted and worked into objects, and a wide range of glass working debris such as moils and test drips which demonstrate this reworking of glass. The material suggests that the Amathus workshop played a significant role in the working and distribution of glass in Cyprus, as a place where imported raw glass chunks were processed and shaped into finished objects.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe compositional analyses confirm that the vast majority of the glass in Amathus originated from the Levantine coast, primarily as Levantine I glass, but also including a smaller but notable presence of the Foy \\u003cem\\u003eS\\u0026eacute;rie\\u003c/em\\u003e 2.1 glass. We assume this to be of Levantine origin, too, based on the Nb/Ti graph (see above). According to the glass working debris, only Levantine I glass was imported into and work in Amathus by the glassworkers. Other smaller compositional groups of glass were also identified in the finished objects, suggesting a variability in glass consumption and the possible import of finished objects, e.g. such as the dark green unguentarium of likely Egyptian manufacture. The predominance of Levantine glass aligns with broader regional trade patterns, as already noticed in other sites in Cyprus. Apparently, Cyprus maintained strong connections with the Syro-Palestinian primary glass production centers.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn particular, the study of the glassworking debris has provided a deeper understanding of the operational processes within the Amathus workshop. Interestingly, the debris, especially the raw glass fragments, show unusually higher concentrations of specific elements commonly acting as recycling markers. We interpret this feature to indicate the initial fusion of cullet glass fragments together with raw materials, in a thoroughly pre-fired furnace which therefore has a fuel ash-enriched base layer of glass. Moreover, the presence of a variety of glassworking debris such as test drops, moils, cullet, and furnace wall fragments indicate an active glassworking workshop. The identification of high MgO and P\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e5\\u003c/sub\\u003e concentrations in some samples points to fuel ash contamination from local Troodos wood, providing indirect evidence for multiple production phases.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe evidence of recycling noticed in the Amathus assemblage, indicated by the presence of trace elements such as Pb, Cu, and Sn, was a common practice in the workshop and typical for glass production during the 1st mil. AD. Recycling suggests a level of sustainability in glass production since the idea of remelting and reshaping glass enhanced material resources in a period of instability, especially during the 5th c. AD. Possibly the difficulties in trade of raw glass from either the Syro-Palestinian coast or Egypt due to the raids of pirates in the area and the socioeconomic status of Cyprus and Amathus in particular, required adaptive reuse of available materials. This aspect aligns with broader trends observed in Late Antique economies and is reflected in their material culture.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn addition, the presence of a limited number of plant-ash glasses has been noted in the Amathus assemblage. These glasses have elevated amounts of magnesia, potash and phosphate suggesting different compositional patterns which differentiate them form the dominant natron glass. Their relationship to other similar glasses from around the Mediterranean reinforces the idea of localized variations in glass-making traditions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA.O. and Th. R. wrote the main manuscript textA.O. prepared the figures and the tables and Th. R. reviewed them.All authors reviewed the manuscript\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAcknowledgement\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the late Dr P. Flourentzos who has initiated this project; we dedicate this work to his memory. Dr Bernard Gratuze is highly appreciated for providing the trace element data. The Department of Antiquities in Cyprus kindly provided the necessary permits to study and analyse the material, and we extend our sincere thanks. Finally, this research would not be feasible without the substantial and kind support of the A. G. Leventis Foundation.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eData Availability\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eData is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eBrill, R.H., 1988. Scientific investigations of the Jalame glass and related finds. In: Weinberg, G.D., (Ed.), \\u003cem\\u003eExcavations at Jalame: site of a glass factory in late Roman Palestine\\u003c/em\\u003e, Columbia: University of Missouri, pp. 257-294.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCeglia, A., Cosyns, P., Schibille, N., Meulebroeck, W., 2019. Unravelling provenance and recycling of late antique glass from Cyprus with trace elements, \\u003cem\\u003eArchaeological and Anthropological Sciences\\u003c/em\\u003e 11, 279-291, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-017-0542-1\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCeglia, A., Cosyns, P., Nys, K., Terryn, H., Thienpont, H., Meulebroeck, W., 2016. Light through glass: The spectrum of Late Antique glass from Cyprus, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science: Reports\\u003c/em\\u003e, Vol. 7, pp. 614-624, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.09.024\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCeglia, A., Cosyns, P., Nys, K., Terryn, H., Thienpont, H., Meulebroeck, W., 2015. Late antique glass distribution and consumption in Cyprus: a chemical study, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science\\u003c/em\\u003e, 61, pp. 213-222\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eChen, C., Freestone, I.C., Gorin-Rosen, Y., Quinn, P.S., 2021. A glass workshop in \\u0026lsquo;Aqir, Israel and a new type of compositional contamination, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science: Reports\\u003c/em\\u003e, Vol. 35, 102786, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102786\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCholakova, A., Rehren, Th., Freestone, I.C., 2016. Compositional identification of 6th c. AD glass from the Lower Danube, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science: Reports\\u003c/em\\u003e, Vol. 7, pp. 625-632, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.08.009\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCosyns, P., Ceglia, A., Thienpont, H., von Wartburg, M-L., 2021. A late Antique glass workshop at the Aphrodite sanctuary of Palaepaphos, Kouklia (Cyprus). 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In: Nenna, M.-D., (Ed.), \\u003cem\\u003eLa Route du verre. Ateliers primaires et secondaires du second mill\\u0026eacute;naire av. J.-C. au Moyen \\u0026Acirc;ge\\u003c/em\\u003e. Lyon: Maison de l\\u0026apos;Orient et de la M\\u0026eacute;diterran\\u0026eacute;e Jean Pouilloux. MOM \\u0026Eacute;ditions 33, 49-63. https://www.persee.fr/doc/mom_1274-6525_2000_act_33_1_1873.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eGovantes-Edwards, D., Cosyns, P., Degryse, P., Duckworth, Ch., Freestone, I., Frenken, M., Jackson, C., Oikonomou, A., Rehren, Th., Retamosa, J.A., Rosenow, D., Shortland, A., Zimmermann, M., (under review). Plant-ash glass in natronland: a review of the use of plant-based fluxes in glassmaking from the 1st to the 9th century CE in Europe and the Mediterranean basin, submitted in \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science\\u003c/em\\u003e.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eGratuze, B., 1988. \\u003cem\\u003eAnalyse non destructive d\\u0026rsquo;objets en verre par des m\\u0026eacute;thods nucl\\u0026eacute;aires. Application \\u0026agrave; l\\u0026rsquo;\\u0026eacute;tude des estampilles et poids mon\\u0026eacute;taires islamiques\\u003c/em\\u003e. Unpubl. Diss. University of Orleans.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eKazamias, G., Petrides, A.K., Koumas, E., (Eds), 2013. \\u003cem\\u003eIntroduction to the History of Cyprus\\u003c/em\\u003e, Nicosia: Open University of Cyprus. \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eLin, Y., Liu, T., Toumazou, M.K., Counts, D.B., Kakoulli, I., 2019. Chemical analyses and production technology of archaeological glass from Athienou-Malloura, Cyprus, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science: Reports\\u003c/em\\u003e, Vol. 23, pp. 700-713, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.08.011\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eMerkel, S., Rehren, Th., 2007. Parting layers, ash trays, and Ramesside glassmaking: an experimental study. In: Pusch, E.B., Rehren, Th., (Eds.), \\u003cem\\u003eRubinglas f\\u0026uuml;r den Pharao-Hochtemperatur-Technologie in der Ramses-Stadt (=Forschungen in der Ramsesstadt, 6)\\u003c/em\\u003e, Gerstenberg-Verlag, Hildesheim, pp. 201-221.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eNikita, E., Mutri, G., Le Roux, P., Pilides, D., 2023. Human mobility in Byzantine Cyprus: A case study from the Hill of Agios Georgios, Nicosia, \\u003cem\\u003eQuaternary International\\u003c/em\\u003e, Vol. 653-654, pp. 103-113, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2021.12.015\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eOikonomou, A., Rehren, Th. Fiolitaki, A., 2021. An early Byzantine glass workshop at Argyroupolis, Crete: Insights into complex glass supply networks, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science: Reports\\u003c/em\\u003e, Vol. 35, 102766, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102766\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003ePaynter, S., 2008. Experiments in the reconstruction of Roman wood-fired glassworking furnaces: waste products and their formation processes, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Glass Studies \\u003c/em\\u003e, 50 (2008), pp. 271-290.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eRehren, Th., Marii, F., Schibille, N., Stanford, L., Swan, C., 2010. Glass supply and circulation in early Byzantine southern Jordan. In: Drauschke, J., Keller, D., (Eds.), \\u003cem\\u003eGlass in Byzantium - Production, Usage, Analyses\\u003c/em\\u003e, RGZM, Verlag des R\\u0026ouml;misch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz, pp. 65-81\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSmirniou, M. and Rehren, Th., 2016. The use of technical ceramics in early Egyptian glass-making, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science\\u003c/em\\u003e, Vol. 67, pp. 52-63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2016.01.009\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eTal, O., Jackson-Tal, R.E., Freestone, I., 2004. New evidence of the production of raw glass at Late Byzantine Apollonia-Arsuf, Israel, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Glass Studies\\u003c/em\\u003e, 46, pp. 51-66.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eToumazou, M., Counts, D., 2011. Excavations at Malloura (1990\\u0026ndash;2010): context, methods, and results. In: Toumazou, M., Kardulias, P., Counts, D., (Eds\\u003cem\\u003e.), Crossroads and Boundaries: The Archaeology of Past and Present in the Malloura Valley, Cyprus\\u003c/em\\u003e, (Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 65), pp. 67-86.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eToumazou, M.K., Counts, D.B., Averett, E.W., Gordon, J.M., Nick Kardulias, P., 2015. Shedding light on the Cypriot rural landscape: investigations of the Athienou Archaeological Project in the Malloura Valley, Cyprus, 2011-2013, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Field Archaeology\\u003c/em\\u003e, 40, pp. 204-220.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eToumazou, M.K., Yerkes, R.W., Kardulias, P.N., 1998. Athienou archaeological project: investigations in the Malloura Valley, Cyprus, 1990-1995, \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Field Archaeology\\u003c/em\\u003e, 25, pp. 163-182.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eWinther Jacobsen, K., 2004. Regional distribution of transport of amphorae in Cyprus in the Late Roman period, In: Eiring, J., Lund, J., (Eds.), \\u003cem\\u003eTransport Amphorae and Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean: Acts of the International Colloquium at the Danish Institute at Athens\\u003c/em\\u003e, September 26-29, 2002, vol. 5, Aarhus Universitetsforlag, pp. 143-148.\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6294622/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6294622/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eExcavations from 1976 to 1991 by the French School of Athens and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus at the Amathus archaeological site revealed a large number of glass objects and glass working remains. The glass assemblage dates mostly to the early Byzantine period (5th to 7th c. CE), a period of significant changes in Cyprus and the eastern Mediterranean.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe rich assemblage consists of fragments of various objects (rims, foot bases, candela stems etc.) characteristic of the period; of particular interest is a significant number of fragments indicating glass working activities (moils, glass chunks, test drops, furnace wall fragments, etc.).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis study highlights the importance of the workshop by presenting the assemblage, discussing the provenance of the glass, and tracing its movement from the large primary production site to a relatively small local workshop and beyond. The main objective of this study is to broaden our knowledge about how Byzantine societies organized glass production, working and distribution through this systematic interdisciplinary approach.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"The Amathus (Cyprus) Glass Workshop: Technology, Recycling, and Distribution of Glass in early Byzantine period\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:48\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6294622/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"ce0f1fcb-0b38-494f-a2ec-421bedfaa828\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"April 14th, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-12-09T05:39:02+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-04-14 09:38:48\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-6294622\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-6294622\",\"identity\":\"rs-6294622\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}