{"paper_id":"0d49857b-2a7c-4a7a-b4e2-ff4206a0b40d","body_text":"High prevalence of vector-borne protozoans and bacteria in dogs from Chad determined using a targeted next generation sequencing approach | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article High prevalence of vector-borne protozoans and bacteria in dogs from Chad determined using a targeted next generation sequencing approach Ian Kirimi Daniel, Hassan Hakimi, Rafael A. N. Ramos, Jobin J. Kattoor, and 8 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5921037/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Data on vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) infecting dogs from sub-Saharan Africa is limited. In this study, we assessed the prevalence of VBPs, their associated risk factors, and pathogen interactions in domestic dogs. Whole blood samples were obtained for 1202 apparently healthy dogs in Chad from September to October 2021, and nucleic acids were extracted and then subjected to a targeted next-generation sequencing (tNGS) assay for detection of 15 VBPs. Overall, 88.7% of the dogs were positive for at least one pathogen, and 62.9% were coinfected with two or more VBPs. The most frequent pathogen detected was Hepatozoon canis in 62.4% of the dogs, Mycoplasma haemocanis in 59.2%, Anaplasma platys in 29.2%, Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum in 21.2%, Ehrlichia canis in 20.3%, Babesia vogeli in 2.0% and Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis in 1.5%. While most of the dogs (62.9%) were co-infected with two or more VBPs, having an infection with three pathogens (30.8%) was more common. According to multivariable logistic regression analysis, being a senior dog and residing in Chari Baguirmi south were identified as potential risk factors for infection by most of the pathogens. Network analyses revealed complex interactions suggesting facilitative associations among VBPs. These results are useful in expanding the knowledge of VBPs in Africa and establishing a baseline for downstream studies into hemotropic mycoplasmas. Biological sciences/Microbiology/Clinical microbiology Biological sciences/Microbiology/Infectious disease diagnostics Biological sciences/Microbiology/Parasitology Health sciences/Diseases Health sciences/Risk factors Canis lupus familiaris Vector-borne Diseases Targeted next generation sequencing Risk factors Chad Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Background Domestic dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) are susceptible to infections with several VBPs caused by protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes transmitted by ticks, fleas, mosquitoes, and biting flies, which can cause significant morbidity and mortality 1 . In sub-Saharan Africa, most of the domestic dogs have a relatively unrestricted movement, allowing them access to wilderness environments and close association with humans. This situation promotes the transmission and dissemination of vector-borne zoonoses 2 , 3 . Importantly, even sub clinically infected dogs can serve as sentinels for human vector-associated pathogens, indicating geographical areas with increased zoonotic risk 2 . Ticks and fleas are the most common ectoparasites of dogs, and both vector a wide array of VBPs such as protozoans and bacteria belonging to the genera Hepatozoon, Rickettsia, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Babesia, Borrelia, Bartonella, Yersinia and Mycoplasma (supplementary table 1 ). Some ticks are highly adapted to feed and transmit pathogens primarily to domestic dogs, including those belonging to the Rhipicephalus sanguineus complex and Haemaphysalis leachi group 4 . In fact, most pathogens transmitted to dogs by vectors are linked to infestations by species within the R. sanguineus complex due to its widespread range and specialized feeding on domestic dogs 4 – 6 . The R. sanguineus complex encompasses at least 16 morphologically and phylogenetically related species 7 including R. sanguineus tropical lineage recently renamed as R. linnaei 8 primarily distributed in the Afrotropics 9 . Ticks within the R. sanguineus complex are known to transmit B. vogeli 10 and Hepatozoon canis 11 and rickettsial agents of the genera Anaplasma, Ehrlichia , and Rickettsia , which have been molecularly detected in Chad 12 – 14 . Furthermore, R. sanguineus s.l. is implicated in transmitting hemotropic mycoplasmas, which cause severe hemolytic anaemia 15 . However, strong evidence suggests that aggressive interactions such as fighting among dogs and vertical passage contribute to additional transmission pathways for hemotropic mycoplasmas in the absence of arthropod vectors 16 , 17 . The cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis felis , is regarded as the most dominant flea species associated with dogs and cats worldwide. The cat flea is a vector of numerous emerging zoonotic agents such as Rickettsia felis and Bartonella henselae known to cause febrile illness in sub-Saharan, Africa 18 , 19 . In addition, fleas are implicated in hemotropic mycoplasma transmission, including the potentially zoonotic Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum to dogs and cats. However, transmission of canine hemotropic mycoplasmas is not well established 20 , 21 . Co-infections with two or more VBPs may complicate disease and clinical presentations especially in tropical and sub-tropical areas where vectors are abundant. While VBP surveys have been conducted in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa, comprehensive epidemiological studies are lacking in Chad. Previous research has relied on routine diagnostic methods, such as PCR 12 – 14 , 22 , which were limited to a small number of canine pathogens per test, requiring many individual tests to obtain a comprehensive diagnosis. The latest advancement in diagnostic laboratories is a targeted next-generation-sequencing (tNGS) approach that was explicitly developed for the detection of canine pathogens 23 . This tNGS method is highly sensitive and specific, enabling the detection of multiple canine VBPs in a single test and further identifying species within the same genus 23 . Next-generation sequencing (NGS) assays have demonstrated the capability to identify a diverse array of pathogens through the utilization of conserved primers, such as those targeting hyper-variable regions of the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene in bacterial pathogens. These assays are also capable of detecting rare and novel pathogens by sequencing specific regions of interest within the genome. The aim of this study was to (1) integrate targeted NGS and multivariable logistic regression methods to determine the prevalence of VBPs among dogs in Chad and the associated risk factors and (2) apply Yule’s Q statistic, and social network analysis to determine interactions between VBPs in these dogs. Methods Ethical statement All procedures involving the handling of dogs and collection of blood samples were approved by the National Bioethics Committee of Chad (Protocol #005/PR/MESRI/SE/DGM/CNBT/SG/2022) and the University of Georgia’s Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (A2019 04-005-Y4 A2). Informed consent and permission were granted by the owners of the dogs to obtain blood samples. All experiments and protocols were performed in compliance with relevant guidelines and regulations and are reported in accordance with ARRIVE guidelines. Study site and sample collection From September to October 2021 (corresponding to the end of the rainy season), whole blood samples were collected as part of a larger study assessing the effectiveness of flubendazole for the treatment of Guinea worm in 56 villages across three regions along the Chari River in Chad (Fig. 1). The dogs were restrained, and blood was drawn via cephalic or sometimes saphenous venipuncture. The blood was placed in 3 mL EDTA vacutainer tubes (Becton, Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, New Jersey, USA) and stored in a field cooler and kept refrigerated from the field to one of the Carter Center’s field locations. Blood was transferred to labeled tubes and kept refrigerated during transport to N’Djamena and later exportation to the United States. Data on sex, age, and associated village were obtained by field teams by direct observation for village and asking the owner to report the age and sex. Molecular analysis The samples were kept frozen, at -80° C, and thawed before processing. After thawing, 50-500 µl of individual whole blood samples were treated in a solution of lysis buffer and proteinase K for at least 5 minutes, followed by incubation at 56° C for 30 min. The lysate was used for nucleic acid extraction using a Maxwell® RSC Tissue DNA Kit (Promega Corporation, Madison, WI, USA) in a robot Maxwell® RSC 48 device (Promega) using the manufacturer’s recommendations. Next generation sequencing We utilized the targeted next-generation sequencing assay described by Kattoor et al 23 . By utilizing primer pools targeting multiple genes for each pathogen, the panel allowed for the simultaneous detection of 15 commonly diagnosed canine VBPs in a single reaction. Automated libraries were prepared with the Ion AmpliSeq TM Kit for Chef DL8 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The libraries were loaded onto Ion 530 TM chips using the Ion 510 TM & Ion 520 TM & Ion 530 TM Kit – Chef (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), and Ion 530 TM chips were sequenced using the Ion GeneStudio™ S5 sequencing system (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) according to the recommended protocol. The VBPs targeted by the tNGS include but are not limited to Babesia species, Bartonella species, Borrelia species, Cytauxzoon species, Hepatozoon species, Rickettsiales species, and hemotropic mycoplasmas. Bioinformatics Barcode and adapter trimmed raw data were assembled using SPAdes (v5.12.0.0 on the Torrent Suite Server (TSS)) followed by alignment to target sequence regions from reference genomes of the pathogens within the TSS. Geneious Prime v. 2021.1.1 (https://www.geneious.com/prime/ ) was used to evaluate the aligned BAM files for each sample, and the BLAST analysis of potential pathogen reads (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi) was performed to confirm the results. Statistical analysis Data were managed in an Excel spreadsheet and analyzed using R version 4.4.1 (R: The R Project for Statistical Computing (r-project.org)and RStudio 2024.04.2 Build 764. Based on the tNGS outcomes, a binary variable presence or absence of VBPs was made. The distribution of variables was examined and presented in tables as frequencies and proportions. Defining an average lifespan for African dogs can be challenging, as this number varies from country to country based on various socioeconomic factors. Studies reveal mean life expectancies ranging from as low as 1.1 years in Zimbabwe 24,25 to 12 years in Botswana 26 ; thus, the continuous variable age was categorized into three groups: <2 yrs (juvenile), ≥ 2-5 yrs (adult), and ≥ 5 yrs (senior). The oddsratio() function within the epitools package in R was used to compute prevalence odd ratios (PORs) along with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI). The Chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests were performed to compare positivity to each pathogen. A Fisher’s exact test was used for values below five (age and sex) for B. vogeli and (age, geographic region, and sex) for C . M. turicensis, while all other P- values were calculated with the Chi-square test of independence. A P- value adjustment was performed by using the Bonferroni correction in R to correct for family-wise error rate. The adjusted P -values were then compared to the nominal significance level of 0.05. Logit models were used to quantify relationships between explanatory variables (age, geographic region, and sex) and the prevalence of each VBP. A multiple logistic regression was fitted for each pathogen outcome, and adjusted odds ratios (OR) with their corresponding confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. To correct for familywise error by conducting multiple comparisons, the p.adjust function in R was used to adjust the P-values by the Bonferroni correction method (Table 2). Co-occurrence network analysis Associations between pathogen pairs were determined using the igraph package in R based on Yule’s Q values 27 . The resulting values from the matrix derived by Yule’s Q statistic are presented in a correlogram (Fig. 2). The range of Yule’s Q values is from negative 1 to 1. Perfect positive association is denoted by +1 and may suggest that the other is always present when one pathogen is present. A value of -1 indicates a perfect negative association, suggesting that the other is always absent when one pathogen is present. A value of 0 indicates no association. Permutation tests were performed to allow the derivation of P -values to elucidate how likely the associations happened by chance. A threshold was determined in the analysis wherein we identified pathogen pairs exhibiting absolute Yule's Q values exceeding 0.3 in conjunction with P -values ≤ 0.05, thereby delineating significant interactions. The co-occurrence network was generated in R using the computed Yule’s Q and the graphml file loaded into Gephi 0.10.1 (Gephi.org) software 28 for further exploration and generation of the final network (Fig. 3). The Force Atlas algorithm was used for node positions in Gephi. Results Molecular findings A total of 1202 blood samples were collected from domestic dogs in Mayo Kebbi Est (n = 485), Chari Baguirmi north (n = 356), and Chari Baguirmi south (n = 361) regions along the Chari River. Males represented 65.4% (n = 786) and females 34.6% (n = 416), with ages ranging from six months to 17 years old. The most prevalent protozoan was H. canis, which was detected in 62.4% (750/1202; 95% CI 59.6 – 65.1%) of the dogs, followed by B. vogeli in 2.0% (24/1202; 95% CI 1.4 – 3.0%). The most prevalent Rickettsiales species were A. platys 29.2% (351/1202; 95% CI 26.7 – 31.8%) and E. canis 20.3% (244/1202; 95% CI 18.1 – 22.7%). We detected a high prevalence of bacterial hemotropic mycoplasmas including M. haemocanis 59.2% (711/1202; 95% CI 56.4 – 61.9%), C. M. haematoparvum 21.2% (255/1202; 95% CI 19.0 – 23.6%), and C. M. turicensis 1.5% (18/1202; 95% CI 0.9 – 2.4%). Overall, 88.7% (1066/1202; 95% CI 86.8 – 90.4%) of dogs were positive for at least one VBP and 62.9% (756/1202; 95% CI 60.1 – 65.6%) were coinfected with 2 or more VBPs, with individual dogs being coinfected with up to six pathogens. Using a panel of 15 pathogens, we found seven pathogens, includingco-infections, as described above. Other selected pathogens included in the panel were not detected (e.g., Bartonella spp., Leishmania infantum , Borrelia burgdorferi , Rickettsia rickettsii , and Cytauxzoon felis ). The prevalence of infection based on age, geographic region, and sex is shown in Table 1. Risk factor analysis According to Chi-Square and Fisher’s exact tests, age was significantly associated with all the pathogens detected ( P ≤ 0.048) except E. canis and B. vogeli . The variable geographic region showed a statistically significant association with all pathogens except M. haemocanis (χ2 = 0.118; P > 0.99) and C. M. turicensis (χ2 = 23.65; P > 0.99). Sex was only associated with M. haemocanis ( χ 2 = 14.21; P < 0.001) and C. M. haematoparvum (χ 2 = 11.38; P = 0.002) (Table 1). Based on multivariable logistic regression analysis (Table 2), being a senior was a potential risk factor for H. canis (OR 1.3, 95% CI 0.9 – 1.9; P = 0.718). Likewise, these results indicate 3.6 times higher odds of infection with A. platys in seniors (3.6, 95% CI 2.6 – 5.2; P = 0.025) and 1.6 times higher odds in dogs from Chari Baguirmi south (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.2 – 2.2, P = 0.014). Additionally, the odds of E. canis infection increased with being a senior despite the non-significant P -value (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.1 – 2.4; P = 0.113) and residing in Chari Baguirmi south (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.5 – 3.0; P < 0.001). These results show that juvenile dogs had 40% lower odds (OR 0.6, 95% CI, 0.4 – 0.8; P < 0.003) of having M. haemocanis. The odds of C. M. haematoparvum occurrence were 3.6 times higher for senior dogs (OR 3.6, 95% CI; 2.6 – 5.2; P < 0.001) as compared to adults. Geographically, dogs in Chari Baguirmi south showed 50% less likelihood of C. M. haematoparvum infection compared to Mayo Kebbi Est (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.3 – 0.7; P < 0.001). Female dogs exhibited 40% less odds of infection with M. haemocanis (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.5 – 0.8; P < 0.002) and C. M. haematoparvum (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4 – 0.9; P = 0.03) compared to males (Table 2). Network analyses and coinfections Coinfections among VBPs were observed among all pathogen pairs, with the coinfection of H. canis and M. haemocanis as the most prevalent combination. Associations between pathogen pairs revealed both negative and positive associations among pathogens. Details of interactions based on Yule’s Q are shown in Fig. 2. A significant node in this analysis was identified as H. canis, which exhibited a statistically significant positive association ( P -value ≤ 0.047) with three additional taxa (Table 3). In addition, according to the network, other species such as C . M. turicensis were central players within the social interaction network, exhibiting robust connections with multiple taxa (Fig. 3). Hemotropic mycoplasmas showed strong positive associations among each other based on Yule’s Q values, hinting at a potential facilitative role in the network. We observed that negative interactions did not attain statistical significance at the specified Yule's Q threshold of 0.3 and a P -value ( P ≤ 0.05). Specifically, B. vogeli showed a strong but non significant negative interaction with H. canis , M. haemocanis and A. platys Table 1. Univariable analysis of potential risk factors associated with infection rates of VBPs among 1202 dogs from Chad according to Chi square and fisher’s exact tests H. canis Variable Category n Positive Prevalence (%) POR (95% CI) P -value X 2 statistic df X 2 adj P -value Age <2 yrs 392 208 53.1 1.7 (1.3 – 2.2) < 0.001 22.53 2 < 0.001* ≥2<5 yrs 627 414 66.0 1.0 (Reference) ≥ 5 yrs 183 128 69.9 0.8 (0.5 – 1.2) 0.323 Geographic region Mayo KE 485 330 68.0 1.0 (Reference) 62.54 2 < 0.001* CB north 356 162 45.5 2.5 (1.9 – 3.4) < 0.001 CB south 361 258 71.5 0.8 (0.6 – 1.1) 0.285 Sex Male 786 503 64.0 1.0 (Reference) 2.28 1 0.393 Female 416 247 59.4 0.8 (0.6 – 1.0) 0.117 B. vogeli Age <2 yrs 392 7 1.8 1.2 (0.5 – 3.1) 0.643 0.39 2 1.00 ≥2<5 yrs 627 14 2.2 1.0 ≥5 yrs 183 3 1.6 1.3 (0.4 – 4.8) 0.664 Geographic region Mayo KE 485 13 2.68 1.0 (Reference) 10.45 2 0.002* CB north 356 0 0 NA NA CB south 361 11 3.05 0.8 (0.4 – 2.0) 0.750 Sex Male 786 16 2.04 1.0 (Reference) 0.00 1 1.00 Female 416 8 1.92 0.9 (0.4 – 2.2) 0.913 A. platys Age <2 yrs 392 147 37.5 0.6 (0.5 – 0.8) < 0.001 27.15 2 < 0.001* ≥2<5 yrs 627 173 27.6 1.0 (Reference) ≥5 yrs 183 31 16.9 1.9 (1.2 – 2.9) 0.003 Geographic region Mayo KE 485 113 23.3 1.0 (Reference) 14.17 2 < 0.001* CB north 356 114 32.0 0.6 (0.5 – 0.9) 0.005 CB south 361 124 34.3 0.6 (0.4 – 0.8) < 0.001 Sex Male 786 235 29.9 1.0 (Reference) 0.30 1 0.582 Female 416 116 27.9 0.9 (0.6 – 1.1) 0.115 E. canis Age <2 yrs 392 84 21.4 2.0 (0.6 – 1.1) 0.228 3.88 2 0.432 ≥2<5 yrs 627 115 18.3 1.0 (Reference) ≥5 yrs 183 45 24.6 0.7 (0.5 – 1.0) 0.067 Geographic region Mayo KE 485 83 17.1 1.0 (Reference) 32.08 2 < 0.001* CB north 356 52 14.6 1.2 (0.8 – 1.8) 0.330 CB south 361 109 30.2 0.5 (0.3 – 0.6) < 0.001 Sex Male 786 170 21.6 1.0 (Reference) 2.25 1 0.401 Female 416 74 17.8 0.8 (0.6 – 1.0) 0.114 C. M. haematoparvum Age <2 yr 392 21 5.4 5.0 (3.1 – 8.0) < 0.001 166.1 2 < 0.001* ≥2<5 yrs 627 138 22.0 1.0 (Reference) ≥5 yrs 183 96 52.5 0.3 (0.2 – 0.4) < 0.001 Geographic region Mayo KE 485 122 25.2 1.0 (Reference) 23.65 2 < 0.001* CB north 356 88 24.7 1.0 (0.7 – 1.4) 0.887 CB south 361 45 12.5 3.2 (1.6 – 3.4) < 0.001 Sex Male 786 190 24.2 1.0 (Reference) 11.38 1 0.002* Female 416 65 15.6 0.6 (0.4 – 0.8) < 0.001 M. haemocanis Age <2 yrs 392 203 51.8 1.6 (1.2 – 2.1) < 0.001 13.72 2 0.003* ≥2<5 yrs 627 398 63.5 1.0 (Reference) ≥5 yrs 183 110 60.1 1.2 (0.8 – 1.6) 0.408 Geographic region Mayo KE 485 289 59.6 1.0 (Reference) 0.118 2 1.00 CB north 356 208 58.4 1.0 (0.8 – 1.4) 0.735 CB south 361 214 59.3 1.0 (0.8 – 1.3) 0.928 Sex Male 786 496 63.1 1.0 (Reference) 14.21 1 < 0.001* Female 416 215 51.7 0.6 (0.5 – 0.8) < 0.001 C. M. turicensis Age <2 yr 392 0 0 NA 0.001 166.1 2 0.048* ≥2<5 yrs 627 14 2.2 1.0 (Reference) ≥5 yrs 183 4 2.2 1.0 (0.3 – 3.1) 0.992 Geographic region Mayo KE 485 8 1.6 1.0 (Reference) 23.65 2 1.00 CB north 356 4 1.1 1.5 (0.4 – 4.9) 0.55 CB south 361 6 1.7 1.0 (0.3 – 2.9) 0.98 Sex Male 786 17 2.2 1.0 (Reference) 11.39 1 0.20 Female 416 1 0.2 0.1 (0.0 – 0.8) 0.005 Risk factors were calculated using Chi-Square and Fisher’s exact tests (Fisher’s exact tests were computed only for variables below 5 for B. vogeli and C .M. turicensis only) (Mayo KE = Mayo Kebbi Est, CB south = Chari Baguirmi south, CB north = Chari Baguirmi north), POR: prevalence odd ratio, X 2 : chi square statistic, df : degrees of freedom Table 2: Multiple logistic regression analysis of potential risk factors associated with canine VBPs detected in dogs from Chad. Variable Categories Estimate SE OR adj 95% CI OR P -value H. canis Intercept 0.94 0.12 < 0.001⃰ Age ≥2<5 (Adult) Reference <2 (Juvenile) - 0.55 0.13 0.6 0.4 – 0.8 < 0.001⃰ ≥5 (Senior) 0.29 0.18 1.3 0.9 – 1.9 0.718 Geographic region Mayo KE Reference CB north - 0.94 0.14 0.4 0.3 – 0.5 < 0.001⃰ CB south 0.23 0.15 1.3 0.9 – 1.70 0.794 Sex Male Reference Female - 0.16 0.13 0.9 0.7 – 1.1 1 A. platys Intercept - 1.24 0.12 < 0.001⃰ Age ≥2<5 (Adult) Reference <2 (Juvenile) 0.43 0.13 1.5 1.2 – 2.0 0.008⃰ ≥5 (Senior) - 0.6 0.21 3.6 2.6 – 5.2 0.025⃰ Geographic region Mayo KE Reference CB north 0.43 0.16 1.5 1.1 – 2.1 0.036⃰ CB south 0.48 0.16 1.6 1.2 – 2.2 0.014⃰ Sex Male Reference Female - 0.2 0.14 0.9 0.7 – 1.1 1 M. haemocanis Intercept 0.71 0.11 < 0.001⃰ Age ≥2<5 (Adult) Reference <2 (Juvenile) - 0.45 0.13 0.6 0.4 – 0.8 < 0.003⃰ ≥5 (Senior) - 0.18 0.17 0.8 0.5 – 1.2 1 Geographic region Mayo KE Reference CB north - 0.04 0.14 1.0 0.7 – 1.3 1 CB south 0.00 0.14 1.0 0.8 – 1.3 1 Sex Male Reference Female - 0.44 0.12 0.6 0.5 – 0.8 0.002⃰ C. M. haematoparvum Intercept - 0.91 0.13 < 0.001⃰ Age ≥2<5 (Adult) Reference <2 (Juvenile) - 1.56 0.24 0.2 < 0.001⃰ ≥5 (Senior) 1.3 0.18 3.6 < 0.001⃰ Geographical region Mayo KE Reference CB north - 0.04 0.18 1 0.7 – 1.4 1 CB south - 0.77 0.2 0.5 0.3 – 0.7 < 0.001⃰ Sex Male Reference Female - 0.48 0.17 0.6 0.4 – 0.9 0.03⃰ B. vogeli Intercept - 3.48 < 0.001⃰ Age ≥2<5 (Adult) Reference <2 (Juvenile) - 0.2 0.47 N/A N/A 1 ≥5 (Senior) - 0.18 0.65 N/A N/A 1 Geographic region Mayo KE Reference CB north - 16.9 939.04 N/A N/A 1 CB south 0.13 0.42 N/A N/A 1 Sex Male Reference Female - 0.07 0.44 N/A N/A 1 C. M. turicensis Intercept - 3.31 < 0.001 Age ≥2<5 (Adult) Reference <2 (Juvenile) -17.63 1420 N/A N/A 1 ≥5 (Senior) - 0.08 0.58 0.9 0.3 – 2.6 1 Geographic region Mayo KE Reference CB north - 0.44 0.62 0.6 0.1 – 2.1 1.000 CB south - 0.00 0.55 1.0 0.3 – 2.9 1 Sex Male Reference Female - 2.12 1.03 0.1 0.0 – 0.5 0.238 E. canis Intercept -1.65 < 0.001 Age ≥2<5 (Adult) Reference <2 (Juvenile) 0.18 0.16 1.2 0.9 – 1.7 1 ≥5 (Senior) 0.48 0.21 1.6 1.1 – 2.4 0.113 Geographic region Mayo KE Reference CB north - 0.21 0.19 0.8 0.6 – 1.2 1 CB south 0.76 0.17 2.1 1.5 – 3.0 < 0.001 Sex Male Reference Female - 0.223 0.16 0.8 0.6 – 1.2 0.900 SE: Standard error, ORadj: adjusted odds ratio, CI: confidence interval. Table 3: Pathogen pairs demonstrating interactions that met the criterion for significance. Only significant associations (Absolute Yules Q, ≥ 0.3 and P -value ≤ 0.05) based on permutation tests are shown. Pathogen (1) Pathogen (2) Yule’s Q P -value C. M. haematoparvum M. haemocanis 0.44 0.000 C. M. turicensis M. haemocanis 0.5561224 0.029 M. haemocanis C. M. haematoparvum 0.4410380 0.000 H. canis C. M. haematoparvum 0.5572561 0.000 M. haemocanis C. M. turicensis 0.5561224 0.029 H. canis C. M. turicensis 0.5067114 0.047 C . M. haematoparvum H. canis 0.5572561 0.000 C. M. turicensis H. canis 0.5067114 0.047 E. canis H. canis 0.4515765 0.000 H. canis E. canis 0.4515763 0.000 Discussion VBPs have increased worldwide in prevalence over the last decade. When companion animals such as dogs are involved, VBPs are perceived as a significant threat to public health due to the shared proximity between domestic dogs and people. The few studies reporting VBP prevalence in Chad have used PCR techniques 13,14,22 . While this approach is relatively simple and inexpensive, it requires multiple tests to capture several pathogens at once. Serological studies have also been conducted 22 ; however, one limitation of this approach is the inability to differentiate past and ongoing infections. We chose tNGS because of its ability to extensively amplify pathogen sequences of interest while simultaneously detecting up to 15 pathogens within a single reaction. Chad is characterized by an arid Saharan desert in the north, sub-tropical and semi-arid Sahel region in central, Chad and a tropical savannah in the south with warm and humid climate, 29 which makes it a suitable landmark for VBPs including some of zoonotic concerns. Domestic dogs in Chad are mostly free-roaming and may have close interactions with other dogs and wildlife, so they may serve as sentinels for zoonotic VBPs. Of the 1202 dogs screened, 1066 (88.7%) were positive for at least one pathogen. This rate is consistent with the positive detection rate of 77% from a past study in Nigeria using PCR and sequencing 30 , and a 70% infection rate in six sub-Saharan African countries performed using quantitative PCR 31 . Hepatozoon canis was the most prevalent pathogen (62.9%). This finding is consistent with the high prevalences of H. canis previously found in Chad and several other African countries 31-33 . This high occurrence of H. canis may be attributed to the high prevalence of infestations by R. sanguineus s.l. ticks which are prevalent in the region 5,34 . Aside vectorial transmission, vertical H. canis transmission has been confirmed 35 . This protozoan infection has been reported in various tropical and subtropical areas on most continents; its distribution, which overlaps with that of R. sanguineus s.l . , includes northern and southern Africa 10,36 , Asia 37 , Europe 38 , and the Americas 39 . While the results of this study indicate a low prevalence of B. vogeli (2.0%), this was consistent with 5.1% prevalence reported from Egypt 10 and 6.6% reported from Tunisia 40 . In contrast, this number was lower than the high infection rate of 10.8% observed in Nigeria 41 . This difference may reflect various factors such as the experimental design, climatic conditions, season when sampling was performed, animal care and sanitary conditions, and diagnostic tests used 10 . Babesia rossi, recognized as the most virulent of the large Babesia species affecting dogs, has not been identified in this cohort, despite its known endemic presence across the African continent 22,42 . This absence could be attributed to the lack of H. elliptica , considered its main tick vector, or the low density of H. leachi previously found on dogs from Chad 34,42 . Pathogens belonging to the family Anaplasmataceae , specifically A. platys and E. canis , significantly impact canine health in tropical and subtropical climates, causing canine infectious cyclic thrombocytopenia and canine monocytic ehrlichiosis, respectively. The two infections are considered acute, self-limiting, and sometimes fatal 2,43 . The frequencies of dogs positive for both pathogens manifest significant regional variability across different parts of the world. In the current study, 29.2% of dogs were found to be infected with A. platys ; this rate is considerably higher than those reported in Nigeria (6.6%) 30 , Angola (20.4%) 44 , Malawi (2.4%) 33 , Egypt (1.5%) 45 and Ethiopia (2.2%) 46 . This difference is unexpected, as the brown dog tick is globally widespread, especially in the tropics and sub-tropics 5 . Similarly, we found a higher prevalence of E. canis (20.3%) than has been reported previously in South Africa (3%) 47 , Nigeria (12.7%) 30 , and Malawi (3.8%) 33 . These two Rickettsial species are often reported together, which can exacerbate disease in dogs. Notably, high levels of coinfections of A. platys , E. canis, and hemotropic mycoplasmas were observed, adding to the zoonotic risk. Canine hemotropic mycoplasmas have not been previously reported in dogs from Chad. The current report provides fundamental data for several Mycoplasma species in this population: M. haemocanis was detected in 59.2%, C. M. haematoparvum in 21.2%, and C . M. turicensis in 1.5% of the dogs. The high prevalence suggests that apparently healthy dogs in Chad have been exposed to Mycoplasmas posing health risks and having potential zoonotic implications. Few studies from sub-Saharan African countries have reported a lower prevalence of dog-infecting hemotropic mycoplasmas including Angola 48 , Nigeria 49 Tanzania 50 and Sudan 51 . Past studies have reported that the transmission pathways for hemotropic mycoplasmas in dogs largely involve non-vector routes such as vertical transmission and mechanisms such as blood ingestion and transdermal inoculation during aggressive interactions 16 . The free-roaming and free-foraging nature of rural Chadian dogs, which live outdoors, likely contributes significantly to aggression behavior such as fighting and biting and ultimately to the high prevalence of hemotropic mycoplasma infections in this study 16 . C . M. turicensis is recognized as the hemotropic mycoplasma species of felids 52 . Given the interactions between domestic dogs and cats, there is a plausible risk of spill-over, potentially facilitated by vectors such as ticks and fleas 21 . Notably, C. M. turicensis has been identified among dogs from Chile 53 . Furthermore, instances of C. Mycoplasma haemominutum, another feline hemotropic mycoplasma, have been documented in puppies, thereby strengthening the evidence for interspecies transmission of cat-infecting mycoplasmas to dogs 54 . Collectively, these findings warrant further exploration as they raise questions regarding the mechanisms of infection, including the potential for vertical Mycoplasma transmission. The prevalence of A. platys and C. M. haematoparvum was significantly associated with increased odds in senior dogs ( P < 0.05). Moreover, even though non-significant, the odds of infection with other pathogens, including H. canis and E. canis , were still higher in senior dogs. Aging might induce a weakened immune system that declines the ability to clear infections, increasing coinfection rates with other VBPs, and an increased risk of mortality in susceptible individuals 55 . Furthermore, inadequate veterinary care and lack of regular acaricidal treatment for dogs in this region may aggravate vector infestations. Heavy tick infestations might increase the risk of coinfections, especially if infections are not cleared by the immune system. Geographically, multivariable logistic regression indicated that the prevalence of A. platys , E. canis, and C . M. haematoparvum was associated with residence in Chari Baguirmi south. Studies have revealed that tropical climates are favorable environments for vector survival 56 . Ticks adapt better to cooler climates with higher precipitation, such as the subtropical steppe climate of Chari Baguirmi south, contrary to desert climates characterized by arid climate, extreme heat, and less humidity, such as Chari Baguirmi north 57 . Specifically, the heightened likelihood of these pathogens in dogs from the south could be due to conducive climatic conditions that facilitate sustained exposure of dogs to recurrent tick infestations. The life cycle and developmental stages of their tick vector R. sanguineus s.l. depends on specific temperature and humidity thresholds to thrive and maintain infections 5 . In this population, most of the hemotropic mycoplasmas were significantly associated with decreased odds in female dogs ( P < 0.05) compared to male dogs. This finding is consistent with another study on canine VBPs 58 . The reason for this outcome could be behavioral and physiological. According to previous studies, male dogs are likely to roam more frequently and extensively, predisposing them to recurrent vector infestations, coinfestations and coinfections, including by vectors and VBPs commonly found in cattle and wildlife. Empirical observations and the scientific literature show that aggression in male dogs is remarkably higher than in their female counterparts. Specifically, there is a pronounced correlation between elevated levels of testosterone and aggressive behavior in male dogs, which may intensify the transmission of hemotropic mycoplasma species 59,60 A complex social interaction between VBPs was observed through the co-occurrence network analysis. The positive associations identified highlight the potential facilitative nature of coinfecting pathogens with each other within the vertebrate hosts and possibly within the vector microbiome 61 . These interactions ultimately shape transmission and virulence dynamics in VBP ecology. Notably, H. canis was found as a strongly interconnected node exhibiting strong statistically significant associations with several other pathogens ( P ≤ 0.047) (Table3). According to the network (Fig. 3), other species such as C . M. turicensis were central players within the social interaction network, exhibiting robust connections with multiple taxa (Fig. 3) and highlighting a potential synergistic relationship (Table 3). However, considering the small number of C. M. turicensis detections, these associations should be interpreted with caution. The strong positive associations between hemotropic mycoplasmas suggest a synergistic relationship facilitating their coexistence within canine hosts. Pathogens may directly facilitate others when their by-products are useful resources for another member, enhancing the fitness of co-occurring species in a shared niche 62 . In contrast, negative interactions were observed between B. vogeli and most pathogens, including H. canis, but these were non-significant and may not suggest actual competitive interactions. A possible explanation for this could be protective effects on the host against highly pathogenic organisms such as B. vogeli through colonization with less pathogenic species such as H. canis , particularly at high parasitemia levels 63 . Mechanisms of competition involve various processes, including resource competition and interference competition. Interference competition occurs indirectly via host-mediated immunity, where the host immune responses activated towards one pathogen may inadvertently promote susceptibility towards another, such as in the case of cross-immunity, where antibodies produced to harm one pathogen counteract another 64 . As such, these findings underscore the need for further exploration into inter-species coinfections and their role in virulence and disease progression 65 . Taken together, these findings provide new data on prevalence patterns, associated risk factors, and interactions behind the epidemiologic risk of vector-borne protozoans and bacteria in this population. In Chad, the tropical climate and the large dog populations in rural areas promote the life cycle of R. sanguineus s.l., the most reported tick worldwide, and an exclusive, possible, or putative vector of several tick-borne pathogens reported here 5 . Importantly, the brown dog tick can occasionally feed on humans and other animals, including production animals and wildlife, posing the risk of zoonotic transmission. Some pathogen species were not detected at both the genus-specific and species-specific levels in any of the canine samples analyzed. A possible explanation for the negative results is that some pathogen targets included in the assay may be non-endemic in Chad (e.g.,, Borrelia burgdorferi ) or may circulate at low ct values. In addition, due to the comprehensive nature of the tNGS test, the targeted panel includes diversity of VBPs, including those that infect other species (e.g., Cytauxzoon felis infects cats) and not just canine VBPs. Finally, the whole blood as utilized in this study may not be the ideal sample for Leishmania testing, as the parasite load in blood is often low, challenging detection. Tissue samples such as bone marrow, spleen, or lymph nodes should be used instead. We acknowledge a few limitations in this study. First, the samples were collected once, therefore, the prevalence data provided here would have benefited from multiple sampling events over different seasons. Second, the tNGS method used here is known to have a slight reduction in analytical sensitivity as compared to real-time PCR 23 . When VBPs are in circulation at low amounts (Ct values ≥35), detection may be missed with this technique. Finally, it must be noted that the age of the dogs included in the study was reported by their owner, and could have been inaccurate, potentially impacting our analyses. Conclusion The epidemiological analysis performed in this study has confirmed the high prevalence of canine VBPs in this population of dogs using tNGS. This diagnostic method allowed for comprehensive and simultaneous detection of multiple agents, including hemotropic mycoplasmas which had not been previously reported in Chad. Furthermore, the results suggest that clinicians and diagnostic labs should not exclude bacteria belonging to Mycoplasmataceae during VBP surveillance. Multivariable logistic regression revealed a strong association between the prevalence of A. platys, E. canis and C . M. haematoparvum with seniors and residents in Chari Baguirmi south. Network analysis revealed a complex web of antagonistic and synergistic interactions among pathogens within dogs in Chad with potential public health implications. It is imperative for health professionals in Chad to strengthen awareness of these pathogens circulating in dogs, and possibly in humans. Risk of exposure to these VBPs can be minimized through the availability of veterinary care, appropriate use of ectoparasiticide treatment, and continued pathogen and vector surveillance. Nevertheless, we believe that this work will provide an in-depth and standardized VBP report from Chad and that the information provided in this study will serve as baseline data for future investigations in this region. Declarations Data availability The fasta file and bed file used for the analysis can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/pathogens13040335/s1 , File S1: A FASTA file containing the genomic sequence of the targeted pathogens; File S2: Gene target BED file of all the targeted pathogens. Raw data is available on request through the corresponding author. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank The Carter Centre for financing this work. The authors also acknowledge the statistical insights provided by the TAMU Department of Statistics. We also would like to thank Dr. Ana Clara M. Pessoa Monteiro for her insights on QGIS software. Author contributions Conceptualization and study design, G. G.V, R.G., L.T., and M.N.S. Methodology including bioinformatics, R.A.N., H.H., J.K., R.W., P.T.O., R.N.B.N. Statistical analysis and preparation of the first draft, I.K.D. Manuscript writing – original draft, I.K.D. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-5921037\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":449776659,\"identity\":\"21ed86b1-9bb6-4d99-a8e4-aad4b720dcf4\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Ian Kirimi Daniel\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Texas A\\u0026M University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Ian\",\"middleName\":\"Kirimi\",\"lastName\":\"Daniel\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776660,\"identity\":\"eca4a3eb-c730-4a0b-ba09-917b8951a4b5\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Hassan Hakimi\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Texas A\\u0026M University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Hassan\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Hakimi\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776661,\"identity\":\"edcb6179-4549-48aa-9c91-239db56f8901\",\"order_by\":2,\"name\":\"Rafael A. N. Ramos\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Texas A\\u0026M University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Rafael\",\"middleName\":\"A. N.\",\"lastName\":\"Ramos\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776662,\"identity\":\"eff91dc2-f0a3-4087-9fad-61874f978a6f\",\"order_by\":3,\"name\":\"Jobin J. Kattoor\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"University of Pittsburgh\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Jobin\",\"middleName\":\"J.\",\"lastName\":\"Kattoor\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776663,\"identity\":\"a8aee02b-2bf0-4b32-a794-5c6a137d2055\",\"order_by\":4,\"name\":\"Rebecca P. Wilkes\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Purdue University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Rebecca\",\"middleName\":\"P.\",\"lastName\":\"Wilkes\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776664,\"identity\":\"c350a894-4067-4298-88c3-f6ea0a83ebfb\",\"order_by\":5,\"name\":\"Richard Ngandolo Bongo Nare\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Institut de Recherche en Elevage pour le Développement, Afrique One Aspire\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Richard\",\"middleName\":\"Ngandolo Bongo\",\"lastName\":\"Nare\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776666,\"identity\":\"42aa664f-e744-4030-83aa-d790fc7372b9\",\"order_by\":6,\"name\":\"Philip Tchindebet Oaukou\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Programme National d’Eradication du Ver de Guinée, Ministry of Health\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Philip\",\"middleName\":\"Tchindebet\",\"lastName\":\"Oaukou\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776668,\"identity\":\"37d09313-8cc1-4f8f-ac9f-94befb21e2cf\",\"order_by\":7,\"name\":\"Sidouin K. Metinou\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"National Guinea Worm Eradication Program\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Sidouin\",\"middleName\":\"K.\",\"lastName\":\"Metinou\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776671,\"identity\":\"88868cfd-4c1f-4302-8d86-cb495f82f069\",\"order_by\":8,\"name\":\"Meriam N. Saleh\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Texas A\\u0026M University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Meriam\",\"middleName\":\"N.\",\"lastName\":\"Saleh\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776674,\"identity\":\"69a1c651-7f05-4108-ab8b-87d6654e2948\",\"order_by\":9,\"name\":\"Lucienne Tritten\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"McGill University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Lucienne\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Tritten\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776677,\"identity\":\"5e099cae-f77c-4a98-9108-f7a4dade5fdd\",\"order_by\":10,\"name\":\"Rebecca Garabed\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"The Ohio State University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Rebecca\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Garabed\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":449776678,\"identity\":\"d1404ed2-f928-4a5e-900d-0a861a36ff3e\",\"order_by\":11,\"name\":\"Guilherme G. Verocai\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA40lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBADHn5kngRRWiQbQFQCCVoYDA4Qq0U+IvnYhw81djLGx8+YbmD8YRdtcID54G0ePFoMb6Qlz5xxLJnH7EyO2Q2GhOTcDQfYkq3xauk5Y8zM28DMY3aDLQ2ohRmohcdMGr+W85+BWup5jGeAtdQDtfB/w6tFnr2HGajlMI+BBPMxoJbDIFvY8GoxYG8zZpxx7DiPxJnkYzcS0o7nzjzMZmw5B58tzcyPGT7UVNvztx9su/HBpjq373jzwxtv8NlyAJmXACKY8SgH29JAQMEoGAWjYBSMAgYAzcpJWcloeIoAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Texas A\\u0026M University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Guilherme\",\"middleName\":\"G.\",\"lastName\":\"Verocai\",\"suffix\":\"\"}],\"badges\":[],\"createdAt\":\"2025-01-28 22:08:08\",\"currentVersionCode\":1,\"declarations\":\"\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5921037/v1\",\"doiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5921037/v1\",\"draftVersion\":[],\"editorialEvents\":[{\"content\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-13431-3\",\"type\":\"published\",\"date\":\"2025-08-02T16:38:05+00:00\"}],\"editorialNote\":\"\",\"failedWorkflow\":false,\"files\":[{\"id\":81733694,\"identity\":\"1bed4a33-5231-4505-bceb-55e9a34a9c96\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-30 20:12:52\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":4400256,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eA map of the study area showing administrative divisions of Chad, and villages along the Chari River from which canine blood samples were collected. The map was designed using the open-source software QGIS V.3.2.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Figure1Mapofthestudyarea.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5921037/v1/c8d0b8dd5ee5e2a1a008ccc6.png\"},{\"id\":81733695,\"identity\":\"338c0097-cb63-46b6-9ed9-39fa8342a29b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-30 20:12:52\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":353987,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCorrelogram of Yule’s Q values showing associations among VBPs detected in dog blood. Each cell represents the Q value between two pathogens, with colors denoting the strength of the correlation: dark red signifies a strong positive correlation (Q values close to 1), light red indicates a moderate correlation, and grey color, weak negative associations and white indicates strong negative correlations.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Figure2FinalCorrelogram.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5921037/v1/3bb0bfb8dff6b9eb88447208.png\"},{\"id\":81733698,\"identity\":\"0f84d5b3-9259-4df5-a665-ffd4b3865799\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-30 20:12:52\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":821677,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eCo-occurrence network for VBPs detected in the blood of dogs.\\u003cstrong\\u003e \\u003c/strong\\u003eNode position was determined using the Force Atlas algorithm in Gephi. The nodes represent pathogens and node size indicates the proportional contribution of each pathogen to the pair (the larger the node the stronger the interactions with other pathogens, suggesting more influence in the network. Red edges (connections) indicate negative associations while green edges signify positive associations. Edge thickness indicates the strength of the relationship based on Yule’s Q values. The prevalence % of each pathogen is shown in parentheses.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"Figure3Finalpathogeninteractionfiguretiff.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5921037/v1/f415b401177b43a22851d05e.png\"},{\"id\":88268407,\"identity\":\"e76d3a80-80e0-4b9c-a523-127b1385a5a0\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-08-04 16:51:33\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":6959902,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5921037/v1/affc3bb3-d56f-46f7-ba46-1f07c40116ed.pdf\"},{\"id\":81733893,\"identity\":\"db8a8d72-fa8a-4712-ace4-ca6ce543cfa5\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-04-30 20:20:52\",\"extension\":\"docx\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"supplement\",\"size\":83145,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"SupplementarytableS1clean.docx\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5921037/v1/0f707d11622c9ec08fa30836.docx\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"High prevalence of vector-borne protozoans and bacteria in dogs from Chad determined using a targeted next generation sequencing approach\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"Background\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eDomestic dogs (\\u003cem\\u003eCanis lupus familiaris\\u003c/em\\u003e) are susceptible to infections with several VBPs caused by protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes transmitted by ticks, fleas, mosquitoes, and biting flies, which can cause significant morbidity and mortality\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. In sub-Saharan Africa, most of the domestic dogs have a relatively unrestricted movement, allowing them access to wilderness environments and close association with humans. This situation promotes the transmission and dissemination of vector-borne zoonoses \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e,\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Importantly, even sub clinically infected dogs can serve as sentinels for human vector-associated pathogens, indicating geographical areas with increased zoonotic risk \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTicks and fleas are the most common ectoparasites of dogs, and both vector a wide array of VBPs such as protozoans and bacteria belonging to the genera \\u003cem\\u003eHepatozoon, Rickettsia, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Babesia, Borrelia, Bartonella, Yersinia\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eMycoplasma\\u003c/em\\u003e (supplementary table \\u003cspan refid=\\\"MOESM1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e). Some ticks are highly adapted to feed and transmit pathogens primarily to domestic dogs, including those belonging to the \\u003cem\\u003eRhipicephalus sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e complex and \\u003cem\\u003eHaemaphysalis leachi\\u003c/em\\u003e group \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. In fact, most pathogens transmitted to dogs by vectors are linked to infestations by species within the \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e complex due to its widespread range and specialized feeding on domestic dogs \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR5\\\" citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR6\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e complex encompasses at least 16 morphologically and phylogenetically related species \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003eincluding \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e tropical lineage recently renamed as \\u003cem\\u003eR. linnaei\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e primarily distributed in the Afrotropics \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR9\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Ticks within the \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e complex are known to transmit \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eHepatozoon canis\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR11\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e11\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e and rickettsial agents of the genera \\u003cem\\u003eAnaplasma, Ehrlichia\\u003c/em\\u003e, and \\u003cem\\u003eRickettsia\\u003c/em\\u003e, which have been molecularly detected in Chad \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR13\\\" citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e12\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e14\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Furthermore, \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e s.l. is implicated in transmitting hemotropic mycoplasmas, which cause severe hemolytic anaemia \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e15\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. However, strong evidence suggests that aggressive interactions such as fighting among dogs and vertical passage contribute to additional transmission pathways for hemotropic mycoplasmas in the absence of arthropod vectors \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e16\\u003c/span\\u003e,\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e17\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The cat flea, \\u003cem\\u003eCtenocephalides felis felis\\u003c/em\\u003e, is regarded as the most dominant flea species associated with dogs and cats worldwide. The cat flea is a vector of numerous emerging zoonotic agents such as \\u003cem\\u003eRickettsia felis\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eBartonella henselae\\u003c/em\\u003e known to cause febrile illness in sub-Saharan, Africa\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e18\\u003c/span\\u003e,\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e19\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. In addition, fleas are implicated in hemotropic mycoplasma transmission, including the potentially zoonotic \\u003cem\\u003eCandidatus\\u003c/em\\u003e Mycoplasma haematoparvum to dogs and cats. However, transmission of canine hemotropic mycoplasmas is not well established\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e20\\u003c/span\\u003e,\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR21\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e21\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Co-infections with two or more VBPs may complicate disease and clinical presentations especially in tropical and sub-tropical areas where vectors are abundant.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhile VBP surveys have been conducted in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa, comprehensive epidemiological studies are lacking in Chad. Previous research has relied on routine diagnostic methods, such as PCR \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR13\\\" citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e12\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e14\\u003c/span\\u003e,\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e22\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e, which were limited to a small number of canine pathogens per test, requiring many individual tests to obtain a comprehensive diagnosis. The latest advancement in diagnostic laboratories is a targeted next-generation-sequencing (tNGS) approach that was explicitly developed for the detection of canine pathogens \\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR23\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e23\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This tNGS method is highly sensitive and specific, enabling the detection of multiple canine VBPs in a single test and further identifying species within the same genus\\u003csup\\u003e\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR23\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e23\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) assays have demonstrated the capability to identify a diverse array of pathogens through the utilization of conserved primers, such as those targeting hyper-variable regions of the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene in bacterial pathogens. These assays are also capable of detecting rare and novel pathogens by sequencing specific regions of interest within the genome. The aim of this study was to (1) integrate targeted NGS and multivariable logistic regression methods to determine the prevalence of VBPs among dogs in Chad and the associated risk factors and (2) apply Yule\\u0026rsquo;s Q statistic, and social network analysis to determine interactions between VBPs in these dogs.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eEthical statement\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAll procedures involving the handling of dogs and collection of blood samples were approved by the National Bioethics Committee of Chad (Protocol #005/PR/MESRI/SE/DGM/CNBT/SG/2022) and the University of Georgia\\u0026rsquo;s Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (A2019 04-005-Y4 A2). Informed consent and permission were granted by the owners of the dogs to obtain blood samples. All experiments and protocols were performed in compliance with relevant guidelines and regulations and are reported in accordance with ARRIVE guidelines.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eStudy site and sample collection\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eFrom September to October 2021 (corresponding to the end of the rainy season), whole blood samples were collected as part of a larger study assessing the effectiveness of flubendazole for the treatment of Guinea worm in 56 villages across three regions along the Chari River in Chad (Fig. 1). The dogs were restrained, and blood was drawn via cephalic or sometimes saphenous venipuncture. The blood was placed in 3 mL EDTA vacutainer tubes (Becton, Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, New Jersey, USA) and stored in a field cooler and kept refrigerated from the field to one of the Carter Center\\u0026rsquo;s field locations. Blood was transferred to labeled tubes and kept refrigerated during transport to N\\u0026rsquo;Djamena and later exportation to the United States. Data on sex, age, and associated village were obtained by field teams by direct observation for village and asking the owner to report the age and sex.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eMolecular analysis\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe samples were kept frozen, at -80\\u0026deg; C, and thawed before processing. After thawing, 50-500 \\u0026micro;l of individual whole blood samples were treated in a solution of lysis buffer and proteinase K for at least 5 minutes, followed by incubation at 56\\u0026deg; C for 30 min. The lysate was used for nucleic acid extraction using a Maxwell\\u0026reg; RSC Tissue DNA Kit (Promega Corporation, Madison, WI, USA) in a robot Maxwell\\u0026reg; RSC 48 device (Promega) using the manufacturer\\u0026rsquo;s recommendations.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eNext generation sequencing\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eWe utilized the targeted next-generation sequencing assay described by Kattoor \\u003cem\\u003eet al\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003csup\\u003e23\\u003c/sup\\u003e. By utilizing primer pools targeting multiple genes for each pathogen, the panel allowed for the\\u0026nbsp;simultaneous detection of 15 commonly diagnosed canine VBPs in a single reaction. Automated libraries were prepared with the Ion AmpliSeq\\u003csup\\u003eTM\\u003c/sup\\u003e Kit for Chef DL8 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), according to the manufacturer\\u0026rsquo;s instructions. The libraries were loaded onto Ion 530\\u003csup\\u003eTM\\u003c/sup\\u003e chips using the Ion 510\\u003csup\\u003eTM\\u003c/sup\\u003e \\u0026amp; Ion 520\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;TM\\u003c/sup\\u003e \\u0026amp; Ion 530\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;TM\\u003c/sup\\u003e Kit \\u0026ndash; Chef (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), and Ion 530\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;TM\\u003c/sup\\u003e chips were sequenced using the Ion GeneStudio\\u0026trade; S5 sequencing system (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) according to the recommended protocol. The VBPs targeted by the tNGS include but are not limited to \\u003cem\\u003eBabesia\\u003c/em\\u003e species, \\u003cem\\u003eBartonella\\u003c/em\\u003e species, \\u003cem\\u003eBorrelia\\u003c/em\\u003e species, \\u003cem\\u003eCytauxzoon\\u003c/em\\u003e species, \\u003cem\\u003eHepatozoon\\u003c/em\\u003e species, \\u003cem\\u003eRickettsiales\\u003c/em\\u003e species, and hemotropic mycoplasmas.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eBioinformatics\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eBarcode and adapter trimmed raw data were assembled using SPAdes (v5.12.0.0 on the Torrent Suite Server (TSS)) followed by alignment to target sequence regions from reference genomes of the pathogens within the TSS. Geneious Prime v. 2021.1.1 (https://www.geneious.com/prime/\\u003cu\\u003e)\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/u\\u003ewas used to evaluate the aligned BAM files for each sample, and the BLAST analysis of potential pathogen reads (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi) was performed to confirm the results.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eStatistical analysis\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eData were managed in an Excel spreadsheet and analyzed using R version 4.4.1 (R: The R Project for Statistical Computing (r-project.org)and RStudio 2024.04.2 Build 764. Based on the tNGS outcomes, a binary variable presence or absence of VBPs was made. The distribution of variables was examined and presented in tables as frequencies and proportions. Defining an average lifespan for African dogs can be challenging, as this number varies from country to country based on various socioeconomic factors. Studies reveal mean life expectancies ranging from as low as 1.1 years in Zimbabwe \\u003csup\\u003e24,25\\u003c/sup\\u003e to 12 years in Botswana \\u003csup\\u003e26\\u003c/sup\\u003e; thus, the continuous variable age was categorized into three groups: \\u0026lt;2 yrs (juvenile), \\u0026ge; 2-5 yrs (adult), and \\u0026ge; 5 yrs (senior).\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe \\u003cem\\u003eoddsratio()\\u003c/em\\u003e function within the epitools package in R was used to compute prevalence odd ratios (PORs) along with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI). The Chi-square and Fisher\\u0026rsquo;s exact tests were performed to compare positivity to each pathogen. A Fisher\\u0026rsquo;s exact test was used for values below five (age and sex) for \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u003c/em\\u003e and (age, geographic region, and sex) for \\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e. M. turicensis, while all other \\u003cem\\u003eP-\\u003c/em\\u003evalues were calculated with the Chi-square test of independence. A \\u003cem\\u003eP-\\u003c/em\\u003evalue adjustment was performed by using the Bonferroni correction in R to correct for family-wise error rate. The adjusted \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e-values were then compared to the nominal significance level of 0.05. Logit models were used to quantify relationships between explanatory variables (age, geographic region, and sex) and the prevalence of each VBP. A multiple logistic regression was fitted for each pathogen outcome, and adjusted odds ratios (OR) with their corresponding confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. To correct for familywise error by conducting multiple comparisons, the \\u003cem\\u003ep.adjust\\u003c/em\\u003e function in R was used to adjust the P-values by the Bonferroni correction method (Table 2).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCo-occurrence network analysis\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAssociations between pathogen pairs were determined using the \\u003cem\\u003eigraph\\u003c/em\\u003e package in R based on Yule\\u0026rsquo;s Q values \\u003csup\\u003e27\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The resulting values from the matrix derived by Yule\\u0026rsquo;s Q statistic are presented in a correlogram (Fig. 2). The range of Yule\\u0026rsquo;s Q values is from negative 1 to 1. Perfect positive association is denoted by +1 and may suggest that the other is always present when one pathogen is present. A value of -1 indicates a perfect negative association, suggesting that the other is always absent when one pathogen is present. A value of 0 indicates no association. Permutation tests were performed to allow the derivation of \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e-values to elucidate how likely the associations happened by chance. A threshold was determined in the analysis wherein we identified pathogen pairs exhibiting absolute Yule\\u0026apos;s Q values exceeding 0.3 in conjunction with \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e-values \\u0026le; 0.05, thereby delineating significant interactions. The co-occurrence network was generated in R using the computed Yule\\u0026rsquo;s Q and the graphml file loaded into Gephi 0.10.1 (Gephi.org) software \\u003csup\\u003e28\\u003c/sup\\u003e for further exploration and generation of the final network (Fig. 3). The Force Atlas algorithm was used for node positions in Gephi.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eMolecular findings\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eA total of 1202 blood samples were collected from domestic dogs in Mayo Kebbi Est (n = 485), Chari Baguirmi north (n = 356), and Chari Baguirmi south (n = 361) regions along the Chari River. Males represented 65.4% (n = 786) and females 34.6% (n = 416), with ages ranging from six months to 17 years old. The most prevalent protozoan was\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;H. canis,\\u003c/em\\u003e which was detected in 62.4% (750/1202; 95% CI 59.6 \\u0026ndash; 65.1%) of the dogs,\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003efollowed by \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003ein 2.0% (24/1202; 95% CI 1.4 \\u0026ndash; 3.0%). The most prevalent \\u003cem\\u003eRickettsiales\\u003c/em\\u003e species were \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e29.2% (351/1202; 95% CI 26.7 \\u0026ndash; 31.8%)\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eand \\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e 20.3% (244/1202; 95% CI 18.1 \\u0026ndash; 22.7%). We detected a high prevalence of bacterial hemotropic mycoplasmas including \\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e 59.2%\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e(711/1202; 95% CI 56.4 \\u0026ndash; 61.9%), \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. haematoparvum 21.2% (255/1202; 95% CI 19.0 \\u0026ndash; 23.6%), and \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. turicensis 1.5% (18/1202; 95% CI 0.9 \\u0026ndash; 2.4%). Overall, 88.7% (1066/1202; 95% CI 86.8 \\u0026ndash; 90.4%) of dogs were positive for at least one VBP and 62.9% (756/1202; 95% CI 60.1 \\u0026ndash; 65.6%) were coinfected with 2 or more VBPs, with individual dogs being coinfected with up to six pathogens. Using a panel of 15 pathogens, we found seven pathogens, includingco-infections, as described above. Other selected pathogens included in the panel were not detected (e.g., \\u003cem\\u003eBartonella\\u003c/em\\u003e spp., \\u003cem\\u003eLeishmania\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003einfantum\\u003c/em\\u003e,\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;Borrelia\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003eburgdorferi\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eRickettsia\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003erickettsii\\u003c/em\\u003e, and \\u003cem\\u003eCytauxzoon\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003efelis\\u003c/em\\u003e). The prevalence of infection based on age, geographic region, and sex is shown in Table 1.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eRisk factor analysis\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eAccording to Chi-Square and Fisher\\u0026rsquo;s exact tests, age was significantly associated with all the pathogens detected (\\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u0026le; 0.048) except \\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eand \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u003c/em\\u003e. The variable geographic region showed a statistically significant association with all pathogens except \\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e (\\u0026chi;2\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.118; P \\u0026gt; \\u0026thinsp; 0.99) and C. M. turicensis (\\u0026chi;2\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;23.65; P \\u0026gt; \\u0026thinsp; 0.99). Sex was only associated with \\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis (\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026chi;\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;14.21; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;0.001) and \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. haematoparvum (\\u0026chi;\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;11.38; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e= 0.002) (Table 1). Based on multivariable logistic regression analysis (Table 2), being a senior was a potential risk factor for \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e (OR 1.3, 95% CI 0.9 \\u0026ndash; 1.9; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e = 0.718). Likewise, these results indicate 3.6 times higher odds of infection with \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u003c/em\\u003e in seniors (3.6, 95% CI 2.6 \\u0026ndash; 5.2; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e = 0.025) and 1.6 times higher odds in dogs from Chari Baguirmi south (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.2 \\u0026ndash; 2.2, \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e = 0.014). Additionally, the odds of \\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e infection increased with being a senior despite the non-significant \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e-value (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.1 \\u0026ndash; 2.4; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e= 0.113) and residing in Chari Baguirmi south (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.5 \\u0026ndash; 3.0; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u0026lt; 0.001).\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThese results show that juvenile dogs had 40% lower odds (OR 0.6, 95% CI, 0.4 \\u0026ndash; 0.8; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u0026lt; 0.003) of having \\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis.\\u003c/em\\u003e The odds of \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. haematoparvum occurrence were 3.6 times higher for senior dogs (OR 3.6, 95% CI; 2.6 \\u0026ndash; 5.2; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u0026lt; 0.001) as compared to adults. Geographically, dogs in Chari Baguirmi south showed 50% less likelihood of \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eM. haematoparvum infection compared to Mayo Kebbi Est (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.3 \\u0026ndash; 0.7; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u0026lt; 0.001). Female dogs exhibited 40% less odds of infection with \\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e(OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.5 \\u0026ndash; 0.8; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u0026lt; 0.002) \\u003cem\\u003eand C.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eM. haematoparvum\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e(OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4 \\u0026ndash; 0.9; \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e = 0.03) compared to males (Table 2). \\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eNetwork analyses and coinfections\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eCoinfections among VBPs were observed among all pathogen pairs, with the coinfection of\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;H. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e as the most prevalent combination. Associations between pathogen pairs revealed both negative and positive associations among pathogens. Details of interactions based on Yule\\u0026rsquo;s Q are shown in Fig. 2. A significant node in this analysis was identified as \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis,\\u003c/em\\u003e which exhibited a statistically significant positive association (\\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e-value \\u0026le; 0.047) with three additional taxa (Table 3). In addition, according to the network, other species such as \\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e. M. turicensis were central players within the social interaction network, exhibiting robust connections with multiple taxa (Fig. 3). Hemotropic mycoplasmas showed strong positive associations among each other based on Yule\\u0026rsquo;s Q values, hinting at a potential facilitative role in the network. We observed that negative interactions did not attain statistical significance at the specified Yule\\u0026apos;s Q threshold of 0.3 and a \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e-value (\\u003cem\\u003eP \\u0026le;\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e0.05). Specifically, \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u003c/em\\u003e showed a strong but non significant negative interaction with \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTable 1. Univariable analysis of potential risk factors associated with infection rates of VBPs among 1202 dogs from Chad according to Chi square and fisher\\u0026rsquo;s exact tests\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"1\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"942\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"9\\\" style=\\\"width: 120px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 96px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eVariable\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCategory\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003en\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ePositive\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ePrevalence (%)\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ePOR (95% CI)\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e-value\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 86px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eX\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;statistic\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003edf\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 101px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eX\\u003csup\\u003e2 adj\\u003c/sup\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e-value\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 96px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 yrs\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e392\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e208\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e53.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.7 (1.3 \\u0026ndash; 2.2)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 86px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e22.53\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 101px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001*\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 yrs\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e627\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e414\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e66.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (Reference)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge; 5 yrs\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e183\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e128\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e69.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.8 (0.5 \\u0026ndash; 1.2)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.323\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 96px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographic region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e485\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e330\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e68.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (Reference)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 86px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e62.54\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 101px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001*\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB north\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e356\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e162\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e45.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.5 (1.9 \\u0026ndash; 3.4)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n 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\\u003cp\\u003e392\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e147\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e37.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6 (0.5 \\u0026ndash; 0.8)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 86px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e27.15\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 101px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001*\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 yrs\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n 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style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e361\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e214\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e59.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (0.8 \\u0026ndash; 1.3)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.928\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 96px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e786\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e496\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e63.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (Reference)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 86px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e14.21\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 101px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001*\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e416\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e215\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e51.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6 (0.5 \\u0026ndash; 0.8)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"8\\\" style=\\\"width: 120px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003eM. turicensis\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 96px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 yr\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e392\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eNA\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 86px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e166.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 101px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.048*\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 yrs\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e627\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e14\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (Reference)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;5 yrs\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e183\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (0.3 \\u0026ndash; 3.1)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.992\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 96px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographic region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e485\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (Reference)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 86px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e23.65\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\" style=\\\"width: 101px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.00\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB north\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e356\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.5 (0.4 \\u0026ndash; 4.9)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.55\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e361\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (0.3 \\u0026ndash; 2.9)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.98\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 96px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e786\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e17\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0 (Reference)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 86px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e11.39\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\" style=\\\"width: 101px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.20\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 81px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 74px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e416\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 106px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 125px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.1 (0.0 \\u0026ndash; 0.8)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 77px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.005\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eRisk factors were calculated using Chi-Square and Fisher\\u0026rsquo;s exact tests (Fisher\\u0026rsquo;s exact tests were computed only for variables below 5 for \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e.M. turicensis only) (Mayo KE = Mayo Kebbi Est, CB south = Chari Baguirmi south, CB north = Chari Baguirmi north), \\u003cem\\u003ePOR:\\u003c/em\\u003e prevalence odd ratio, \\u003cem\\u003eX\\u003csup\\u003e2\\u003c/sup\\u003e:\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/sup\\u003echi square statistic, \\u003cem\\u003edf\\u003c/em\\u003e: degrees of freedom\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTable 2: Multiple logistic regression analysis of potential risk factors associated with canine VBPs detected in dogs from Chad.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cdiv align=\\\"center\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctable border=\\\"1\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"751\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eVariable\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCategories\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eEstimate\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eSE\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eOR \\u003csub\\u003eadj\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e95% CI \\u003csub\\u003eOR\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e-value\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"55\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\" style=\\\"width: 0px;\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eIntercept\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.94\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.12\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"58\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 (Adult)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 (Juvenile)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.55\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.4 \\u0026ndash; 0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;5 (Senior)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.29\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.18\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.9 \\u0026ndash; 1.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e0.718\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographic region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB north\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.94\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.14\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.3 \\u0026ndash; 0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.23\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.15\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.9 \\u0026ndash; 1.70\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.794\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.7 \\u0026ndash; 1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eIntercept\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 1.24\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.12\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"58\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 (Adult)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 (Juvenile)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.43\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.2 \\u0026ndash; 2.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.008⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;5 (Senior)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.21\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e3.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.6 \\u0026ndash; 5.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.025⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographic region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB north\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.43\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.1 \\u0026ndash; 2.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.036⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.48\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.2 \\u0026ndash; 2.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.014⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.14\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.7 \\u0026ndash; 1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eIntercept\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.71\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.11\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"58\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 (Adult)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 (Juvenile)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.45\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.4 \\u0026ndash; 0.8\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.003⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;5 (Senior)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.18\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.17\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5 \\u0026ndash; 1.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographic region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB north\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.04\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.14\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.7 \\u0026ndash; 1.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.00\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.14\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.8 \\u0026ndash; 1.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.12\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5 \\u0026ndash; 0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.002⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003ehaematoparvum\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eIntercept\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.91\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"58\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 (Adult)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 (Juvenile)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 1.56\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.24\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;5 (Senior)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.18\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e3.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographical region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n 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\\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.77\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.3 \\u0026ndash; 0.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.48\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.17\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.4 \\u0026ndash; 0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.03⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eIntercept\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 3.48\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001⃰\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 (Adult)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 (Juvenile)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.47\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;5 (Senior)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.18\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.65\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographic region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB north\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 16.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e939.04\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.42\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.07\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eM. turicensis\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eIntercept\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 3.31\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 (Adult)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 (Juvenile)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-17.63\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1420\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eN/A\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;5 (Senior)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.08\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.58\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.3 \\u0026ndash; 2.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographic region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB north\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.62\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.1 \\u0026ndash; 2.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.00\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.55\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.3 \\u0026ndash; 2.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 2.12\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.03\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.0 \\u0026ndash; 0.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.238\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eIntercept\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e-1.65\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eAge\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;2\\u0026lt;5 (Adult)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt;2 (Juvenile)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.18\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.9 \\u0026ndash; 1.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026ge;5 (Senior)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.48\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.21\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.1 \\u0026ndash; 2.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.113\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eGeographic region\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMayo KE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB north\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.21\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.19\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6 \\u0026ndash; 1.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eCB south\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.76\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.17\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e2.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e1.5 \\u0026ndash; 3.0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026lt; 0.001\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eSex\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eMale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eReference\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003eFemale\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e- 0.223\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.6 \\u0026ndash; 1.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.900\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd height=\\\"57\\\"\\u003e\\u003cbr\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n \\u003c/table\\u003e\\n\\u003c/div\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eSE:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eStandard error, \\u003cem\\u003eORadj:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eadjusted odds ratio, \\u003cem\\u003eCI:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003econfidence interval.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTable 3: Pathogen pairs demonstrating interactions that met the criterion for significance. Only significant associations (Absolute Yules Q, \\u0026ge; 0.3 and \\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e-value \\u0026le; 0.05) based on permutation tests are shown.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ctable border=\\\"1\\\" cellspacing=\\\"0\\\" cellpadding=\\\"0\\\" width=\\\"657\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003ctbody\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ePathogen (1)\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003ePathogen (2)\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eYule\\u0026rsquo;s Q\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003e-value\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. haematoparvum\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. turicensis\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5561224\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.029\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. haematoparvum\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.4410380\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. haematoparvum\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5572561\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. turicensis\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5561224\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.029\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. turicensis\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5067114\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.047\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e. M. haematoparvum\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5572561\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. turicensis\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.5067114\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.047\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.4515765\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctr\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 173px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.4515763\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003ctd style=\\\"width: 156px;\\\"\\u003e\\n \\u003cp\\u003e0.000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n \\u003c/td\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tr\\u003e\\n \\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\n\\u003c/table\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eVBPs have increased worldwide in prevalence over the last decade. When companion animals such as dogs are involved, VBPs are perceived as a significant threat to public health due to the shared proximity between domestic dogs and people. The few studies reporting VBP prevalence in Chad have used PCR techniques \\u003csup\\u003e13,14,22\\u003c/sup\\u003e. While this approach is relatively simple and inexpensive, it requires multiple tests to capture several pathogens at once. Serological studies have also been conducted \\u003csup\\u003e22\\u003c/sup\\u003e; however, one limitation of this approach is the inability to differentiate past and ongoing infections. We chose tNGS because of its ability to extensively amplify pathogen sequences of interest while simultaneously detecting up to 15 pathogens within a single reaction.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eChad is characterized by an arid Saharan desert in the north, sub-tropical and semi-arid Sahel region in central, Chad and a tropical savannah in the south with warm and humid climate, \\u003csup\\u003e29\\u003c/sup\\u003e which makes it a suitable landmark for VBPs including some of zoonotic concerns. Domestic dogs in Chad are mostly free-roaming and may have close interactions with other dogs and wildlife, so they may serve as sentinels for zoonotic VBPs. Of the 1202 dogs screened, 1066 (88.7%) were positive for at least one pathogen. This rate is consistent with the positive detection rate of 77% from a past study in Nigeria using PCR and sequencing \\u003csup\\u003e30\\u003c/sup\\u003e, and a 70% infection rate in six sub-Saharan African countries performed using quantitative PCR \\u003csup\\u003e31\\u003c/sup\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eHepatozoon canis\\u003c/em\\u003e was the most prevalent pathogen (62.9%). This finding is consistent with the high prevalences of \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e previously found in Chad and several other African countries\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e31-33\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This high occurrence of \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e may be attributed to the high prevalence of infestations by \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e s.l. ticks which are prevalent in the region\\u003csup\\u003e5,34\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Aside vectorial transmission, vertical \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e transmission has been confirmed \\u003csup\\u003e35\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This protozoan infection has been reported in various tropical and subtropical areas on most continents; its distribution, which overlaps with that of \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003es.l\\u003cem\\u003e.\\u003c/em\\u003e, includes northern and southern Africa \\u003csup\\u003e10,36\\u003c/sup\\u003e, Asia \\u003csup\\u003e37\\u003c/sup\\u003e, Europe \\u003csup\\u003e38\\u003c/sup\\u003e, and the Americas \\u003csup\\u003e39\\u003c/sup\\u003e. While the results of this study indicate a low prevalence of \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e(2.0%), this was consistent with 5.1% prevalence reported from Egypt \\u003csup\\u003e10\\u003c/sup\\u003e and 6.6% reported from Tunisia \\u003csup\\u003e40\\u003c/sup\\u003e. In contrast, this number was lower than the high infection rate of 10.8% observed in Nigeria\\u003cem\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csup\\u003e41\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This difference may reflect various factors such as the experimental design, climatic conditions, season when sampling was performed, animal care and sanitary conditions, and diagnostic tests used \\u003csup\\u003e10\\u003c/sup\\u003e. \\u003cem\\u003eBabesia rossi,\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003erecognized as the most virulent of the large \\u003cem\\u003eBabesia\\u003c/em\\u003e species affecting dogs, has not been identified in this cohort, despite its known endemic presence across the African continent\\u003csup\\u003e22,42\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This absence could be attributed to the lack of \\u003cem\\u003eH. elliptica\\u003c/em\\u003e, considered its main tick vector, or the low density of \\u003cem\\u003eH. leachi\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003epreviously found on dogs from Chad \\u003csup\\u003e34,42\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003ePathogens belonging to the family \\u003cem\\u003eAnaplasmataceae\\u003c/em\\u003e, specifically \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e, significantly impact canine health in tropical and subtropical climates, causing canine infectious cyclic thrombocytopenia and canine monocytic ehrlichiosis, respectively. The two infections are considered acute, self-limiting, and sometimes fatal\\u003csup\\u003e2,43\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The frequencies of dogs positive for both pathogens manifest significant regional variability across different parts of the world. In the current study, 29.2% of dogs were found to be infected with \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u003c/em\\u003e; this rate is considerably higher than those reported in Nigeria (6.6%) \\u003csup\\u003e30\\u003c/sup\\u003e, Angola (20.4%) \\u003csup\\u003e44\\u003c/sup\\u003e, Malawi (2.4%) \\u003csup\\u003e33\\u003c/sup\\u003e, Egypt (1.5%) \\u003csup\\u003e45\\u003c/sup\\u003e and Ethiopia (2.2%) \\u003csup\\u003e46\\u003c/sup\\u003e. This difference is unexpected, as the brown dog tick is globally widespread, especially in the tropics and sub-tropics \\u003csup\\u003e5\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Similarly, we found a higher prevalence of \\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e (20.3%) than has been reported previously in South Africa (3%) \\u003csup\\u003e47\\u003c/sup\\u003e, Nigeria (12.7%) \\u003csup\\u003e30\\u003c/sup\\u003e, and Malawi (3.8%) \\u003csup\\u003e33\\u003c/sup\\u003e. These two \\u003cem\\u003eRickettsial\\u003c/em\\u003e species are often reported together, which can exacerbate disease in dogs. Notably, high levels of coinfections of \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eE. canis,\\u003c/em\\u003e and hemotropic mycoplasmas were observed, adding to the zoonotic risk.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eCanine hemotropic mycoplasmas have not been previously reported in dogs from Chad. The current report provides fundamental data for several \\u003cem\\u003eMycoplasma\\u003c/em\\u003e species in this population: \\u003cem\\u003eM. haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e was detected in 59.2%, \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u003c/em\\u003e M. haematoparvum in 21.2%, and \\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e. M. turicensis in 1.5% of the dogs. The high prevalence suggests that apparently healthy dogs in Chad have been exposed to \\u003cem\\u003eMycoplasmas\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eposing health risks and having potential zoonotic implications. Few studies from sub-Saharan African countries have reported a lower prevalence of dog-infecting hemotropic mycoplasmas including \\u0026nbsp;Angola\\u003csup\\u003e48\\u003c/sup\\u003e , Nigeria \\u003csup\\u003e49\\u003c/sup\\u003e Tanzania \\u003csup\\u003e50\\u003c/sup\\u003e and Sudan \\u003csup\\u003e51\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Past studies have reported that the transmission pathways for hemotropic mycoplasmas in dogs largely involve non-vector routes such as vertical transmission and mechanisms such as blood ingestion and transdermal inoculation during aggressive interactions \\u003csup\\u003e16\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The free-roaming and free-foraging nature of rural Chadian dogs, which live outdoors, likely contributes significantly to aggression behavior such as fighting and biting and ultimately to the high prevalence of hemotropic mycoplasma infections in this study \\u003csup\\u003e16\\u003c/sup\\u003e. \\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e. M. turicensis is recognized as the hemotropic mycoplasma species of felids\\u003csup\\u003e52\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Given the interactions between domestic dogs and cats, there is a plausible risk of spill-over, potentially facilitated by vectors such as ticks and fleas \\u003csup\\u003e21\\u003c/sup\\u003e. \\u0026nbsp;Notably, \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eM. turicensis has been identified among dogs from Chile \\u003csup\\u003e53\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Furthermore, instances of \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eMycoplasma haemominutum, another feline hemotropic mycoplasma, have been documented in puppies, thereby strengthening the evidence for interspecies transmission of cat-infecting mycoplasmas to dogs\\u003csup\\u003e54\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Collectively, these findings warrant further exploration as they raise questions regarding the mechanisms of infection, including the potential for vertical \\u003cem\\u003eMycoplasma\\u003c/em\\u003e transmission.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe prevalence of \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eand \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eM. haematoparvum was significantly associated with increased odds in senior dogs (\\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u0026lt; 0.05). Moreover, even though non-significant, the odds of infection with other pathogens, including \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eE. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e, were still higher in senior dogs. Aging might induce a weakened immune system that declines the ability to clear infections, increasing coinfection rates with other VBPs, and an increased risk of mortality in susceptible individuals \\u003csup\\u003e55\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Furthermore, inadequate veterinary care and lack of regular acaricidal treatment for dogs in this region may aggravate vector infestations. Heavy tick infestations might increase the risk of coinfections, especially if infections are not cleared by the immune system. Geographically, multivariable logistic regression indicated that the prevalence of \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eE. canis,\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e. M. haematoparvum was associated with residence in Chari Baguirmi south. Studies have revealed that tropical climates are favorable environments for vector survival \\u003csup\\u003e56\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Ticks adapt better to cooler climates with higher precipitation, such as the subtropical steppe climate of Chari Baguirmi south, contrary to desert climates characterized by arid climate, extreme heat, and less humidity, such as Chari Baguirmi north \\u003csup\\u003e57\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Specifically, the heightened likelihood of these pathogens in dogs from the south could be due to conducive climatic conditions that facilitate sustained exposure of dogs to recurrent tick infestations. The life cycle and developmental stages of their tick vector \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e s.l. depends on specific temperature and humidity thresholds to thrive and maintain infections \\u003csup\\u003e5\\u003c/sup\\u003e. In this population, most of the hemotropic mycoplasmas were significantly associated with decreased odds in female dogs (\\u003cem\\u003eP\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u0026lt; 0.05) compared to male dogs. This finding is consistent with another study on canine VBPs \\u003csup\\u003e58\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The reason for this outcome could be behavioral and physiological. According to previous studies, male dogs are likely to roam more frequently and extensively, predisposing them to recurrent vector infestations, coinfestations and coinfections, including by vectors and VBPs commonly found in cattle and wildlife. Empirical observations and the scientific literature show that aggression in male dogs is remarkably higher than in their female counterparts. Specifically, there is a pronounced correlation between elevated levels of testosterone and aggressive behavior in male dogs, which may intensify the transmission of hemotropic mycoplasma species \\u003csup\\u003e59,60\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eA complex social interaction between VBPs was observed through the co-occurrence network analysis. The positive associations identified highlight the potential facilitative nature of coinfecting pathogens with each other within the vertebrate hosts and possibly within the vector microbiome \\u003csup\\u003e61\\u003c/sup\\u003e. These interactions ultimately shape transmission and virulence dynamics in VBP ecology. Notably, \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003ewas found as a strongly interconnected node exhibiting strong statistically significant associations with several other pathogens (\\u003cem\\u003eP\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u0026le; 0.047) (Table3). According to the network (Fig. 3), other species such as \\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e. M. turicensis were central players within the social interaction network, exhibiting robust connections with multiple taxa (Fig. 3) and highlighting a potential synergistic relationship (Table 3). However, considering the small number of \\u003cem\\u003eC.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003eM. turicensis detections, these associations should be interpreted with caution. The strong positive associations between hemotropic mycoplasmas suggest a synergistic relationship facilitating their coexistence within canine hosts. Pathogens may directly facilitate others when their by-products are useful resources for another member, enhancing the fitness of co-occurring species in a shared niche \\u003csup\\u003e62\\u003c/sup\\u003e. In contrast, negative interactions were observed between \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u003c/em\\u003e and most pathogens, including \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis,\\u003c/em\\u003e but these were non-significant and may not suggest actual competitive interactions. A possible explanation for this could be protective effects on the host against highly pathogenic organisms such as \\u003cem\\u003eB. vogeli\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/em\\u003ethrough colonization with less pathogenic species such as \\u003cem\\u003eH. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e, particularly at high parasitemia levels \\u003csup\\u003e63\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Mechanisms of competition involve various processes, including resource competition and interference competition. Interference competition occurs indirectly via host-mediated immunity, where the host immune responses activated towards one pathogen may inadvertently promote susceptibility towards another, such as in the case of cross-immunity, where antibodies produced to harm one pathogen counteract another \\u003csup\\u003e64\\u003c/sup\\u003e. As such, these findings underscore the need for further exploration into inter-species coinfections and their role in virulence and disease progression \\u003csup\\u003e65\\u003c/sup\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eTaken together, these findings provide new data on prevalence patterns, associated risk factors, and interactions behind the epidemiologic risk of vector-borne protozoans and bacteria in this population. In Chad, the tropical climate and the large dog populations in rural areas promote the life cycle of \\u003cem\\u003eR. sanguineus\\u003c/em\\u003e s.l., the most reported tick worldwide, and an exclusive, possible, or putative vector of several tick-borne pathogens reported here \\u003csup\\u003e5\\u003c/sup\\u003e. Importantly, the brown dog tick can occasionally feed on humans and other animals, including production animals and wildlife, posing the risk of zoonotic transmission.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSome pathogen species were not detected at both the genus-specific and species-specific levels in any of the canine samples analyzed. A possible explanation for the negative results is that some pathogen targets included in the assay may be non-endemic in Chad (e.g.,, \\u003cem\\u003eBorrelia burgdorferi\\u003c/em\\u003e) or may circulate at low ct values. In addition, due to the comprehensive nature of the tNGS test, the targeted panel includes diversity of VBPs, including those that infect other species (e.g., \\u003cem\\u003eCytauxzoon\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003efelis\\u003c/em\\u003e infects cats) and not just canine VBPs. Finally, the whole blood as utilized in this study may not be the ideal sample for \\u003cem\\u003eLeishmania\\u003c/em\\u003e testing, as the parasite load in blood is often low, challenging detection. Tissue samples such as bone marrow, spleen, or lymph nodes should be used instead. We acknowledge a few limitations in this study. First, the samples were collected once, therefore, the prevalence data provided here would have benefited from multiple sampling events over different seasons. Second, the tNGS method used here is known to have a slight reduction in analytical sensitivity as compared to real-time PCR \\u003csup\\u003e23\\u003c/sup\\u003e. When VBPs are in circulation at low amounts (Ct values \\u0026ge;35), detection may be missed with this technique. Finally, it must be noted that the age of the dogs included in the study was reported by their owner, and could have been inaccurate, potentially impacting our analyses.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe epidemiological analysis performed in this study has confirmed the high prevalence of canine VBPs in this population of dogs using tNGS. This diagnostic method allowed for comprehensive and simultaneous detection of multiple agents, including hemotropic mycoplasmas which had not been previously reported in Chad. Furthermore, the results suggest that clinicians and diagnostic labs should not exclude bacteria belonging to \\u003cem\\u003eMycoplasmataceae\\u003c/em\\u003e during VBP surveillance.\\u0026nbsp;Multivariable logistic regression revealed a strong association between the prevalence of \\u003cem\\u003eA. platys, E. canis\\u003c/em\\u003e and \\u003cem\\u003eC\\u003c/em\\u003e. M. haematoparvum with seniors and residents in Chari Baguirmi south. Network analysis revealed a complex web of antagonistic and synergistic interactions among pathogens within dogs in Chad with potential public health implications. It is imperative for health professionals in Chad to strengthen awareness of these pathogens circulating in dogs, and possibly in humans. Risk of exposure to these VBPs can be minimized through the availability of veterinary care, appropriate use of ectoparasiticide treatment, and continued pathogen and vector surveillance. Nevertheless, we believe that this work will provide an in-depth and standardized VBP report from Chad and that the information provided in this study will serve as baseline data for future investigations in this region.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eData availability\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe fasta file and bed file used for the analysis can be downloaded at: \\u003cstrong\\u003ehttps://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/pathogens13040335/s1\\u003c/strong\\u003e, File S1: A FASTA file containing the genomic sequence of the targeted pathogens; File S2: Gene target BED file of all the targeted pathogens. Raw data is available on request through the corresponding author.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAcknowledgements\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors would like to thank The Carter Centre for financing this work. The authors also acknowledge the statistical insights provided by the TAMU Department of Statistics. We also would like to thank Dr. Ana Clara M. Pessoa Monteiro for her insights on QGIS software.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAuthor contributions\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eConceptualization and study design, G. G.V, R.G., L.T., and M.N.S. Methodology including bioinformatics, R.A.N., H.H., J.K., R.W., P.T.O., R.N.B.N. Statistical analysis and preparation of the first draft, I.K.D. Manuscript writing – original draft, I.K.D. Manuscript writing – editing and review I.K.D., R.A.N., H.H., J.K., R.W., R.G., L.T., M.N.S., and G.V. Funding acquisition G.G.V. All authors have reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAdditional Information\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eCorrespondence and requests for materials should be addressed to G.G.V.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSupplementary information accompanies this paper at ….\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eAdditional information:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eCorrespondence\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003eand request for data should be addressed to G.G.V.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eDavitt, C. et al. 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Control\\u003c/em\\u003e. \\u003cb\\u003e11\\u003c/b\\u003e, e00186. \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.parepi.2020.e00186\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1016/j.parepi.2020.e00186\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e (2020).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eKamani, J. Molecular evidence indicts \\u003cem\\u003eHaemaphysalis leachi\\u003c/em\\u003e (Acari: Ixodidae) as the vector of \\u003cem\\u003eBabesia rossi\\u003c/em\\u003e in dogs in Nigeria, West Africa. \\u003cem\\u003eTicks Tick. 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Parasitol.\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003e252\\u003c/b\\u003e, 143\\u0026ndash;147. \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.02.013\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.02.013\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e (2018).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eBashey, F., Hawlena, H. \\u0026amp; Lively, C. M. Alternative paths to success in a parasite community: within-host competition can favor higher virulence or direct interference. \\u003cem\\u003eEvolution\\u003c/em\\u003e \\u003cb\\u003e67\\u003c/b\\u003e, 900\\u0026ndash;907 (2013).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e \\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eD\\u0026iacute;az-Corona, C. et al. Microfluidic PCR and network analysis reveals complex tick-borne pathogen interactions in the tropics. \\u003cem\\u003eParasit. Vectors\\u003c/em\\u003e. \\u003cb\\u003e17\\u003c/b\\u003e, 5. \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-023-06098-0\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1186/s13071-023-06098-0\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e (2024).\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"scirep\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"\",\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Canis lupus familiaris, Vector-borne Diseases, Targeted next generation sequencing, Risk factors, Chad\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5921037/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5921037/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eData on vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) infecting dogs from sub-Saharan Africa is limited. In this study, we assessed the prevalence of VBPs, their associated risk factors, and pathogen interactions in domestic dogs. Whole blood samples were obtained for 1202 apparently healthy dogs in Chad from September to October 2021, and nucleic acids were extracted and then subjected to a targeted next-generation sequencing (tNGS) assay for detection of 15 VBPs. Overall, 88.7% of the dogs were positive for at least one pathogen, and 62.9% were coinfected with two or more VBPs. The most frequent pathogen detected was \\u003cem\\u003eHepatozoon canis\\u003c/em\\u003e in 62.4% of the dogs, \\u003cem\\u003eMycoplasma haemocanis\\u003c/em\\u003e in 59.2%, \\u003cem\\u003eAnaplasma platys\\u003c/em\\u003e in 29.2%, \\u003cem\\u003eCandidatus\\u003c/em\\u003e Mycoplasma haematoparvum in 21.2%, \\u003cem\\u003eEhrlichia canis\\u003c/em\\u003e in 20.3%, \\u003cem\\u003eBabesia vogeli\\u003c/em\\u003e in 2.0% and \\u003cem\\u003eCandidatus\\u003c/em\\u003e Mycoplasma turicensis in 1.5%. While most of the dogs (62.9%) were co-infected with two or more VBPs, having an infection with three pathogens (30.8%) was more common. According to multivariable logistic regression analysis, being a senior dog and residing in Chari Baguirmi south were identified as potential risk factors for infection by most of the pathogens. Network analyses revealed complex interactions suggesting facilitative associations among VBPs. These results are useful in expanding the knowledge of VBPs in Africa and establishing a baseline for downstream studies into hemotropic mycoplasmas.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"High prevalence of vector-borne protozoans and bacteria in dogs from Chad determined using a targeted next generation sequencing approach\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-04-30 20:12:47\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5921037/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2025-07-01T01:15:38+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-06-27T10:23:44+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"162359896307973101495394648881996750395\",\"date\":\"2025-06-11T11:00:58+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-04-29T14:55:34+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"172059120072669749638674393000526103153\",\"date\":\"2025-04-28T18:09:16+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-04-28T16:31:03+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-04-28T03:36:23+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"date\":\"2025-04-10T22:10:00+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"scirep\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"\",\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"f45ddaeb-7f21-4544-9ec3-6b81df7ecd61\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"April 30th, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"published-in-journal\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":47861648,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Microbiology/Clinical microbiology\"},{\"id\":47861649,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Microbiology/Infectious disease diagnostics\"},{\"id\":47861650,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Microbiology/Parasitology\"},{\"id\":47861651,\"name\":\"Health sciences/Diseases\"},{\"id\":47861652,\"name\":\"Health sciences/Risk factors\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-08-04T16:46:21+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":{\"articleIdentity\":\"rs-5921037\",\"link\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-13431-3\",\"journal\":{\"identity\":\"scientific-reports\",\"isVorOnly\":false,\"title\":\"Scientific Reports\"},\"publishedOn\":\"2025-08-02 16:38:05\",\"publishedOnDateReadable\":\"August 2nd, 2025\"},\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-04-30 20:12:47\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"10.1038/s41598-025-13431-3\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-13431-3\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-5921037\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-5921037\",\"identity\":\"rs-5921037\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}