{"paper_id":"087da58e-2f9b-4dc4-9b49-9f1bd562ac78","body_text":"Green Synthesis of Lanthanum Oxide and Its Utilization in Modified Biodiesel for Optimal Performance and Exhaust Emissions of a Diesel Engine | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Green Synthesis of Lanthanum Oxide and Its Utilization in Modified Biodiesel for Optimal Performance and Exhaust Emissions of a Diesel Engine Altafhussain Bagawan, Syed Abbas Ali This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7499010/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The search for sustainable and efficient biofuels has led to the exploration of nanomaterial additives to enhance performance and reduce exhaust emissions. The present work aims at the synthesis of lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) nanoparticles using the green hydrothermal route and their effects on the performance and emissions from the exhaust of a diesel engine powered with a 20% waste cooking oil (WCO) biodiesel blend (B20). A comparative analysis has been conducted to determine the optimal concentration, La₂O₃ (30 ppm and 40 ppm). Engine performance tests suggested that the incorporation of lanthanum oxide into waste cooking oil-biodiesel significantly enhanced brake thermal efficiency (BTE) from 23.79% for diesel to 25.95% and 26.02%, and the specific fuel consumption (SFC) decreased from 0.35 kg/kWh (diesel) to 0.22 kg/kWh and 0.21 kg/kWh for 30 ppm and 40 ppm, respectively. Further, the experimental examination of exhaust emissions indicates a reduction in hydrocarbon (HC) emissions from 68 ppm (diesel) to 67 ppm and 66 ppm. Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions reduced from 0.04% (diesel) to 0.0395% and 0.395%, while smoke opacity declined from 4.5–4.4% and 4.3% for 30 ppm and 40 ppm, respectively. But the nitrogen oxide (NOₓ) emissions are increased from 440 ppm (diesel) to 720 ppm and 689 ppm for the 30 ppm and 40 ppm dosages of La₂O₃, respectively. These findings from the present work suggest that synthesized (hydrothermally) La₂O₃ of 40 ppm dosage is a potential additive nanomaterial for improving a diesel engine’s performance and minimizing its exhaust emissions of diesel engine. diesel engine performance exhaust emissions green hydrothermal synthesis lanthanum oxide waste cooking oil Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 1. Introduction The demand for alternative fuel has been a prominent source of fuel for internal combustion (IC) engines for a long time (Abed et al., 2019 b; Agarwal et al., 2017 c; Deshpande et al., 2024 c; Rao et al., 2018 c;). Biodiesel, obtained from renewable sources especially waste cooking oil (WCO), has received attentiveness as a feasible option to conventional or neat diesel fuel due to its lower price compared to oils from other sources; hence, it is promoting commercialization (Ajie et al., 2023 ; Halwe et al., 2023 ; Kulkarni & Dalai, 2006 d). In addition, it reduces environmental contamination caused by inappropriate WCO disposal while also addressing the food security concerns by preventing the use of agricultural land for edible oil production (Kulkarni & Dalai, 2006 d). However, biodiesel presents some drawbacks which negatively affect engine performance and emission characteristics, including increased viscosity, decreased calorific value, and incomplete combustion (Prabu, 2017 ; Rashid, 2023 ). To resolve these shortcomings, the incorporation of nanomaterials in biofuels has become potential solution to boost the in cylinder combustion, performance, and emissions coming out from the exhaust pipe (Li et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., 2023 b; Prabu, 2017 ; Rashid, 2023 ) owing to their high surface area-to-volume (SV) ratio and outstading catalytic-activity. Studies involving different nanomaterials have shown their ability to enhance the thermophysical properties of fuels, leading to improvements in engine performance, and also the emission-characteristics. The discussion suggests the importance of selecting appropriate nanoparticle types and concentrations to achieve optimal combustion, performance, and emissions (Gupta et al., 2023 b). The experimental research on the influence of various nanomaterials with varied concentrations on performance, in-cylinder combustion related indicators, and post combustion emissions of engine run with pure diesel-WCO-biodiesel blends has been carried out in (Gad et al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2023 ). Research has also explored the usage of castor oil-biodiesel (Lamore et al., 2023 ), the incorporation of CeO₂ additives in (Tamrat et al., 2024 ), WCO with TiO₂ in (Koca et al., 2024 ; Kumar et al., 2022 ), the effect of TiO₂ on ternary blends comprising n-heptane and mahua biodiesel in (Muniyappan & Krishnaiah, 2024 b), oxygenated additives in (Padmanabhan et al., 2023 ), zinc oxide in (Rajak et al., 2021 ), and hybrid materials (Al₂O₃ and MWCNT) in (Sathish et al., 2022 ) for the CI engine analysis. The synthesis of nanomaterials without seeds, catalysts, or toxic or costly surfactants thus becomes potential. As a result, recent research has focused on developing various synthetic methods for producing nanomaterials (Ağbulut et al., 2021 ; Bokov et al., 2021 ; Khujamberdiev & Cho, 2025 b; Premkumar et al., 2023 ; Rao et al., 2022 ). The various synthesis methods, namely sol-gel, hydrothermal, precipitation, and green synthesis, have been thoroughly explained in (Khujamberdiev & Cho, 2025 b). The study emphasizes the synthesis of nanomaterials (SiO₂, TiO₂, and ZrO₂) through the sol-gel approach, as explained in (Bokov et al., 2021 ). The modified Hummers method has been used for the synthesis of graphene oxide (GO), as mentioned in (Ağbulut et al., 2021 ), and the co-precipitation as well as sol-gel methods illustrated in (Rao et al., 2022 ) are applied for synthesizing magnetite nanoparticles. Furthermore, the synthesis of the SnO₂@rGO nanocomposite, obtained by dispersing SnO₂ nanoparticles onto monolayer-dispersed reduced graphene oxide, is highlighted in (Premkumar et al., 2023 ). Among different ways to make nanomaterials synthesis techniques, the hydrothermal method stands out as the most suitable for biodiesel applications due to its ability to produce highly crystalline, uniformly sized, and thermally stable nanocatalysts. Additionally, this method operates under environmentally friendly conditions, requiring minimal chemical additives, making it a sustainable and efficient choice for large-scale biodiesel production (Khujamberdiev & Cho, 2025 b). However, to the extent of the current literature survey, there has been limited research on the large-scale, low-cost synthesis of nanomaterials with high-quality crystals. The un-investigated factors in literature on engine performance and emissions while adding low-cost, high-quality crystal nanomaterials to WCO biodiesel fuel needs to be examined experimentally. The present work aims to develop such nanomaterials as lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) and to carry out the experimental examination on the effect of La₂O₃ with different concentrations mixed in WCO-derived biodiesel–diesel mixtures on the performance indicators, and exhaust-emission characteristics of a diesel engine or CI engine. A one-cylinder, 4-stroke CI engine connected with an emission analyzer has been used for the experimental assessment of the performance, and emission characteristics from the exhaust. Further, the observations suggest that the hydrothermally synthesized La₂O₃ becomes an advantageous additive for WCO biodiesel in enhancing or improvising performance and minimizing the emissions of CI engine, thereby supporting cleaner and improved diesel engine output. 2. Materials, Methods, and Charecterization 2.1 Biodiesel conversion via the transesterification reaction The collected waste cooking oil has been preheated to a temperature (60–65°C) to remove the moisture and make it ready for reactivity. A methoxide solution, formed by dissolving sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in methanol, is then gradually introduced into the heated oil under constant stirring to initiate the transesterification process. After which the mixture has been kept in a separating funnel for 12–24 hours (settlement), resulting in phase separation into two layers: an upper biodiesel layer and a lower layer of crude glycerol. Then the biodiesel fraction, carefully extracted and subjected to three time washing with mildly heated distilled water to remove residual catalysts and unreacted methanol. The final product has been dried at approximately 100°C to eliminate any remaining moisture, producing clean WCO-derived biodiesel suitable for diesel engine applications. The detailed process steps are given in Fig. 1 . 2.2 Synthesis procedure for the lanthanum oxide and its characterization. A wide range of nanomaterials—such as metal oxides (Gad et al., 2022; Khujamberdiev & Cho, 2025 b; Sharma et al., 2023 ; Tamrat et al., 2024 ), carbon nanotubes (Ağbulut et al., 2021 ; Bokov et al., 2021 ), and composite nanomaterials (Khujamberdiev & Cho, 2025 b)-have been synthesized using various methods (Bokov et al., 2021 ). The synthesis of lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) has been carried out, as it offers the best combination of stability, emission reduction, and engine protection and, further, ensures complete combustion and higher fuel efficiency (Prabhakar et al., 2023 c; Prasad et al., 2023 b; Venkatesan et al., 2023 a). It is a white, odorless rare earth oxide that is water-insoluble but reacts with dilute acids (Venkatesan et al., 2023 a). This is synthesized via the hydrothermal route because it is the most and thermally stable nanocatalysts (Khujamberdiev & Cho, 2025 b). In this method, the solution containing a lanthanum precursor (lanthanum nitrate) is dispersed with sodium hydroxide to start the precipitation. The prepared solution is subsequently placed in a Teflon-lined autoclave and exposed to hydrothermal treatment under elevated temperature conditions (commonly between 150–200°C) for a few hours. In the meantime, pressure and temperatures are controlled inside the autoclave, which gives the nucleation and growth of lanthanum oxide nanostructures. After the reaction, the formed precipitate is collected, washed again and again with mineral free water and ethanol to avoid residues, and subsequently dried and calcined to obtain phase-pure La₂O₃ nanoparticles. This synthesis route ensures the formation of thermally stable and morphologically uniform nanomaterials, making them suitable for catalytic and energy-related applications. Further, the detailed process steps (Fig. 2 ), and specifications (Table 1 ) are highlighted. 2.3 Ultrasonic-Homogenization of WCO biodiesel dispersed with La 2 O 3 nanoparticles. To maintain uniform distribution of La₂O₃ nanoparticles in WCO biodiesel, various techniques have been highlighted in (Yusof et al., 2020 ). The ultrasonication technique (which uses ultrasonicator and magnetic stirrer) is found to be most effective by breaking apart agglomerates and facilitating homogeneous and stable nanoparticle distribution (Ruan & Jacobi, 2012 b). Further, a comparative analysis of fuel properties between diesel (B0) and WCO biodiesel blend (B20) enhanced with La₂O₃ nanomaterial is given in Table 2 . Further, the images of the EDX analysis and SEM analysis are depicted in Figs. 3 , and 4 . The above Figures shows that the material has an amorphous nature, and also La₂O₃ materials have spherical atoms in shape and size ranging from 30 to 60 nm, the Table 2 gives the technical specifications of the La₂O₃. Table 1 Technical specifications of lanthanum oxide S. No. Specification Value/Quantity 1. Molecular Formula La 2 O 3 2. Molecular Weight 19.13 3. Average Particle Size 30–50 4. Density 6.51 g/cm 3 5. Melting point temperature 2315 degree C 6. Boiling point temperature 4200 degree C Table 2 Comparative analysis of fuel properties between Diesel (B00) and WCO-Biodiesel blend (B20) enhanced with La₂O 3 Sl. No. Property Diesel (B00) WCO-biodiesel blend (B20) La 2 O 3 (30 ppm) La 2 O 3 (40 ppm) 1. Density (kg/m 3 ) 832 828 847.8 2. Viscosity (cSt) 2.27 3.8 4.00 3. Calorific value (kJ/kg) 44000 41305 42060 4. Flash point temperature (°C) 69 93.2 88 5. Fire point temperature (°C) 53.4 99 103 3. Experimental Set Up The experimental studies carried out on a one-cylinder, 4-stroke, Kirloskar diesel or CI engine. The engine is linked to a rope drum dynamometer, is affixed to a mounting frame, and is linked to the engine. It had a bore/stroke of 80 mm/110 mm, held at a rotational speed of 1500 rpm (constant) and producing an output of 3.7 kW of power. It featured a compression ratio (CR) of 16.5. The test set is subjected to different loads varied from 2.5 kg to 10 kg with increments of 2.5 kg via the help of a dynamometer. Diesel serves as pilot fuel, and then WCO blend (B20) mixed with La₂O₃ at 30 ppm and 40 ppm are used as the main fuel. All of the data collected related to engine's performance, and exhaust emission characteristics are recorded using the set up shown in Fig. 5 , and analyzed for each blend. Table 3 Important engine and emission analyser specifications. Particulars Specifications Engine specifications Type of engine 4 Stroke, fueled with diesel, Eddy current dynamometer Cooling, CR Water cooling, 12–18 Range of speed 1200–1800,rpm Power 3.5 KW @ 1500, rpm, Bore to Stroke ratio 0.79 Emission analyzer specifications HC 0-20000, ppm-Vol. CO 0–15, percentage (% )-Vol. NOx 0-5000, ppm-Vol. The experimental configuration of the engine-setup and emission analyzer are given in Table 3 . The performance indicators that are analyzed include engine thermal efficiency or brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake specific fuel-consumption (BSFC) or specific fuel-consumption (SFC), Table 4 Uncertainty assessment of experimental parameters Paramters Sensitivity/(Resolution) HC measurement range 1 ppm CO measurement range 0.001% by Volume NOx measurement range 1 ppm byVolume O 2 resolution 0.01% by Volume CO 2 resolution 0.1% by Voume Load measurement precision 0.2 bar Cranksahft rotation angle sensor accuracy 1 degree and mechanical efficiency (Mech. Eff.). Further, the emissions investigated are hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO x ), and smoke opacity (SO). The experimental values of parameters are collected on all the operating points of the engine given in Fig. 6 . 3.1 Uncertainity analysis An uncertainty analysis has been conducted to minimize and account for possible errors associated with the measuring instruments used during the experimental process. The degree of error and uncertainty in these instruments is influenced by factors such as operational conditions, environmental variations, and the inherent accuracy and precision of the instruments themselves (Ağbulut et al., 2021 ; Mohammed et al., 2023 b). To make sure the experimental data are accurate, each test performed more than once, and the average (mean) values of the parameters have been used for further review and analysis. In Table 4 , one can see a summary of the uncertainties that come with the observed parameters. 4. Experimental Examination of CI Engine Parameters An experimental study has been conducted to examine the performance characteristics and exhaust-emissions emitted from a CI engine operating under varying load conditions ranging from 2.5 kg to 10 kg, in increments of 2.5 kg. The tests have been performed using waste cooking oil (WCO)-based B20 biodiesel blends, into which lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) nanoparticles at concentrations of 30 ppm and 40 ppm have been incorporated, with conventional diesel used as the baseline fuel. 4.1 Variation of BTE with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel In the context of the engine, the term BTE refers to the effectiveness of transforming the chemical energy obtainable in the fuel into shaft output power. The variation of BTE in relation to loads for pure diesel, WCO biodiesel (B20), and B20 mixture with lanthanum oxide nanoparticles at 30 ppm, and 40 ppm dosages is illustrated in Fig. 7 . An increase in BTE has been noted as the load increases (rises), and rise in temperature as well as pressure is seen, which promotes more complete combustion, while the greater amount of fuel injected enables more efficient energy extraction (Li et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., 2023 b; Prabu, 2017 ). The lanthanum oxide addition in WCO-B20 biodiesel regards to 30 ppm, and 40 ppm concentrations gives an betterment in BTE (Gad et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2022 ) by enhancing combustion through better atomization, improved air–fuel mixing, and catalytic activity(Prabhakar et al., 2023 c). 4.2 Variation of SFC with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel SFC denotes the fuel consumed per unit of power output during a defined time interval. A discussion of the SFC as related to load is presented in Fig. 8 . This includes pure diesel, WCO biodiesel (B20), and lanthanum oxide blends with dosages of 30 ppm, and 40 ppm. SFC declines progressively with higher engine loads, primarily because the improved effectiveness in fuel energy use at higher loads and also promotes more complete combustion (Mohammed et al., 2023 b; Prabu, 2017 ;). The SFC is lower for the WCO biodiesel (B20) dispersed lanthanum oxide for 30 ppm and 40 ppm when it is compared to pure diesel because it promotes faster oxidation; improved fuel mixing leads to complete combustion and reduced fuel-consumption (Kumar et al., 2022 ; Prabhakar et al., 2023 c). 4.3. Variation of mechanical efficiency with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel The term mechanical efficiency (Mech. Eff.) is a ratio of the indicated power (IP) to brake power (BP). The Mech. Eff. variation in relation to load for pure or neat diesel, WCO-biodiesel, and WCO-biodiesel (B20) blends mixed with lanthanum oxide of 30 ppm, 40 ppm is given in Fig. 9 . It shows improvement with higher load conditions, due to the rise in brake power outpacing frictional losses, resulting in better energy transfer from cylinder to output shaft. By adding lanthanum oxide nanoparticles to WCO-B20 biodiesel at 30 ppm and 40 ppm improves mechanical efficiency due to enhanced combustion and reduced relative frictional losses also due to enhancement in spray quality in the blends over the neat or pure diesel (Kumar et al., 2022 ; Prabu, 2017 ). 4.4. Variation of HC with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel To illustrate the variations of hydrocarbons (HC) with regard to loads, Fig. 10 depicts the HC of pure diesel, WCO-biodiesel (B20), and B20 biodiesel blends infused with lanthanum oxide nanoparticles at 30 ppm, and 40 ppm dosages. It is noticed from Fig. 10 that, with the increase in load, HC emissions are increased because the insufficient air supply, rich air-fuel mixture, and shorter combustion duration lead to incomplete combustion, produces HC from, (Kumar et al., 2022 ; Mohammed et al., 2023 b). By adding lanthanum oxide to WCO biodiesel (B20) reduces HC by promoting complete combustion through enhanced fuel atomization, oxygen buffering, and catalytic oxidation of unburned fuel (Li et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., 2023 b; Prabhakar et al., 2023 c) 4.5. Variation of CO with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel Figure 11 depicts, how the carbon monoxide emissions change with load for pure or neat diesel, WCO-biodiesel (B20), and lanthanum oxide mixes with 30 ppm and 40 ppm doses. At higher loads, the increased trend in CO can be exhibited for all the mixtures; this is primarily due to, rise in the fuel consumption, emission levels also increase (Lamore et al., 2023 ; Rashid, 2023 ). A decrease in carbon monoxide has been observed for lanthanum oxide nanoparticles added in B20 WCO biodiesel when it is evaluated relative to pure diesel. Through improved combustion completeness and active oxygen release, increasing the dosage of lanthanum oxide nanoparticles in WCO B20 biodiesel lowers CO emissions (Lamore et al., 2023 ). 4.6 Variation of NOx with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel Figure 12 illustrates the variation of NO x with respect to engine load for pure diesel, WCO biodiesel (B20), and B20 blended with 30 ppm, and 40 ppm lanthanum oxide. A rise in NOx emissions has been found with increased load, this is because of the increased combustion temperatures, the increased presence of oxygen, and the increased reaction rates. (Koca et al., 2024 ; Li et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., 2023 b). Compared to pure diesel, the inclusion of lanthanum oxide to WCO biodiesel enhances ignition quality, resulting in an increased rate of heat-release and increased exhaust gas temperatures, which collectively contribute to higher NO x formation (Li et al., 2022; Prabhakar et al., 2023 c; Prasad et al., 2023 b). 4.7 Variation of smoke opacity with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel The smoke opacity varies with engine’s load in Fig. 13 for pure diesel, WCO B20 biodiesel, and its blends with 30 ppm and 40 ppm lanthanum oxide nanoparticles. The load-dependent increase in smoke opacity is presented in Fig. 13 . This reason can be due to the consumption of fuel improvement, and the richer air-fuel mixture appeared (Kulkarni & Dalai, 2006 d; Lamore et al., 2023 ). However, the addition of lanthanum oxide works for to reduce smoke opacity, which is noted leading to their significant improvement SV ratio and enhanced ignition properties, which promote more thorough combustion (Kulkarni & Dalai, 2006 d; Lamore et al., 2023 ). 4.8 Comparative study Tables 5 – 6 present a comparison of different concentrations of lanthanum oxide effects on the CI engine’s parameters (performance and emissions) running at low-load/high-load conditions, respectively. The results shown in Tables 5 , and 6 shows that adding lanthanum oxide nanomaterials to 20% WCO biodiesel at doses of 30 ppm and 40 ppm made the engine run better and give off less pollution compared to diesel. It is feasible to get the concluding remark that the incorporation of nanomaterials into the CI engine at larger dosages results in an improvement in both its performance and its emissions. Table 5 Comparison of La 2 O 3 at different doses on the CI engine’s parameters (performance and emissions)under low load. S. No. Mixture Performance parameters Emission parameters BTE SFC Mechanical Efficiency HC CO NO x Smoke Opacity 1 B0 11 0.72 15.54 40 0.023 151 2.2 2 B20 10.62 0.74 16.11 38 0.021 157 1.9 3 B20L30 11.08 0.49 16 48 0.028 218 1.6 4 B20L40 11.09 0.48 18 47 0.028 220 1.5 Table 6 Comparison of La 2 O 3 at different doses on the CI engine’s parameters (performance and emissions) under high load. S. No. Mixture Performance parameters Emission parameters BTE SFC Mechanical Efficiency HC CO NO x Smoke Opacity 1 B0 24.6 0.38 41.95 70 0.04 440 5.5 2 B20 23.79 0.35 42.92 68 0.038 466 4.5 3 B20L30 25.95 0.22 45.25 67 0.0395 720 4.4 4 B20L40 26.02 0.21 47 66 0.0389 689 4.3 5. Concluding Remarks In this experimental comparative study and examination, the performance characteristics, and emissions from the exhaust of a CI engine fuelled with diesel and a B20 blend of waste cooking oil (WCO)-biodiesel doped with lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) nanoparticles at 30 ppm and 40 ppm concentrations were experimentally investigated. The La₂O₃ synthesized nanoparticles, through the green method, i.e., hydrothermal, showed suitability with the fuel and can be used in the engine without any modifications to it. The addition of La₂O₃ improves the performance characteristics, such as brake thermal efficiency (BTE), increasing from 23.79% (diesel) to 25.95% and 26.02% for 30 ppm, and 40 ppm dosages, respectively. Simultaneously, specific fuel consumption (SFC) decreased from 0.35 kg/kWh (diesel) to 0.22 kg/kWh and 0.21 kg/kWh. Further, the experimental examination of exhaust emissions indicates a reduction in hydrocarbon (HC) emissions from 68 ppm (diesel) to 67 ppm and 66 ppm. Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions reduced from 0.04% (diesel) to 0.0395% and 0.395%, while smoke opacity declined from 4.5–4.4% and 4.3% for 30 ppm, and 40 ppm, respectively. But the nitrogen oxide (NOₓ) emissions are increased from 440 ppm (diesel) to 720 ppm and 689 ppm for the 30 ppm and 40 ppm dosages of La₂O₃, respectively. The 40 ppm of La₂O₃ demonstrated that the optimal dosage and its proof that it is a potential additive nanomaterial for improving a diesel engine’s performance and minimizing its exhaust emissions indicate its potential as a viable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional diesel fuel. Declarations Disclosure There is no conflict of interest Author Contribution 1. and 2. Made substantial contributions to the conception; design of the work; the acquisition, analysis, interpretation of data; 1. drafted the work or revised it critically for important intellectual content;approved the version to be published; and2. agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. Acknowledgments The study received financial support from the Vision Group on Science and Technology (VGST), Bengaluru, KARNATAKA, India, under the RGS/F category. (Grant No. 980). Data availability statement There is no data availability statement in this manuscript References Abed, K.A., Gad Morsi, A.E., Sayed, M.M., Elyazeed, S.A.: Effect of biodiesel fuels on diesel engine emissions. Egypt. J. 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J. 9 (4), 2343–2349 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2017.04.004 Prasad, A., Sivanraju, R., Teklemariam, A., Tafesse, D., Tufa, M., Bejaxhin, B.H.: Influence of nano additives on performance and emissions characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with watermelon methyl ester. J. Therm. Eng. 395–400 (2023). https://doi.org/10.18186/thermal.1285915 Premkumar, S., Radhakrishnan, K., Kalidoss, R., Kumar, J.V., Abirami, N., Inbaraj, B.S.: Synthesis, characterization and application of SNO₂@RGO nanocomposite for selective catalytic reduction of exhaust emission in internal combustion engines. Catalysts. 13 (2), 381 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13020381 Rajak, U., Ağbulut, Ü., Veza, I., Dasore, A., Sarıdemir, S., Verma, T.N.: Numerical and experimental investigation of CI engine behaviors supported by zinc oxide nanomaterial along with diesel fuel. Energy. 239 , 122424 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122424 Rao, K.V.S., Kurbet, S., Kuppast, V.V.: A review on performance of the IC engine using alternative fuels. Materials Today: Proceedings 5(1): 1989–1996. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.11.303 Rao, M.S., Rao, C.S., Kumari, A.S.: Synthesis, stability, and emission analysis of magnetite nanoparticle-based biofuels. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 69 (1) (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-022-00127 Rashid, A.B.: Utilization of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in biodiesel production and property enhancement. J. Nanomaterials. 2023 , 1–14 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/7054045 Ruan, B., Jacobi, A.M.: Ultrasonication effects on thermal and rheological properties of carbon nanotube suspensions. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 7 (1) (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1556-276x-7-127 Sathish, T., Muthukumar, K., Abdulwahab, A., Rajasimman, M., Saravanan, R., Balasankar, K.: Enhanced waste cooking oil biodiesel with Al₂O₃ and MWCNT for CI engines. Fuel. 333 , 126429 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.126429 Sharma, P., Paramasivam, P., Bora, B.J., Sivasundar, V.: Application of nanomaterials for emission reduction from diesel engines powered with waste cooking oil biodiesel. Int. J. Low-Carbon Technol. 18 , 795–801 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctad060 Tamrat, S., Ancha, V.R., Gopal, R., Nallamothu, R.B., Seifu, Y.: Emission and performance analysis of diesel engine running with CeO₂ nanoparticle additive blended into castor oil biodiesel as a substitute fuel. Sci. Rep. 14 (1) (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58420-0 Venkatesan, E.P., Rajendran, S., Murugan, M., Medapati, S.R., Murthy, K.V.S.R., Alwetaishi, M., Khan, S.A., Saleel, C.A.: Performance and emission analysis of biodiesel blends in a low heat rejection engine with an antioxidant additive: An experimental study. ACS Omega. 8 (40), 36686–36699 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c02742 Yusof, S.N.A., Sidik, N.A.C., Asako, Y., Japar, W.M.A.A., Mohamed, S.B., Muhammad, N.M.: A comprehensive review of the influences of nanoparticles as a fuel additive in an internal combustion engine (ICE). Nanatechnol. Reviews. 9 (1), 1326–1349 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2020-0104 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Graphicalabstract.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-7499010\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Research Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":513116038,\"identity\":\"e9ce75ed-6350-4d73-91af-fa5b98e3d56b\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Altafhussain Bagawan\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"SECAB Institute of Engineering and Technology (SIET)\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Altafhussain\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Bagawan\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":513116039,\"identity\":\"2075c667-71ea-4ab8-b144-56ea95b500db\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Syed Abbas Ali\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABEUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACCQaGAwlAmvFAQoWNHEjkwAMitQDJM2nGEAbRWhjbDiU2gFj4tMjPSD54g6HmTh5//+EHBx6cOZA+P+zwQ6AJdnK6Ddi1GNxIS7ZgOPasWOJGmgHQL3dyN94GMRiSjc0O4NAikWMmwcB2OLHhBgNQ5ZlnuRtnJ4C0HEjchkOL/Iz8bxIM/w4nzj9//MOBxLbD6Yaz0z/g1cJwI4dNgrHtcOKGAzkGIC0J8tI5+G0xOPPM2CKx71mx4Y2cAlAgG26QBjEMcPtFvj354Y0P3+7kyZ0/vvHhjwobefnZ6Zs/fKiwk8OlhUEgAS0WDMAqDXAoBwF+dLPkG/CoHgWjYBSMghEJACH5dRJB+gBwAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"SECAB Institute of Engineering and Technology 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process.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7499010/v1/8dbbb876c15a32e1ec2c8a73.png\"},{\"id\":91117502,\"identity\":\"85d84802-d0bd-49b1-913e-2b64920186b4\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-11 17:55:29\",\"extension\":\"jpeg\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":216640,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eProcess of synthesis of nanomaterials\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image2.jpeg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7499010/v1/2db8b9025c8996fa3bd81a79.jpeg\"},{\"id\":91117498,\"identity\":\"1a9ae8cc-81e3-4f6b-8c6a-79bccf6d1548\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-11 17:55:29\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 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17:55:30\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":1264768,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFour sroke diesel engine and Emission analyzer\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image5.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7499010/v1/d923127901ff126a802f8ea5.png\"},{\"id\":91117976,\"identity\":\"d4298134-edc4-4f7d-a5ee-d2aaaedc25e3\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-11 18:03:29\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":21879,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eOperating points for 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Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe demand for alternative fuel has been a prominent source of fuel for internal combustion (IC) engines for a long time (Abed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2019\\u003c/span\\u003eb; Agarwal et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003ec; Deshpande et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR6\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003ec; Rao et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR24\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003ec;). Biodiesel, obtained from renewable sources especially waste cooking oil (WCO), has received attentiveness as a feasible option to conventional or neat diesel fuel due to its lower price compared to oils from other sources; hence, it is promoting commercialization (Ajie et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e; Halwe et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR9\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e; Kulkarni \\u0026amp; Dalai, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003ed). In addition, it reduces environmental contamination caused by inappropriate WCO disposal while also addressing the food security concerns by preventing the use of agricultural land for edible oil production (Kulkarni \\u0026amp; Dalai, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003ed). However, biodiesel presents some drawbacks which negatively affect engine performance and emission characteristics, including increased viscosity, decreased calorific value, and incomplete combustion (Prabu, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e; Rashid, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). To resolve these shortcomings, the incorporation of nanomaterials in biofuels has become potential solution to boost the in cylinder combustion, performance, and emissions coming out from the exhaust pipe (Li et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb; Prabu, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e; Rashid, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e) owing to their high surface area-to-volume (SV) ratio and outstading catalytic-activity. Studies involving different nanomaterials have shown their ability to enhance the thermophysical properties of fuels, leading to improvements in engine performance, and also the emission-characteristics. The discussion suggests the importance of selecting appropriate nanoparticle types and concentrations to achieve optimal combustion, performance, and emissions (Gupta et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb). The experimental research on the influence of various nanomaterials with varied concentrations on performance, in-cylinder combustion related indicators, and post combustion emissions of engine run with pure diesel-WCO-biodiesel blends has been carried out in (Gad et al., 2022; Sharma et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). Research has also explored the usage of castor oil-biodiesel (Lamore et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e), the incorporation of CeO₂ additives in (Tamrat et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR30\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e), WCO with TiO₂ in (Koca et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR11\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e; Kumar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), the effect of TiO₂ on ternary blends comprising n-heptane and mahua biodiesel in (Muniyappan \\u0026amp; Krishnaiah, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003eb), oxygenated additives in (Padmanabhan et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e), zinc oxide in (Rajak et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR23\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e), and hybrid materials (Al₂O₃ and MWCNT) in (Sathish et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) for the CI engine analysis. The synthesis of nanomaterials without seeds, catalysts, or toxic or costly surfactants thus becomes potential. As a result, recent research has focused on developing various synthetic methods for producing nanomaterials (Ağbulut et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e; Bokov et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e; Khujamberdiev \\u0026amp; Cho, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003eb; Premkumar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e; Rao et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). The various synthesis methods, namely sol-gel, hydrothermal, precipitation, and green synthesis, have been thoroughly explained in (Khujamberdiev \\u0026amp; Cho, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003eb). The study emphasizes the synthesis of nanomaterials (SiO₂, TiO₂, and ZrO₂) through the sol-gel approach, as explained in (Bokov et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e). The modified Hummers method has been used for the synthesis of graphene oxide (GO), as mentioned in (Ağbulut et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e), and the co-precipitation as well as sol-gel methods illustrated in (Rao et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) are applied for synthesizing magnetite nanoparticles. Furthermore, the synthesis of the SnO₂@rGO nanocomposite, obtained by dispersing SnO₂ nanoparticles onto monolayer-dispersed reduced graphene oxide, is highlighted in (Premkumar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). Among different ways to make nanomaterials synthesis techniques, the hydrothermal method stands out as the most suitable for biodiesel applications due to its ability to produce highly crystalline, uniformly sized, and thermally stable nanocatalysts. Additionally, this method operates under environmentally friendly conditions, requiring minimal chemical additives, making it a sustainable and efficient choice for large-scale biodiesel production (Khujamberdiev \\u0026amp; Cho, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003eb). However, to the extent of the current literature survey, there has been limited research on the large-scale, low-cost synthesis of nanomaterials with high-quality crystals. The un-investigated factors in literature on engine performance and emissions while adding low-cost, high-quality crystal nanomaterials to WCO biodiesel fuel needs to be examined experimentally. The present work aims to develop such nanomaterials as lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) and to carry out the experimental examination on the effect of La₂O₃ with different concentrations mixed in WCO-derived biodiesel\\u0026ndash;diesel mixtures on the performance indicators, and exhaust-emission characteristics of a diesel engine or CI engine. A one-cylinder, 4-stroke CI engine connected with an emission analyzer has been used for the experimental assessment of the performance, and emission characteristics from the exhaust. Further, the observations suggest that the hydrothermally synthesized La₂O₃ becomes an advantageous additive for WCO biodiesel in enhancing or improvising performance and minimizing the emissions of CI engine, thereby supporting cleaner and improved diesel engine output.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2. Materials, Methods, and Charecterization\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Biodiesel conversion via the transesterification reaction\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe collected waste cooking oil has been preheated to a temperature (60\\u0026ndash;65\\u0026deg;C) to remove the moisture and make it ready for reactivity. A methoxide solution, formed by dissolving sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in methanol, is then gradually introduced into the heated oil under constant stirring to initiate the transesterification process. After which the mixture has been kept in a separating funnel for 12\\u0026ndash;24 hours (settlement), resulting in phase separation into two layers: an upper biodiesel layer and a lower layer of crude glycerol. Then the biodiesel fraction, carefully extracted and subjected to three time washing with mildly heated distilled water to remove residual catalysts and unreacted methanol. The final product has been dried at approximately 100\\u0026deg;C to eliminate any remaining moisture, producing clean WCO-derived biodiesel suitable for diesel engine applications. The detailed process steps are given in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Synthesis procedure for the lanthanum oxide and its characterization.\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA wide range of nanomaterials\\u0026mdash;such as metal oxides (Gad et al., 2022; Khujamberdiev \\u0026amp; Cho, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003eb; Sharma et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e; Tamrat et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR30\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e), carbon nanotubes (Ağbulut et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e; Bokov et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e), and composite nanomaterials (Khujamberdiev \\u0026amp; Cho, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003eb)-have been synthesized using various methods (Bokov et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e). The synthesis of lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) has been carried out, as it offers the best combination of stability, emission reduction, and engine protection and, further, ensures complete combustion and higher fuel efficiency (Prabhakar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003ec; Prasad et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR21\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb; Venkatesan et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR31\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003ea). It is a white, odorless rare earth oxide that is water-insoluble but reacts with dilute acids (Venkatesan et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR31\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003ea). This is synthesized via the hydrothermal route because it is the most and thermally stable nanocatalysts (Khujamberdiev \\u0026amp; Cho, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003eb). In this method, the solution containing a lanthanum precursor (lanthanum nitrate) is dispersed with sodium hydroxide to start the precipitation. The prepared solution is subsequently placed in a Teflon-lined autoclave and exposed to hydrothermal treatment under elevated temperature conditions (commonly between 150\\u0026ndash;200\\u0026deg;C) for a few hours. In the meantime, pressure and temperatures are controlled inside the autoclave, which gives the nucleation and growth of lanthanum oxide nanostructures. After the reaction, the formed precipitate is collected, washed again and again with mineral free water and ethanol to avoid residues, and subsequently dried and calcined to obtain phase-pure La₂O₃ nanoparticles. This synthesis route ensures the formation of thermally stable and morphologically uniform nanomaterials, making them suitable for catalytic and energy-related applications. Further, the detailed process steps (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e), and specifications (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e) are highlighted.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e2.3 Ultrasonic-Homogenization of WCO biodiesel dispersed with\\u003c/em\\u003e La\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e \\u003cem\\u003enanoparticles.\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTo maintain uniform distribution of La₂O₃ nanoparticles in WCO biodiesel, various techniques have been highlighted in (Yusof et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR32\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e). The ultrasonication technique (which uses ultrasonicator and magnetic stirrer) is found to be most effective by breaking apart agglomerates and facilitating homogeneous and stable nanoparticle distribution (Ruan \\u0026amp; Jacobi, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR27\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003eb). Further, a comparative analysis of fuel properties between diesel (B0) and WCO biodiesel blend (B20) enhanced with La₂O₃ nanomaterial is given in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e. Further, the images of the EDX analysis and SEM analysis are depicted in Figs.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e, and \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e. The above Figures shows that the material has an amorphous nature, and also La₂O₃ materials have spherical atoms in shape and size ranging from 30 to 60 nm, the Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e gives the technical specifications of the La₂O₃.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTechnical specifications of \\u003cb\\u003elanthanum oxide\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eS. No.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSpecification\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eValue/Quantity\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMolecular Formula\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLa\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMolecular Weight\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e19.13\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAverage Particle Size\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e30\\u0026ndash;50\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eDensity\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e6.51\\u0026nbsp;g/cm\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e5.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMelting point temperature\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2315\\u0026nbsp;degree C\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e6.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBoiling point temperature\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4200\\u0026nbsp;\\u0026nbsp;degree C\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eComparative analysis of fuel properties between Diesel (B00) and WCO-Biodiesel blend (B20) enhanced with La₂O\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSl. No.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eProperty\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eDiesel (B00)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWCO-biodiesel blend (B20)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLa\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e (30 ppm)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLa\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e (40 ppm)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eDensity (kg/m\\u003csup\\u003e3\\u003c/sup\\u003e)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e832\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e828\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e847.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eViscosity (cSt)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.27\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.00\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCalorific value (kJ/kg)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e44000\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e41305\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e42060\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFlash point temperature (\\u0026deg;C)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e69\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e93.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e88\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e5.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFire point temperature (\\u0026deg;C)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e53.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e99\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e103\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. Experimental Set Up\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe experimental studies carried out on a one-cylinder, 4-stroke, Kirloskar diesel or CI engine. The engine is linked to a rope drum dynamometer, is affixed to a mounting frame, and is linked to the engine. It had a bore/stroke of 80 mm/110 mm, held at a rotational speed of 1500 rpm (constant) and producing an output of 3.7 kW of power. It featured a compression ratio (CR) of 16.5. The test set is subjected to different loads varied from 2.5 kg to 10 kg with increments of 2.5 kg via the help of a dynamometer. Diesel serves as pilot fuel, and then WCO blend (B20) mixed with La₂O₃ at 30 ppm and 40 ppm are used as the main fuel. All of the data collected related to engine's performance, and exhaust emission characteristics are recorded using the set up shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e, and analyzed for each blend.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eImportant engine and emission analyser specifications.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eParticulars\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSpecifications\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c2\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEngine specifications\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eType of engine\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4 Stroke, fueled with diesel, Eddy current dynamometer\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCooling, CR\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWater cooling, 12\\u0026ndash;18\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eRange of speed\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1200\\u0026ndash;1800,rpm\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePower\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3.5 KW @ 1500, rpm,\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBore to Stroke ratio\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.79\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c2\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEmission analyzer specifications\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHC\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0-20000, ppm-Vol.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCO\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0\\u0026ndash;15, percentage (% )-Vol.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNOx\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0-5000, ppm-Vol.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe experimental configuration of the engine-setup and emission analyzer are given in Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e. The performance indicators that are analyzed include engine thermal efficiency or brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake specific fuel-consumption (BSFC) or specific fuel-consumption (SFC),\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab4\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 4\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eUncertainty assessment of experimental parameters\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eParamters\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSensitivity/(Resolution)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHC measurement range\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1 ppm\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCO measurement range\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.001% by Volume\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNOx measurement range\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1 ppm byVolume\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e resolution\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.01% by Volume\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e resolution\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.1% by Voume\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eLoad measurement precision\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.2 bar\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCranksahft rotation angle sensor accuracy\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1 degree\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eand mechanical efficiency (Mech. Eff.). Further, the emissions investigated are hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO\\u003csub\\u003ex\\u003c/sub\\u003e), and smoke opacity (SO). The experimental values of parameters are collected on all the operating points of the engine given in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.1 Uncertainity analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAn uncertainty analysis has been conducted to minimize and account for possible errors associated with the measuring instruments used during the experimental process. The degree of error and uncertainty in these instruments is influenced by factors such as operational conditions, environmental variations, and the inherent accuracy and precision of the instruments themselves (Ağbulut et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2021\\u003c/span\\u003e; Mohammed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb). To make sure the experimental data are accurate, each test performed more than once, and the average (mean) values of the parameters have been used for further review and analysis. In Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e, one can see a summary of the uncertainties that come with the observed parameters.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4. Experimental Examination of CI Engine Parameters\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eAn experimental study has been conducted to examine the performance characteristics and exhaust-emissions emitted from a CI engine operating under varying load conditions ranging from 2.5 kg to 10 kg, in increments of 2.5 kg. The tests have been performed using waste cooking oil (WCO)-based B20 biodiesel blends, into which lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) nanoparticles at concentrations of 30 ppm and 40 ppm have been incorporated, with conventional diesel used as the baseline fuel.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003e4.1 Variation of BTE with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eIn the context of the engine, the term BTE refers to the effectiveness of transforming the chemical energy obtainable in the fuel into shaft output power. The variation of BTE in relation to loads for pure diesel, WCO biodiesel (B20), and B20 mixture with lanthanum oxide nanoparticles at 30 ppm, and 40 ppm dosages is illustrated in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e. An increase in BTE has been noted as the load increases (rises), and rise in temperature as well as pressure is seen, which promotes more complete combustion, while the greater amount of fuel injected enables more efficient energy extraction (Li et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb; Prabu, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e). The lanthanum oxide addition in WCO-B20 biodiesel regards to 30 ppm, and 40 ppm concentrations gives an betterment in BTE (Gad et al., 2022; Kumar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) by enhancing combustion through better atomization, improved air\\u0026ndash;fuel mixing, and catalytic activity(Prabhakar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003ec).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003ch3\\u003e4.2 Variation of SFC with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel\\u003c/h3\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSFC denotes the fuel consumed per unit of power output during a defined time interval. A discussion of the SFC as related to load is presented in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig8\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e. This includes pure diesel, WCO biodiesel (B20), and lanthanum oxide blends with dosages of 30 ppm, and 40 ppm. SFC declines progressively with higher engine loads, primarily because the improved effectiveness in fuel energy use at higher loads and also promotes more complete combustion (Mohammed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb; Prabu, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e;). The SFC is lower for the WCO biodiesel (B20) dispersed lanthanum oxide for 30 ppm and 40 ppm when it is compared to pure diesel because it promotes faster oxidation; improved fuel mixing leads to complete combustion and reduced fuel-consumption (Kumar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e; Prabhakar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003ec).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.3. Variation of mechanical efficiency with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe term mechanical efficiency (Mech. Eff.) is a ratio of the indicated power (IP) to brake power (BP). The Mech. Eff. variation in relation to load for pure or neat diesel, WCO-biodiesel, and WCO-biodiesel (B20) blends mixed with lanthanum oxide of 30 ppm, 40 ppm is given in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig9\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e9\\u003c/span\\u003e. It shows improvement with higher load conditions, due to the rise in brake power outpacing frictional losses, resulting in better energy transfer from cylinder to output shaft. By adding lanthanum oxide nanoparticles to WCO-B20 biodiesel at 30 ppm and 40 ppm improves mechanical efficiency due to enhanced combustion and reduced relative frictional losses also due to enhancement in spray quality in the blends over the neat or pure diesel (Kumar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e; Prabu, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2017\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.4. Variation of HC with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTo illustrate the variations of hydrocarbons (HC) with regard to loads, Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig10\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e depicts the HC of pure diesel, WCO-biodiesel (B20), and B20 biodiesel blends infused with lanthanum oxide nanoparticles at 30 ppm, and 40 ppm dosages. It is noticed from Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig10\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e that, with the increase in load, HC emissions are increased because the insufficient air supply, rich air-fuel mixture, and shorter combustion duration lead to incomplete combustion, produces HC from, (Kumar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e; Mohammed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb). By adding lanthanum oxide to WCO biodiesel (B20) reduces HC by promoting complete combustion through enhanced fuel atomization, oxygen buffering, and catalytic oxidation of unburned fuel (Li et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb; Prabhakar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003ec)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec13\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.5. Variation of CO with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFigure \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig11\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e11\\u003c/span\\u003e depicts, how the carbon monoxide emissions change with load for pure or neat diesel, WCO-biodiesel (B20), and lanthanum oxide mixes with 30 ppm and 40 ppm doses. At higher loads, the increased trend in CO can be exhibited for all the mixtures; this is primarily due to, rise in the fuel consumption, emission levels also increase (Lamore et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e; Rashid, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). A decrease in carbon monoxide has been observed for lanthanum oxide nanoparticles added in B20 WCO biodiesel when it is evaluated relative to pure diesel. Through improved combustion completeness and active oxygen release, increasing the dosage of lanthanum oxide nanoparticles in WCO B20 biodiesel lowers CO emissions (Lamore et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec14\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.6 Variation of NOx with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFigure \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig12\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e12\\u003c/span\\u003e illustrates the variation of NO\\u003csub\\u003ex\\u003c/sub\\u003e with respect to engine load for pure diesel, WCO biodiesel (B20), and B20 blended with 30 ppm, and 40 ppm lanthanum oxide. A rise in NOx emissions has been found with increased load, this is because of the increased combustion temperatures, the increased presence of oxygen, and the increased reaction rates. (Koca et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR11\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e; Li et al., 2025; Mohammed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb). Compared to pure diesel, the inclusion of lanthanum oxide to WCO biodiesel enhances ignition quality, resulting in an increased rate of heat-release and increased exhaust gas temperatures, which collectively contribute to higher NO\\u003csub\\u003ex\\u003c/sub\\u003e formation (Li et al., 2022; Prabhakar et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003ec; Prasad et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR21\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003eb).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec15\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003e4.7 Variation of smoke opacity with regard to lanthanum oxide dispersed WCO biodiesel\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe smoke opacity varies with engine\\u0026rsquo;s load in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig13\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e13\\u003c/span\\u003e for pure diesel, WCO B20 biodiesel, and its blends with 30 ppm and 40 ppm lanthanum oxide nanoparticles. The load-dependent increase in smoke opacity is presented in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig13\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e13\\u003c/span\\u003e. This reason can be due to the consumption of fuel improvement, and the richer air-fuel mixture appeared (Kulkarni \\u0026amp; Dalai, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003ed; Lamore et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). However, the addition of lanthanum oxide works for to reduce smoke opacity, which is noted leading to their significant improvement SV ratio and enhanced ignition properties, which promote more thorough combustion (Kulkarni \\u0026amp; Dalai, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003ed; Lamore et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.8 Comparative study\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTables\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e present a comparison of different concentrations of lanthanum oxide effects on the CI engine\\u0026rsquo;s parameters (performance and emissions) running at low-load/high-load conditions, respectively. The results shown in Tables\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e, and \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e shows that adding lanthanum oxide nanomaterials to 20% WCO biodiesel at doses of 30 ppm and 40 ppm made the engine run better and give off less pollution compared to diesel. It is feasible to get the concluding remark that the incorporation of nanomaterials into the CI engine at larger dosages results in an improvement in both its performance and its emissions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab5\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 5\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eComparison of La\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e at different doses on the CI engine\\u0026rsquo;s parameters (performance and emissions)under low load.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" colnum=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eS. No.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMixture\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePerformance parameters\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEmission parameters\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBTE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSFC\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMechanical Efficiency\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHC\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCO\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNO\\u003csub\\u003ex\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSmoke Opacity\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eB0\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e11\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.72\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e15.54\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e40\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.023\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e151\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eB20\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e10.62\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.74\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e16.11\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e38\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.021\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e157\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eB20L30\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e11.08\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.49\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e16\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e48\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.028\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e218\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eB20L40\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e11.09\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.48\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e18\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e47\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.028\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e220\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab6\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 6\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eComparison of La\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003eO\\u003csub\\u003e3\\u003c/sub\\u003e at different doses on the CI engine\\u0026rsquo;s parameters (performance and emissions) under high load.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" colnum=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eS. No.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMixture\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePerformance parameters\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"4\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEmission parameters\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBTE\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSFC\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMechanical Efficiency\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHC\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCO\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNO\\u003csub\\u003ex\\u003c/sub\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSmoke Opacity\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eB0\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e24.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.38\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e41.95\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e70\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.04\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e440\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e5.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eB20\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e23.79\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.35\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e42.92\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e68\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.038\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e466\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eB20L30\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e25.95\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.22\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e45.25\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e67\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.0395\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e720\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eB20L40\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e26.02\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.21\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e47\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e66\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.0389\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e689\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e4.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"5. Concluding Remarks\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eIn this experimental comparative study and examination, the performance characteristics, and emissions from the exhaust of a CI engine fuelled with diesel and a B20 blend of waste cooking oil (WCO)-biodiesel doped with lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) nanoparticles at 30 ppm and 40 ppm concentrations were experimentally investigated. The La₂O₃ synthesized nanoparticles, through the green method, i.e., hydrothermal, showed suitability with the fuel and can be used in the engine without any modifications to it. The addition of La₂O₃ improves the performance characteristics, such as brake thermal efficiency (BTE), increasing from 23.79% (diesel) to 25.95% and 26.02% for 30 ppm, and 40 ppm dosages, respectively. Simultaneously, specific fuel consumption (SFC) decreased from 0.35 kg/kWh (diesel) to 0.22 kg/kWh and 0.21 kg/kWh. Further, the experimental examination of exhaust emissions indicates a reduction in hydrocarbon (HC) emissions from 68 ppm (diesel) to 67 ppm and 66 ppm. Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions reduced from 0.04% (diesel) to 0.0395% and 0.395%, while smoke opacity declined from 4.5\\u0026ndash;4.4% and 4.3% for 30 ppm, and 40 ppm, respectively. But the nitrogen oxide (NOₓ) emissions are increased from 440 ppm (diesel) to 720 ppm and 689 ppm for the 30 ppm and 40 ppm dosages of La₂O₃, respectively. The 40 ppm of La₂O₃ demonstrated that the optimal dosage and its proof that it is a potential additive nanomaterial for improving a diesel engine\\u0026rsquo;s performance and minimizing its exhaust emissions indicate its potential as a viable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional diesel fuel.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eDisclosure\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThere is no conflict of interest\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1. and 2. Made substantial contributions to the conception; design of the work; the acquisition, analysis, interpretation of data; 1. drafted the work or revised it critically for important intellectual content;approved the version to be published; and2. agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAcknowledgments\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe study received financial support from the Vision Group on Science and Technology (VGST), Bengaluru, KARNATAKA, India, under the RGS/F category. (Grant No. 980).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eData availability statement\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThere is no data availability statement in this manuscript\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eAbed, K.A., Gad Morsi, A.E., Sayed, M.M., Elyazeed, S.A.: Effect of biodiesel fuels on diesel engine emissions. Egypt. J. Petroleum. \\u003cb\\u003e28\\u003c/b\\u003e(2), 183\\u0026ndash;188 (2019). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.03.001\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.03.001\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eAgarwal, A.K., Gupta, J.G., Dhar, A.: Potential and challenges for large-scale application of biodiesel in automotive sector. Prog. Energy Combust. 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ACS Omega. \\u003cb\\u003e8\\u003c/b\\u003e(40), 36686\\u0026ndash;36699 (2023). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c02742\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1021/acsomega.3c02742\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eYusof, S.N.A., Sidik, N.A.C., Asako, Y., Japar, W.M.A.A., Mohamed, S.B., Muhammad, N.M.: A comprehensive review of the influences of nanoparticles as a fuel additive in an internal combustion engine (ICE). Nanatechnol. Reviews. \\u003cb\\u003e9\\u003c/b\\u003e(1), 1326\\u0026ndash;1349 (2020). \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2020-0104\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1515/ntrev-2020-0104\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":true,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"diesel engine performance, exhaust emissions, green hydrothermal synthesis, lanthanum oxide, waste cooking oil\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7499010/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7499010/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe search for sustainable and efficient biofuels has led to the exploration of nanomaterial additives to enhance performance and reduce exhaust emissions. The present work aims at the synthesis of lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃) nanoparticles using the green hydrothermal route and their effects on the performance and emissions from the exhaust of a diesel engine powered with a 20% waste cooking oil (WCO) biodiesel blend (B20). A comparative analysis has been conducted to determine the optimal concentration, La₂O₃ (30 ppm and 40 ppm). Engine performance tests suggested that the incorporation of lanthanum oxide into waste cooking oil-biodiesel significantly enhanced brake thermal efficiency (BTE) from 23.79% for diesel to 25.95% and 26.02%, and the specific fuel consumption (SFC) decreased from 0.35 kg/kWh (diesel) to 0.22 kg/kWh and 0.21 kg/kWh for 30 ppm and 40 ppm, respectively. Further, the experimental examination of exhaust emissions indicates a reduction in hydrocarbon (HC) emissions from 68 ppm (diesel) to 67 ppm and 66 ppm. Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions reduced from 0.04% (diesel) to 0.0395% and 0.395%, while smoke opacity declined from 4.5\\u0026ndash;4.4% and 4.3% for 30 ppm and 40 ppm, respectively. But the nitrogen oxide (NOₓ) emissions are increased from 440 ppm (diesel) to 720 ppm and 689 ppm for the 30 ppm and 40 ppm dosages of La₂O₃, respectively. These findings from the present work suggest that synthesized (hydrothermally) La₂O₃ of 40 ppm dosage is a potential additive nanomaterial for improving a diesel engine\\u0026rsquo;s performance and minimizing its exhaust emissions of diesel engine.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Green Synthesis of Lanthanum Oxide and Its Utilization in Modified Biodiesel for Optimal Performance and Exhaust Emissions of a Diesel Engine\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-09-11 17:55:24\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7499010/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"researchsquare\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":true,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"\",\"snPcode\":\"\",\"submissionUrl\":\"/submission\",\"title\":\"Research Square\",\"twitterHandle\":\"researchsquare\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":false,\"editorialSystem\":\"\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"\",\"inReviewEnabled\":false,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"2bec9540-ff57-475e-add6-51426aca7596\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"September 11th, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"posted\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2025-11-29T16:23:14+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-09-11 17:55:24\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-7499010\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-7499010\",\"identity\":\"rs-7499010\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}