{"paper_id":"06df45f7-5fff-4ae4-ac60-b949f2ced126","body_text":"Biomimetically-engineered FRP composites: integration of nanostructured resin matrix with hybrid fiber networks towards ultrahigh chemical stability and mechanical strengthening | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Biomimetically-engineered FRP composites: integration of nanostructured resin matrix with hybrid fiber networks towards ultrahigh chemical stability and mechanical strengthening Zuquan Jin, Hong Wang, Bo Pang, Shicai Li, Mingfei Xu, Ao Shen This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7344654/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The widespread application of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites in aggressive marine concrete environments was hindered by the bottleneck of low interlayer shear strength and poor alkali corrosion resistance. In this work, a dual biomimetic strategy, inspired by the superhydrophobic architecture of lotus leaves and the gradient vascular bundles of bamboo, is proposed to engineer hybrid FRP composites with synergistic nanointerfaces and macro-scale fiber networks. This design integrates tetraethyl orthosilicate-polymethylhydrosiloxane (TEOS-PMHS)-modified graphite/carbon nanotubes as hydrophobic nanofillers into the epoxy matrix, alongside a bamboo-mimetic gradient arrangement of carbon/glass fibers. The resulting biomimetically-engineered FRP (BE-FRP) bars achieve an unprecedented interlaminar shear strength of 75.4 MPa and retain 80.5% of their strength after 120 days in seawater sea-sand concrete (SWSC) solution at 60°C - representing a 280% increase in shear strength and 160% higher retention ratio than conventional GFRP bars. Such enhancements stem from multi-scale interfacial synergies: nano-scale hydrophobic barriers inhibit corrosive ion ingress and reinforcing the cohesive strength between the epoxy resins and fibers, while the gradient fiber network suppresses crack propagation through mechanical interlocking and stress redistribution. This biomimetic hybridization strategy provides a universal paradigm for designing next-generation composites that simultaneously transcend multiple property trade-offs in extreme environment. Hybrid composites Multi-scale interfaces Bio-inspired materials Marine concrete Synergistic reinforcement Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1 Introduction Over the past decade, the construction of large-scale marine infrastructure has rapidly developed, and the demand for engineering materials with unprecedented durability and mechanical properties has escalated [ 1 – 7 ]. Reinforced concrete remains the most widely used material in ocean engineering because of its good mechanical synergy, low cost, and excellent environmental adaptability. The annual global consumption of steel bars exceeds 400 million tons [ 8 – 10 ]. However, marine environments rich in chloride ions accelerate the corrosion of steel bars in concrete, resulting in frequent maintenance of traditional reinforced concrete structures and heavy losses to the national economy [ 11 – 14 ]. Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars, as nonmetallic composite materials, offer a corrosion-resistant alternative to traditional steel reinforcements, particularly in concrete structures exposed to chloride salts in marine and coastal environments [ 15 , 16 ]. Nevertheless, owing to the poor alkali resistance and hydrophobicity of epoxy resin (N-ER) in FRP bars and the anisotropy of fibers, the characteristics of easy corrosion and low interlayer shear strength (20–50 MPa) in highly alkaline pore solutions restrict its large-scale application [ 17 , 18 ]. Therefore, to achieve breakthroughs in FRP bars with ultrahigh chemical stability and improved shear strength, the development of efficient design and fabrication methods remains challenging. Hybrid FRP composites (HFRP) prepared by adding partial carbon fibers to glass fibers have been proven to be an effective strategy for enhancing the tensile strength and durability of FRP bars [ 19 – 25 ]. Pan et al. confirmed that incorporating partial carbon fibers can improve the interlaminar shear strength of HFRP and delay the diffusion time of water and OH − in HFRP bars [ 26 ]. Guo et al. found that although HFRP bars have more excellent mechanical properties, the interface region of GFRP/CFRP is usually a weak area, leading to the premature failure of HFRP bars in concrete pore solution [ 27 ]. They have verified the effectiveness of improving mechanical properties by constructing the structure of HFRP bars. However, despite the satisfactory mechanical properties and durability achieved in HFRP bars, there are still several key challenges: (i) The high-temperature and alkaline concrete pore solution environment will accelerate the erosion rate of corrosive ions on the surfaces of the resin and fiber matrix, eventually forming crystals that exert pressure on the pore walls, leading to extensive degradation of the resin matrix and fiber etching [ 28 ]. (ii) Although FRP bars containing hybrid fibers can improve tensile strength and durability, they cannot significantly enhance the synergistic effect between fibers, resulting in little improvement in shear strength. (iii) To meet the requirements for high-performance FRP composites in future practical applications, it is essential to explore the optimization of the interface structure of FRP composites. Enhancing the mechanical and durability properties of epoxy resin by incorporating nano-fillers such as expanded graphite (EG) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), improving the interfacial bonding ability between epoxy resin and fibers, and strengthening the synergistic effect among hybrid fibers are crucial for achieving FRP bars with excellent chemical stability and shear strength [ 29 – 31 ]. To achieve bionic cross-scale design of hybrid fibers, this study developed biomimetically-engineered FRP (BE-FRP) inspired by the structural properties of lotus leaves and bamboo. Based on the hydrophobic nature of lotus leaves, tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS)- polymethylhydrosiloxane (PMHS)-modified EG and CNTs were incorporated into the epoxy resin to improve bonding capacity with the fiber, forming a micropapillary structure akin to lotus leaves. Glycidyl ether oxo propyl dimethyl polyphenylsiloxane (PE) was added to mimic the hydrophobic biological wax of lotus leaves. Additionally, the outer dense and inner porous structure of bamboo, significantly enhances the shear resistance and effectively withstands harsh weather conditions, such as strong winds. Therefore, dense carbon fibers were used in the FRP bars to wrap the internal loose glass fibers, supplemented with modified epoxy resin (M-ER) augmenting multi-scale interfacial synergies to enhance shear resistance. The durability and mechanical properties of the FRP bars were improved through a collaborative approach involving multiple structural elements. As mentioned above, the FRP bars designed by the double bionic strategy emphasize that the FRP bars possess both ultrahigh chemical stability and mechanical strength. Therefore, this study investigated the interlaminar shear strength and durability of FRP bars to evaluate the degree of improvement imparted by the double bionic strategy. The mechanism by which the bionic cross - scale design of hybrid fibers improves the performance of FRP bars was discussed in terms of the resin modification, fiber hybridization, and resin - fiber interface enhancement. The as-developed BE-FRP bars exhibit impressive interlaminar shear strength and durability, far exceeding those of some currently produced FRP bars. This enhancement makes FRP bars more compatible with marine concrete structures, potentially significantly extending their service life. 2 Experimental 2.1 Materials Glass fiber: The glass fiber is 2400 tex untwisted roving, purchased from Taishan Glass Fiber Co., Ltd. The main elements and specific performance parameters are shown in Fig. S1 and Table S1 . Carbon fiber: The specification of the carbon fiber is 12K, and its single - filament diameter is 6 µm. The specific performance parameters and main elements are shown in Fig. S2 and Table S2. The resin matrix is bisphenol A epoxy resin, with the grade of E51, and the performance indicators are shown in Table S3. PE is produced by Jiaxing United Chemical Co., Ltd. Its relative molecular mass is approximately 5000, and the epoxy value is 0.15 mol/100g. Methyltetrahydrophthalic anhydride is employed as the high-temperature curing agent to cross-link with the epoxy resin, forming a three-dimensional network upon curing. A small quantity of DMP30 may be added during the curing process to expedite the reaction rate. 2.2 Structure design and composite preparation To enhance the pronounced hybrid effects and lower the cost of hybrid fibers in gradient distribution hybrid fiber composites, the ideal ratio of carbon fibers to glass fibers is established by considering the performance parameters of both fiber types and utilizing formula. $$\\:\\frac{{\\text{V}}_{\\text{f}}}{{\\text{V}}_{\\text{G}}}\\text{=1+}\\frac{{\\text{E}}_{\\text{g}}}{{\\text{E}}_{\\text{c}}}\\text{(}\\frac{{\\text{ε}}_{\\text{gfu}}}{{\\text{ε}}_{\\text{cfu}}}\\text{-1)}$$ Where: V f = V c + V G , and it satisfies: V f + V m = 1; V f is the total volume fraction of fibers; V m represents the volume ratio of the resin matrix. The analysis indicates a notable hybrid effect in FRP bars with carbon fiber content ≤ 15% and glass fiber content ≥ 85%. To replicate the gradient distribution pattern observed in bamboo, where carbon fibers encapsulate glass fibers in a \"dense outside and sparse inside\" arrangement, a composition of 15% carbon fibers and 85% glass fibers is recommended. FRP bars were fabricated using different blending methods and resin types, such as GFRP, H1FRP, H2FRP, H3FRP, and H4FRP (DE-FRP). The specific arrangement and types of fibers for each FRP bar variant are detailed in Table S4, while the fabrication process for DE-FRP bars is illustrated in Fig. S3. Following the blending of epoxy resin and curing agent, the mixture is fed into an impregnation device, where designated fibers are positioned on a yarn frame. These fibers are then guided through a preform mold, and the resulting preformed FRP bars undergo a sequence of treatments, including rib winding, high-temperature curing, and low-temperature cooling. Subsequently, the FRP bars are precisely cut to predefined lengths using a specialized cutting apparatus to yield various FRP bar categories. 2.3 Sample characterization The energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis before and after modification of epoxy resin is shown in Fig. S4. The mechanical property specimens of epoxy resin and FRP bars are prepared as shown in Fig. S5. The epoxy resin is mainly subjected to contact angle tests, shear strength tests, and tensile strength tests before and after corrosion. The FRP bars are mainly subjected to tensile strength tests, shear strength tests, and compressive strength tests. It is worth noting that to facilitate the accurate characterization of the corrosion ion penetration depth by µ-XRF, it is necessary to ensure that the corrosion ions diffuse radially along the epoxy resin and FRP bars. Therefore, both ends of the specimens are sealed with silicone. In addition, the SWSC simulated pore solution and NaCl solution are prepared according to Table S5. Additional details on “Materials characterization” and “ Detailed test methods” are provided in the “Supplementary Materials” 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Design and Fabrication Strategy In contrast to prior FRP bars fabricated from epoxy resin and single-type glass fibers, as documented in previous studies [ 32 , 33 ], this work reports the development of a novel bionic-inspired composite material incorporating multiple biological structural features. This new material combines the hydrophobic characteristics of lotus leaves with the gradient structure of natural bamboo within an FRP bar. The surface of lotus leaves exhibits a unique micron-scale papillary structure, with each papilla containing nanoscale waxy crystals, creating a dual rough surface that enhances the hydrophobic properties of leaves (Fig. 1 a). Bamboo, which is known for its exceptional shear resistance, features a gradient structure and a siliconized cell wall that contribute to its bending resistance mechanism (Fig. 1 b). The alignment of the vascular cellulose fibers parallel to the bamboo stem axis effectively resists shear forces in the fiber direction (Fig. 1 c). Our approach involved modifying the epoxy resin by incorporating TEOS and PMHS to enhance the properties of the embedded CNTs and EG. In addition, PE was integrated into an epoxy resin system. This modification process achieves three key objectives: (i) creating a papilla structure akin to lotus leaves by doping EG and CNTs and forming a waxy crystal structure through PE to establish a lotus leaf-inspired hydrophobic system; (ii) linking a silicon film network to the surface of CNTs and EG via hydrolysis condensation reactions of TEOS and PMHS, thereby increasing surface roughness, reducing surface energy, minimizing interaction forces of nanomaterials, and alleviating entanglement; and (iii) forming a interpenetrating network structure between the epoxy resin network and nanofillers through TEOS modification, enhancing the crosslinking density of the system. The silicon film network on nanomaterial surfaces reacts with active groups in the epoxy resin to create a crosslinking network, facilitated by large π bonds and H bonds. Moreover, the introduction of TEOS and PMHS, which are rich in Si/O, established a siliconized cell wall system akin to that of bamboo (Fig. 1 d). Inspired by the gradient structure of bamboo, a \"dense outside and sparse inside\" architecture was engineered for FRP bars by incorporating a gradient arrangement of fiber layers. Dense carbon fibers (15% of the total fiber volume) were positioned as the outer layers enveloping the glass fibers (85% of the total fiber volume) to enhance the overall shear resistance of the FRP bars (Fig. 1 e). To evaluate the efficacy of the proposed design approach, control groups comprising FRP bars with four distinct configurations were established: N-ER combined with glass-fiber (GFRP), N-ER combined with a carbon-fiber core distribution (H1FRP), N-ER combined with a carbon-fiber outer-edge design (H2FRP), and M-ER combined with a carbon-fiber core distribution (H3FRP) (Fig. 1 f). The BE-FRP bar proposed in this study corresponds to the H4FRP group. 3.2 Characterization of the Epoxy Resins Containing Multiple Biomimetic Structural Elements Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) was conducted to verify the modification effects of the CNTs and EG on the epoxy resin. The unmodified CNTs exhibited smooth and flat tube walls without surface defects, whereas the modified CNTs had numerous particles attached to both sides of the tube walls (Fig. 2 a). The roughness of both the modified CNTs and EG increased markedly, suggesting successful grafting of the Si–O–Si network, formed by the hydrolysis and condensation of the modifier, onto their surfaces (Fig. 2 b). In-situ energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) further confirmed this finding, revealing no significant Si on the EG surface prior to modification. After modification, a substantial amount of Si was detected on the EG surface, and significant adhesion of Si/O elements to the CNTs was observed, with contents of 46.21 wt% and 23.49 wt%. These findings demonstrate the successful attachment of the silicon film network to the surfaces of EG and CNTs. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (Fig. 2 c) was employed to investigate the chemical structural changes in the epoxy resin matrix before and after modification. The FTIR spectra of the M-ER exhibited broad bands at approximately 3400 and 3200 cm -1 , corresponding to the –OH groups resulting from the hydroxylation of the CNT and EG surfaces. The peaks at 1130 and 1026 cm -1 were attributed to the stretching vibrations of the Si–O–Si groups, whereas the absorption peak of the Si–O–C group was observed near 801 cm -1 . The presence of a peak at 164 cm -1 indicates the tensile vibration of the C = C units associated with the CNTs and EG. These findings suggest successful grafting of the Si–O–Si segments into the epoxy polymer network, thereby enhancing the hydrophobic properties of the epoxy resin [ 36 ]. Figure 2 d presents the gel permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis results. N-ER exhibits a single-peak spectrum, confirming its purity and exclusive presence of the epoxy resin structure. The molecular weight of the M-ER matrix increased significantly from 500 to 12,000 MW. This increase was attributed to the incorporation of silicone segments and cross-linking of the nanomaterials with the epoxy resin via TEOS hydrolysis and condensation [ 37 ]. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and surface super-depth-of-field (SDF) topography confirmed the development of lotus leaf-like surface roughness by the epoxy resin (Fig. 2 e). SEM analysis revealed that the surface of N-ER exhibited a relatively smooth texture, whereas M-ER displayed numerous irregular lines, forming a distinctive \"papilla structure\" inherent to the epoxy resin. Linear scanning across various epoxy resin locations with the SDF of the field demonstrated significantly greater roughness in M-ER than in N-ER, providing evidence of the successful establishment of a hydrophobic system in M-ER. 3.3 Physical Properties and Durability This study systematically investigated the mechanical properties and durability of epoxy resin to assess the impact of the lotus-leaf hydrophobic design on the hydrophobicity and strength of the M-ER, in comparison with conventional epoxy resin. Figure 3 a illustrates that, in the absence of corrosion, the contact angle of the M-ER (115.8°) was approximately 10% greater than that of the N-ER (105.3°), indicating superior hydrophobicity [ 38 ]. Subsequently, changes in the contact angles of M-ER and N-ER under immersion in NaCl solution and seawater sea-sand concrete (SWSC) pore solution at 60 ℃ were monitored. The contact angle of the N-ER decreased gradually over time in the high-temperature NaCl solution, and a more pronounced decrease was observed in the high-temperature SWSC solution. This phenomenon can be attributed to the absorption of water by the hydrophilic groups in the epoxy resin, which causes swelling during the initial stages of corrosion. This, in turn, weakens the intermolecular interactions and induces internal expansion stress. The presence of polar functional groups, such as carboxyl groups, within the epoxy resin network facilitates the adsorption of corrosive ions, leading to their gradual accumulation in microcracks, pores, and surface defects, ultimately generating a driving force for damage after crystallization. Moreover, extensive chemical degradation occurs within the resin matrix during corrosion, particularly under the combined influence of water molecules, hydroxide ions, and elevated temperatures, resulting in the breakage of macromolecular chains within the epoxy resin network [ 39 ]. Notably, the average contact angles of M-ER in the NaCl solution and SWSC pore solution surpassed those of N-ER by 12% and 39%, respectively. Moreover, the macroscopic mechanical properties of M-ER and N-ER in NaCl and SWSC solution at 60 ℃ were investigated (Fig. 3 b, c). Untreated M-ER exhibited tensile strength, shear strength, and elastic modulus of 75.0, 120.0, and 7.24 MPa, respectively, representing increases of 76.7%, 60%, and 32.8%, respectively, compared to N-ER. This enhancement is attributed to the incorporation of Si–O segments, enhanced polymer chain flexibility, and facilitated molecular chain rotation after curing, enabling the introduced chain segment to dissipate energy under external loads [ 40 ]. After 60 d of corrosion in NaCl and SWSC solutions at elevated temperatures, the M-ER exhibited retention rates of 94.7%, 85.5%, and 91.0% for the tensile strength, shear strength, and elastic modulus, respectively. In contrast, N-ER showed retention rates of 86.0%, 65.1%, and 69.3%, respectively, in the same corrosion environment. The advantages of the mechanical properties of M-ER became more pronounced after prolonged high-temperature corrosion, which was attributed to its exceptional hydrophobicity. The design concept inspired by the lotus-leaf hydrophobic system significantly enhanced the durability of the epoxy resin. Vickers hardness testing was employed to evaluate the surface hardness of the epoxy resin, which was used to verify the penetration areas (Fig. 3 d). The measured microhardness of M-ER was approximately 36.5 ± 3 kgf mm -2 , significantly surpassing that of N-ER (~ 24.2 ± 3 kgf mm -2 ). The enhancement in hardness can be attributed to several factors: firstly, the high strength and rigidity of CNTs and EG facilitate the formation of a three-dimensional network structure within the epoxy resin network, thereby augmenting the rigidity and hardness of the epoxy resin matrix; secondly, surface modification of nanomaterials increases surface roughness, promoting interactions between nanomaterials that can effectively withstand external stress and prevent material deformation [ 41 ]; thirdly, the chemical crosslinking structure formed by the PE chain segment and epoxy resin matrix restricts molecular movement, thereby boosting the hardness and elastic modulus of the epoxy resin matrix [ 42 ]. Following accelerated corrosion in the high-temperature SWSC solution, the disparity between the two became more pronounced (M-ER exhibited 68.4% higher hardness than N-ER after 45 d of corrosion, and 78.3% higher hardness after 60 d of corrosion). Considering the mechanical and microscopic characteristics of the two epoxy resins (Fig. 3 e), the superior mechanical properties and durability of M-ER are evident, suggesting that its exceptional durability renders it more suitable for the SWSC pore solution environment. Attractively, to visually compare the corrosion of M-ER and N-ER in a SWSC corrosion solution, the corrosion depth of corrosion ions in epoxy resin was assessed using micro-area X-ray fluorescence (µ-XRF) (Fig. 3 f). Following exposure to the SWSC solution at 60°C for 60 d, it was observed that corrosion ions Cl − and K + were predominantly concentrated in the surface layer of M-ER, resulting in a mean erosion depth of approximately 1022 µm (10.2% of the total resin area). Conversely, in N-ER, Cl − and K + ions were detected in the interior, leading to the formation of corrosion holes (Fig. S6). The mean erosion depth in N-ER was measured at 5755 µm (57.6% of the total resin area). Based on the above findings, M-ER exhibited superior mechanical properties and durability compared to N-ER, showing heightened hydrophobicity, strength, hardness, and strength retention. The enhancement of the hydrophobic properties of the PE-doped epoxy resin (Fig. 3 g) based on the bionic lotus leaf hydrophobic principle, is attributed to the introduction of hydrophobic chain segments that weaken the molecular forces on the surface of the resin, leading to reduced surface free energy and enhanced hydrophobicity. The combined effect of the modified EG and CNTs with PE augmented the roughness of the epoxy resin, thereby bolstering its hydrophobicity. Additionally, the presence of flexible Si–O bonds in the modified PE component facilitates easy rotation of the internal macromolecular chains of the polymer, mitigating internal stress and endowing the resin matrix with robust toughness against bending stress. Moreover, the modified EG and CNTs acted as barriers to crack propagation during epoxy resin matrix fracture, promoting energy dissipation and facilitating stress transfer between the fiber and matrix, consequently elevating the overall strength. 3.4 Mechanical Properties of FRP Bars To assess the impact of M-ER on FRP bars and enhance their mechanical properties, a comprehensive investigation of BE-FRP bars is required. This study evaluated the tensile strength, interlaminar shear strength, and compressive strength of fabricated FRP bars and analyzed the failure model of FRP bars during shear processes using the acoustic emission technique. The results of the tensile strength tests (Fig. 4 a) revealed a notable enhancement in the tensile strength of the FRP tendon systems incorporating carbon and glass fibers, irrespective of the core design or outer edge distribution. This enhancement was primarily attributed to the superior tensile properties of the carbon fibers. Furthermore, the compressive strength tests demonstrated that the compressive strength of the HFRP bars matched that of the GFRP bars, thus satisfying the current standard requirements for the compressive strength of FRP bars (Fig. 4 b). An investigation of the shear strength of various FRP bars (Fig. 4 c) indicates that the interlayer shear strength of the BE-FRP bars surpasses that of the other FRP bars by significant margins, being 41.6%, 95.6%, 18.1%, and 62.3% higher than those of the GFRP, H1FRP, H2FRP, and H3FRP bars, respectively. Comparative analysis of the shear acoustic emission signals and morphology of the BE-FRP and GFRP bars (Fig. 4 d, e) revealed that during shear failure, microcracks predominantly caused failure in the BE-FRP group, with a longer duration of microcracks aligned with the observed shearing morphology. In contrast, the GFRP bars exhibited larger crack signals during shear failure, indicating sudden crack propagation. Additionally, a comparison of the tensile/shear ratio between the two FRP bars indicates that the BE-FRP bars allocate more shear force to the tensile strength and endure less shear force (4.79% lower than the GFRP bars), which is a critical factor contributing to the enhancement of the interlaminar shear strength. Based on the aforementioned test outcomes, the efficacy of the BE-FRP design approach is preliminarily validated. EDS mapping analysis was conducted on the longitudinal sections of BE-FRP and GFRP bars to further confirm that the enhancement of the shear strength of BE-FRP bars is related to the bionic cross-scale design of hybrid fibers (Fig. 4 f). Many unevenly distributed Si elements were found floating near the GFRP bars, while a significant accumulation of Si elements was observed near the BE-FRP bars, which is closely related to the modification of the resin. M-ER enhances the interfacial bonding ability between the resin and the fibers, further improving the mechanical properties of HFRP bars. The utilization of computed tomography (CT) to investigate the BE-FRP bars revealed a mere 0.01% porosity in the outer carbon fiber layer, in contrast to the 2.99% porosity in the inner glass fiber layer, which is consistent with the gradient distribution traits of bamboo (Fig. 4 g). These assessments confirmed the superior shear strength of the BE-FRP bars over alternative bar types without compromising other mechanical properties. 3.5 Durability of FRP Bars The BE-FRP bars exhibited outstanding mechanical properties. To assess the durability of FRP bars in SWSC environments, it is essential to investigate the evolution of the mechanical properties and microstructures of the FRP bars exposed to SWSC solutions. Interlaminar shear strength assessments were conducted on various FRP bars immersed in SWSC pore solution at 60°C for durations of 45, 60, 120, 180, and 240 d (Fig. 5 a). The results revealed that the BE-FRP bars exhibited the highest interlaminar shear strength retention rate, experiencing only a 20% strength reduction after 120 d of immersion, which is a substantial improvement compared to the ER-FRP bars (which decreased by 32%). This finding underscores the significant influence of M-ER on the durability of the FRP bars. Furthermore, in comparison to the GFRP bars (which decreased by 52%), the BE-FRP bars exhibited a 32% increase, indicating that the biomimetic bamboo structure not only enhanced the mechanical properties of the FRP bars but also had crucial implications for their durability. Additionally, a comparison of the strength degradation over time revealed that the GFRP bars exhibited pronounced aging after 120 d of corrosion, with fiber cracking leading to a near-complete loss of interlayer shear strength, whereas the BE-FRP bars retained nearly 75% of their interlayer shear strength even after 240 d of corrosion. The tensile strength of the specimens corroded in the SWSC solution followed a similar trend, with only the BE-FRP bars retaining over 70% of their tensile strength after 240 d of corrosion (Fig. 5 b). Acoustic emission was utilized to monitor the signal variations in the BE-FRP and GFRP bars during shear following the corrosion. The study revealed a notable increase in the b value of the GFRP bars post-corrosion compared to the pre-corrosion levels (Fig. 5 c), indicating significant internal damage within the GFRP bars. Analysis of the rise amplitude - frequency (RA-AF) signals demonstrated a transition from tensile to shear failure in the corroded GFRP bars under shear force, with the tensile ratio decreasing from 91.33–22.1%. Conversely, the b value of the corroded BE-FRP bars exhibited no significant increase (Fig. 5 d), suggesting that these bars maintained a microcrack damage mode when subjected to a post-corrosion shear force. The RA-AF signals further indicated that the corroded BE-FRP bars retained a tension-dominated failure mode under a shear force, with the tensile ratio decreasing from 99.12–69.4%. This behavior accounts for the high interlayer shear strength of the BE-FRP bars. The micro morphologies of the GFRP and BE-FRP bars after corrosion were analyzed using SEM (Fig. 5 e, f). In GFRP bars, voids are formed at the fiber/resin interface post-corrosion owing to resin matrix degradation, leading to the loss of fibers, increased damage, and fiber etching. Conversely, in the BE-FRP bars, after corrosion, the carbon fibers were tightly wrapped around the periphery, the resin matrix exhibited no noticeable degradation, and the internal glass fibers remained intact and unetched. Nano-indentation and µ-XRF techniques were employed to assess micro-scale distinctions between GFRP and BE-FRP pre- and post-corrosion. Initially, the hardness and elastic modulus of the fiber, resin, and fiber/resin interface transition zones in both GFRP and BE-FRP were evaluated (Fig. 6 a). The results indicated that the hardness and elastic modulus of the BE-FRP bar were significantly higher than those of the GFRP bar. Specifically, within the resin and interface transition zones, the hardness increased by 58.6% and 43.4%, respectively, whereas the elastic modulus increased by 2.3% and 11.4%, respectively. The exceptional mechanical properties of M-ER were attributed to the incorporated lotus leaf system and the siliconized cell wall structure. A subsequent comparison of the hardness and elastic modulus of the fiber, resin, and fiber/resin interface transition zones after 120 d of corrosion (Fig. 6 b) revealed that the BE-FRP bar demonstrated significantly higher values than the GFRP bar. The fiber hardness, interface transition zone, and resin hardness of the BE-FRP bar were higher by 82.7%, 231%, and 192%, respectively, than those of the GFRP bar, whereas the elastic moduli were 6.2%, 21.3%, and 18.5% higher, respectively. These findings suggest that the incorporation of PE and modified nanofillers enhanced the crosslinking reaction within the epoxy resin, leading to closer bonding between the molecular chains. Moreover, the modified components exhibited exceptional anti-aging properties, safeguarding the integrity of the epoxy resin molecular chains and fibers from decomposition or degradation [ 43 ]. µ-XRF analysis was conducted to assess the ion corrosion depth of GFRP and BE-FRP bar specimens following a 120 d of corrosion in a SWSC solution at 60°C. The results (Fig. 6 c) revealed that in the case of GFRP bars, the corrosion induced by Cl − , K + , and Ca 2+ ions penetrated to a depth of 8.24 mm (equivalent to 82.4% of the FRP cross-sectional area), leading to observable fiber detachment at the surface. Conversely, the corrosion of the BE-FRP bars was limited to a depth of 1.36 mm, representing only 13.6% of the cross-sectional area, which was 68.8% less extensive than that observed in the GFRP bars, underscoring the superior durability of the BE-FRP bars (Fig. S7 and S8). Remarkably, biomimetic FRP bars incorporating multiple structural elements demonstrated substantial enhancements in both interlaminar shear strength and retention. Specifically, under the SWSC solution at 60°C for 120 d, the biomimetic approach increased the interlaminar shear strength and its retention force to 75.4 MPa and 80.5%, respectively. These values were 2.8 and 1.6 times higher than those of conventional GFRP bars, and 2.4 and 1.3 times higher than those of basalt FRP (BFRP) bars. Furthermore, the performance surpassed that of previously reported FRP bars, including HFRP, resin-modified FRP (R-FRP), aramid FRP (AFRP), and carbon FRP (CFRP) bars, as illustrated in Fig. 6 d. 3.6 Graded Toughness-Durability Synergy Mechanism of BE-FRP Composites Based on the above findings, the graded toughness - durability synergy mechanism of FRP bars immersed in SWSC solution was discussed. In traditional FRP bars, the adhesion between epoxy resin and fibers primarily relies on chemical bonding, physical adsorption, and mechanical interlocking mechanisms [44,45]. However, the presence of corrosive ions, particularly hydroxyl ions, can alter the chemical structure and properties of epoxy resins. Hydroxyl ions can disrupt the macromolecular chains within the epoxy groups, leading to a reduction in the density and molecular weight of the resin in the interface region, consequently affecting the bonding performance between the epoxy resin and SiO 2 substrate (Fig. 7 a). When conventional FRP bars are subjected to shear forces, their cohesive strength may not withstand the applied stress, resulting in rapid debonding between the resin and the fibers. This debonding initiates numerous cracks in the FRP bars, ultimately compromising their ability to withstand shear loads. In alkaline environments, this deterioration process is further accelerated, contributing significantly to the decline in the shear strength observed in traditional FRP bars. In the BE-FRP bars with bionic cross-scale design based on hybrid fibers, M-ER significantly enhances the synergy between the epoxy resin and the hybrid fibers. At the molecular level, the modified CNTs and EG incorporated into the BE-FRP bars (Fig. 7 b) impede the mobility of the polymer molecular segments surrounding the nanoparticles, leading to a delay in segment relaxation. This mechanism contributed to the toughening and waterproofing properties of the material. Additionally, the inclusion of flexible segments in the PE component enabled the modified epoxy resin matrix to absorb significant amounts of energy under bending stress. Consequently, this enhanced the ductility of the epoxy resin matrix and improved its interlayer shear performance. At the nanoscale level, the modified CNTs and EG promoted mechanical interlocking between the epoxy resins, thereby reinforcing the cohesive strength between the epoxy resins and fibers, and ultimately enhancing the shear resistance. At the macroscopic level, the distribution of the fibers enables the carbon fibers at the outer edge to withstand tensile stress during bending. Simultaneously, the inner loosely arranged glass fibers dissipate energy through compressive stress, enhancing the shear resistance of the axial fibers. Additionally, mechanical interlocking among the nanofillers creates a bridging effect that decelerates crack propagation, thereby increasing the toughness of the resin matrix. 4. Conclusion This study addresses the critical limitations of interlaminar shear strength and durability in FRP bars for marine concrete structures using a multi-bionic design strategy. By integrating bionic concepts, we combined the hydrophobic structure of lotus leaves (via nanomaterial modifications with TEOS/PMHS and PE-grafted silica films) with the gradient fiber concept of bamboo. Based on the bionic cross-scale design of hybrid fibers, we enhanced the overall synergy of the epoxy resin - hybrid fiber - FRP bars. This approach achieves breakthrough enhancements in both corrosion durability and shear strength: The engineered hydrophobic epoxy matrix forms a dense barrier layer, extending diffusion paths for corrosive ions, which reduces the resin corrosion rate by 47.4% while increasing its tensile/shear toughness by 68.6%; concurrently, bionic cross-scale design of hybrid fibers maximizes fiber-resin synergy, the interlaminar shear strength of FRP bars approaches 80 MPa. Following immersion in SWSC simulated pore solution at 60°C for 120 d, the retention rate of interlaminar shear strength remains above 80%. Critically, this study elucidated the underlying chemical, morphological, and mechanical mechanisms. Thus, BE-FRP bars provide a material with dual functionality-superior shear capacity and long-term durability, for reliable deployment in marine load-bearing structures. This study establishes a new paradigm for high-performance FRP design with significant theoretical and practical implications for sustainable marine infrastructure. Declarations Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funding This study is a part of a series of projects financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52225905). Author Contribution Zuquan Jin: Conceptualization, Writing review & editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Hong Wang: Methodology, Writing-original draft, Data curation. 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17:11:39\",\"extension\":\"xml\",\"order_by\":18,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":123141,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"2ef8b508a13c492b8bd2967030c441061structuring.xml\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/298cd8f09a15bfafcf7d51a1.xml\"},{\"id\":91893297,\"identity\":\"f434aba5-ac9e-498b-abf7-3eb2fd658f22\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 17:03:39\",\"extension\":\"html\",\"order_by\":19,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"acdc-reference\",\"size\":131246,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"earlyproof.html\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/bc0b08b26a5200f011026866.html\"},{\"id\":91892939,\"identity\":\"027cc10a-598a-42c0-855e-4d7b7052ba07\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 16:55:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":505500,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe bionic design and manufacturing process of biomimetically-engineered fiber-reinforced polymer (BE-FRP). a) Hydrophobic structure inspired by the lotus leaf [34]. b) Gradient distribution structure of bamboo [35]. c) Vascular bundle structure and element distribution of bamboo. d) Schematic diagram of M-ER preparation. e) Structural composition of FRP bars, and f) control and experimental group configurations.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image1.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/da558bf9f13055f2cd2dcb41.png\"},{\"id\":91892936,\"identity\":\"e638e64c-61f8-4d90-9710-f941d472e62c\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 16:55:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":2,\"title\":\"Figure 2\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":368521,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eModification effects in M-ER. a) TEM before and after CNTsmodification. b) TEM before and after EG modification,c) FTIR, d) gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and peak-fitting, and e) super-depth-of-field (SDF) topography.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image2.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/376a61f685cf3d302a0776e9.png\"},{\"id\":91892935,\"identity\":\"7d455eb1-7562-485b-bb2c-5c8cfebf4f64\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 16:55:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":3,\"title\":\"Figure 3\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":477310,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eComparison of physical properties and durability before and after epoxy resin modification: a) contact angle, b) tensile strength and shear strength, c) elastic modulus, d) microhardness and e) radar chart. f) Characterization of the erosion depth of corrosion ions in the epoxy resin. g) Mechanism diagram of the improvement of physical properties and durability of M-ER.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image3.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/d198fbfeed06a9c330180fba.png\"},{\"id\":91892941,\"identity\":\"c58d44d5-d615-4eec-8d91-7d9d287fb55b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 16:55:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":4,\"title\":\"Figure 4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":371987,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMechanical property analysis of FRP bar samples: a) tensile stress-strain curves, b) compressive strength, and c) interlaminar shear strength. Changes in acoustic emission signals during the shearing process: d) in BE-FRP and e) GFRP bars. f) Comparison of Si element distribution in GFRP and BE-FRP bars. g) Computed tomography analysis of BE-FRP bars.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image4.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/77b8ea07f4a4bcf567a23a7f.png\"},{\"id\":91893285,\"identity\":\"41c210d6-9d3f-48cb-a827-59e5c83bc2d9\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 17:03:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":418939,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eAnalysis of the durability performance at the macro level and the micromorphology of FRP bars. Properties of FRP bars before and after corrosion: a) interlaminar shear strength and its retention rate and b) tensile strength and its retention rate. Changes in acoustic emission signals during the post-corrosion shear process: c) in DE-FRP and d) GFRP bars. Micromorphology of FRP bars after corrosion: e) GFRP and f) DE-FRP bars.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image5.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/c35f4643da22f096c8617014.png\"},{\"id\":91893830,\"identity\":\"ef7211d9-20bd-4bcb-aa6d-21035c4bed40\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 17:11:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":359110,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eMicroscopic durability of FRP bars. Microhardness analysis of GFRP and BE-FRP bars: a) before and b) BE-FRP after corrosion. c) Characterization of the penetration depth of corrosive ions in FRP bars. d) Interlaminar shear strength and shear strength retention rate of various FRP bars.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image6.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/ba642d43e5ad5783dd84a948.png\"},{\"id\":91894535,\"identity\":\"76dd2a97-d71d-4914-8a1b-257ff79d7474\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 17:27:38\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":304304,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003ea) Failure mechanism of GFRP bars under shear force. b) Mechanism of toughening in the BE-FRP bars under shear force.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"image7.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/59f83dc2bc98b44278627742.png\"},{\"id\":91964488,\"identity\":\"9d985960-a8f4-4556-a392-8f0e7d6ee5ff\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-23 08:11:55\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":3485555,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/b0134888-a786-45b2-98b6-23e1b4a102ca.pdf\"},{\"id\":91893298,\"identity\":\"6cc335c2-df2b-4d70-b954-51e4a4233d84\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-09-22 17:03:39\",\"extension\":\"docx\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"supplement\",\"size\":10807969,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"SupportingInformation.docx\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7344654/v1/888a39c019d492a4533eea5f.docx\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Biomimetically-engineered FRP composites: integration of nanostructured resin matrix with hybrid fiber networks towards ultrahigh chemical stability and mechanical strengthening\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"1 Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eOver the past decade, the construction of large-scale marine infrastructure has rapidly developed, and the demand for engineering materials with unprecedented durability and mechanical properties has escalated [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR2 CR3 CR4 CR5 CR6\\\" citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Reinforced concrete remains the most widely used material in ocean engineering because of its good mechanical synergy, low cost, and excellent environmental adaptability. The annual global consumption of steel bars exceeds 400\\u0026nbsp;million tons [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR9\\\" citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e10\\u003c/span\\u003e]. However, marine environments rich in chloride ions accelerate the corrosion of steel bars in concrete, resulting in frequent maintenance of traditional reinforced concrete structures and heavy losses to the national economy [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR12 CR13\\\" citationid=\\\"CR11\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e11\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e14\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars, as nonmetallic composite materials, offer a corrosion-resistant alternative to traditional steel reinforcements, particularly in concrete structures exposed to chloride salts in marine and coastal environments [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e15\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e16\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Nevertheless, owing to the poor alkali resistance and hydrophobicity of epoxy resin (N-ER) in FRP bars and the anisotropy of fibers, the characteristics of easy corrosion and low interlayer shear strength (20\\u0026ndash;50 MPa) in highly alkaline pore solutions restrict its large-scale application [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e17\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e18\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Therefore, to achieve breakthroughs in FRP bars with ultrahigh chemical stability and improved shear strength, the development of efficient design and fabrication methods remains challenging.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHybrid FRP composites (HFRP) prepared by adding partial carbon fibers to glass fibers have been proven to be an effective strategy for enhancing the tensile strength and durability of FRP bars [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR20 CR21 CR22 CR23 CR24\\\" citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e19\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e25\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Pan et al. confirmed that incorporating partial carbon fibers can improve the interlaminar shear strength of HFRP and delay the diffusion time of water and OH\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u003c/sup\\u003e in HFRP bars [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e26\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Guo et al. found that although HFRP bars have more excellent mechanical properties, the interface region of GFRP/CFRP is usually a weak area, leading to the premature failure of HFRP bars in concrete pore solution [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR27\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e27\\u003c/span\\u003e]. They have verified the effectiveness of improving mechanical properties by constructing the structure of HFRP bars. However, despite the satisfactory mechanical properties and durability achieved in HFRP bars, there are still several key challenges: (i) The high-temperature and alkaline concrete pore solution environment will accelerate the erosion rate of corrosive ions on the surfaces of the resin and fiber matrix, eventually forming crystals that exert pressure on the pore walls, leading to extensive degradation of the resin matrix and fiber etching [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e28\\u003c/span\\u003e]. (ii) Although FRP bars containing hybrid fibers can improve tensile strength and durability, they cannot significantly enhance the synergistic effect between fibers, resulting in little improvement in shear strength. (iii) To meet the requirements for high-performance FRP composites in future practical applications, it is essential to explore the optimization of the interface structure of FRP composites. Enhancing the mechanical and durability properties of epoxy resin by incorporating nano-fillers such as expanded graphite (EG) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), improving the interfacial bonding ability between epoxy resin and fibers, and strengthening the synergistic effect among hybrid fibers are crucial for achieving FRP bars with excellent chemical stability and shear strength [\\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\\\"CR30\\\" citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e29\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u0026ndash;\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR31\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e31\\u003c/span\\u003e]. To achieve bionic cross-scale design of hybrid fibers, this study developed biomimetically-engineered FRP (BE-FRP) inspired by the structural properties of lotus leaves and bamboo. Based on the hydrophobic nature of lotus leaves, tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS)- polymethylhydrosiloxane (PMHS)-modified EG and CNTs were incorporated into the epoxy resin to improve bonding capacity with the fiber, forming a micropapillary structure akin to lotus leaves. Glycidyl ether oxo propyl dimethyl polyphenylsiloxane (PE) was added to mimic the hydrophobic biological wax of lotus leaves. Additionally, the outer dense and inner porous structure of bamboo, significantly enhances the shear resistance and effectively withstands harsh weather conditions, such as strong winds. Therefore, dense carbon fibers were used in the FRP bars to wrap the internal loose glass fibers, supplemented with modified epoxy resin (M-ER) augmenting multi-scale interfacial synergies to enhance shear resistance. The durability and mechanical properties of the FRP bars were improved through a collaborative approach involving multiple structural elements.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAs mentioned above, the FRP bars designed by the double bionic strategy emphasize that the FRP bars possess both ultrahigh chemical stability and mechanical strength. Therefore, this study investigated the interlaminar shear strength and durability of FRP bars to evaluate the degree of improvement imparted by the double bionic strategy. The mechanism by which the bionic cross - scale design of hybrid fibers improves the performance of FRP bars was discussed in terms of the resin modification, fiber hybridization, and resin - fiber interface enhancement. The as-developed BE-FRP bars exhibit impressive interlaminar shear strength and durability, far exceeding those of some currently produced FRP bars. This enhancement makes FRP bars more compatible with marine concrete structures, potentially significantly extending their service life.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2 Experimental\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Materials\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eGlass fiber: The glass fiber is 2400 tex untwisted roving, purchased from Taishan Glass Fiber Co., Ltd. The main elements and specific performance parameters are shown in Fig. \\u003cspan refid=\\\"MOESM1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003eS1\\u003c/span\\u003e and Table \\u003cspan refid=\\\"MOESM1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003eS1\\u003c/span\\u003e. Carbon fiber: The specification of the carbon fiber is 12K, and its single - filament diameter is 6 \\u0026micro;m. The specific performance parameters and main elements are shown in Fig. S2 and Table S2. The resin matrix is bisphenol A epoxy resin, with the grade of E51, and the performance indicators are shown in Table S3. PE is produced by Jiaxing United Chemical Co., Ltd. Its relative molecular mass is approximately 5000, and the epoxy value is 0.15 mol/100g. Methyltetrahydrophthalic anhydride is employed as the high-temperature curing agent to cross-link with the epoxy resin, forming a three-dimensional network upon curing. A small quantity of DMP30 may be added during the curing process to expedite the reaction rate.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Structure design and composite preparation\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTo enhance the pronounced hybrid effects and lower the cost of hybrid fibers in gradient distribution hybrid fiber composites, the ideal ratio of carbon fibers to glass fibers is established by considering the performance parameters of both fiber types and utilizing formula.\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Equa\\\" class=\\\"Equation\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv format=\\\"TEX\\\" class=\\\"mathdisplay\\\" id=\\\"FileID_Equa\\\" name=\\\"EquationSource\\\"\\u003e\\n$$\\\\:\\\\frac{{\\\\text{V}}_{\\\\text{f}}}{{\\\\text{V}}_{\\\\text{G}}}\\\\text{=1+}\\\\frac{{\\\\text{E}}_{\\\\text{g}}}{{\\\\text{E}}_{\\\\text{c}}}\\\\text{(}\\\\frac{{\\\\text{\\u0026epsilon;}}_{\\\\text{gfu}}}{{\\\\text{\\u0026epsilon;}}_{\\\\text{cfu}}}\\\\text{-1)}$$\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWhere: \\u003cem\\u003eV\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003ef\\u003c/sub\\u003e = \\u003cem\\u003eV\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003ec\\u003c/sub\\u003e + \\u003cem\\u003eV\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003eG\\u003c/sub\\u003e, and it satisfies: \\u003cem\\u003eV\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003ef\\u003c/sub\\u003e + \\u003cem\\u003eV\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003em\\u003c/sub\\u003e = 1;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eV\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003ef\\u003c/sub\\u003e is the total volume fraction of fibers;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cem\\u003eV\\u003c/em\\u003e\\u003csub\\u003em\\u003c/sub\\u003e represents the volume ratio of the resin matrix.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe analysis indicates a notable hybrid effect in FRP bars with carbon fiber content\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026le;\\u0026thinsp;15% and glass fiber content\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026ge;\\u0026thinsp;85%. To replicate the gradient distribution pattern observed in bamboo, where carbon fibers encapsulate glass fibers in a \\\"dense outside and sparse inside\\\" arrangement, a composition of 15% carbon fibers and 85% glass fibers is recommended.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFRP bars were fabricated using different blending methods and resin types, such as GFRP, H1FRP, H2FRP, H3FRP, and H4FRP (DE-FRP). The specific arrangement and types of fibers for each FRP bar variant are detailed in Table S4, while the fabrication process for DE-FRP bars is illustrated in Fig. S3. Following the blending of epoxy resin and curing agent, the mixture is fed into an impregnation device, where designated fibers are positioned on a yarn frame. These fibers are then guided through a preform mold, and the resulting preformed FRP bars undergo a sequence of treatments, including rib winding, high-temperature curing, and low-temperature cooling. Subsequently, the FRP bars are precisely cut to predefined lengths using a specialized cutting apparatus to yield various FRP bar categories.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.3 Sample characterization\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis before and after modification of epoxy resin is shown in Fig. S4. The mechanical property specimens of epoxy resin and FRP bars are prepared as shown in Fig. S5. The epoxy resin is mainly subjected to contact angle tests, shear strength tests, and tensile strength tests before and after corrosion. The FRP bars are mainly subjected to tensile strength tests, shear strength tests, and compressive strength tests. It is worth noting that to facilitate the accurate characterization of the corrosion ion penetration depth by \\u0026micro;-XRF, it is necessary to ensure that the corrosion ions diffuse radially along the epoxy resin and FRP bars. Therefore, both ends of the specimens are sealed with silicone. In addition, the SWSC simulated pore solution and NaCl solution are prepared according to Table S5. Additional details on \\u0026ldquo;Materials characterization\\u0026rdquo; and \\u0026ldquo; Detailed test methods\\u0026rdquo; are provided in the \\u0026ldquo;Supplementary Materials\\u0026rdquo;\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. Results and Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.1 Design and Fabrication Strategy\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn contrast to prior FRP bars fabricated from epoxy resin and single-type glass fibers, as documented in previous studies [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR32\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e32\\u003c/span\\u003e, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR33\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e33\\u003c/span\\u003e], this work reports the development of a novel bionic-inspired composite material incorporating multiple biological structural features. This new material combines the hydrophobic characteristics of lotus leaves with the gradient structure of natural bamboo within an FRP bar. The surface of lotus leaves exhibits a unique micron-scale papillary structure, with each papilla containing nanoscale waxy crystals, creating a dual rough surface that enhances the hydrophobic properties of leaves (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003ea). Bamboo, which is known for its exceptional shear resistance, features a gradient structure and a siliconized cell wall that contribute to its bending resistance mechanism (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003eb). The alignment of the vascular cellulose fibers parallel to the bamboo stem axis effectively resists shear forces in the fiber direction (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003ec).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOur approach involved modifying the epoxy resin by incorporating TEOS and PMHS to enhance the properties of the embedded CNTs and EG. In addition, PE was integrated into an epoxy resin system. This modification process achieves three key objectives: (i) creating a papilla structure akin to lotus leaves by doping EG and CNTs and forming a waxy crystal structure through PE to establish a lotus leaf-inspired hydrophobic system; (ii) linking a silicon film network to the surface of CNTs and EG via hydrolysis condensation reactions of TEOS and PMHS, thereby increasing surface roughness, reducing surface energy, minimizing interaction forces of nanomaterials, and alleviating entanglement; and (iii) forming a interpenetrating network structure between the epoxy resin network and nanofillers through TEOS modification, enhancing the crosslinking density of the system. The silicon film network on nanomaterial surfaces reacts with active groups in the epoxy resin to create a crosslinking network, facilitated by large π bonds and H bonds. Moreover, the introduction of TEOS and PMHS, which are rich in Si/O, established a siliconized cell wall system akin to that of bamboo (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003ed).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eInspired by the gradient structure of bamboo, a \\\"dense outside and sparse inside\\\" architecture was engineered for FRP bars by incorporating a gradient arrangement of fiber layers. Dense carbon fibers (15% of the total fiber volume) were positioned as the outer layers enveloping the glass fibers (85% of the total fiber volume) to enhance the overall shear resistance of the FRP bars (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003ee). To evaluate the efficacy of the proposed design approach, control groups comprising FRP bars with four distinct configurations were established: N-ER combined with glass-fiber (GFRP), N-ER combined with a carbon-fiber core distribution (H1FRP), N-ER combined with a carbon-fiber outer-edge design (H2FRP), and M-ER combined with a carbon-fiber core distribution (H3FRP) (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003ef). The BE-FRP bar proposed in this study corresponds to the H4FRP group.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.2 Characterization of the Epoxy Resins Containing Multiple Biomimetic Structural\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eElements\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTransmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) was conducted to verify the modification effects of the CNTs and EG on the epoxy resin. The unmodified CNTs exhibited smooth and flat tube walls without surface defects, whereas the modified CNTs had numerous particles attached to both sides of the tube walls (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003ea). The roughness of both the modified CNTs and EG increased markedly, suggesting successful grafting of the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si network, formed by the hydrolysis and condensation of the modifier, onto their surfaces (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003eb). In-situ energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) further confirmed this finding, revealing no significant Si on the EG surface prior to modification. After modification, a substantial amount of Si was detected on the EG surface, and significant adhesion of Si/O elements to the CNTs was observed, with contents of 46.21 wt% and 23.49 wt%. These findings demonstrate the successful attachment of the silicon film network to the surfaces of EG and CNTs.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003ec) was employed to investigate the chemical structural changes in the epoxy resin matrix before and after modification. The FTIR spectra of the M-ER exhibited broad bands at approximately 3400 and 3200 cm\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e, corresponding to the \\u0026ndash;OH groups resulting from the hydroxylation of the CNT and EG surfaces. The peaks at 1130 and 1026 cm\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e were attributed to the stretching vibrations of the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si groups, whereas the absorption peak of the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;C group was observed near 801 cm\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e. The presence of a peak at 164 cm\\u003csup\\u003e-1\\u003c/sup\\u003e indicates the tensile vibration of the C\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;C units associated with the CNTs and EG. These findings suggest successful grafting of the Si\\u0026ndash;O\\u0026ndash;Si segments into the epoxy polymer network, thereby enhancing the hydrophobic properties of the epoxy resin [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR36\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e36\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFigure\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003ed presents the gel permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis results. N-ER exhibits a single-peak spectrum, confirming its purity and exclusive presence of the epoxy resin structure. The molecular weight of the M-ER matrix increased significantly from 500 to 12,000 MW. This increase was attributed to the incorporation of silicone segments and cross-linking of the nanomaterials with the epoxy resin via TEOS hydrolysis and condensation [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR37\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e37\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and surface super-depth-of-field (SDF) topography confirmed the development of lotus leaf-like surface roughness by the epoxy resin (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003ee). SEM analysis revealed that the surface of N-ER exhibited a relatively smooth texture, whereas M-ER displayed numerous irregular lines, forming a distinctive \\\"papilla structure\\\" inherent to the epoxy resin. Linear scanning across various epoxy resin locations with the SDF of the field demonstrated significantly greater roughness in M-ER than in N-ER, providing evidence of the successful establishment of a hydrophobic system in M-ER.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec9\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.3 Physical Properties and Durability\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study systematically investigated the mechanical properties and durability of epoxy resin to assess the impact of the lotus-leaf hydrophobic design on the hydrophobicity and strength of the M-ER, in comparison with conventional epoxy resin. Figure\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003ea illustrates that, in the absence of corrosion, the contact angle of the M-ER (115.8\\u0026deg;) was approximately 10% greater than that of the N-ER (105.3\\u0026deg;), indicating superior hydrophobicity [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR38\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e38\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Subsequently, changes in the contact angles of M-ER and N-ER under immersion in NaCl solution and seawater sea-sand concrete (SWSC) pore solution at 60 ℃ were monitored. The contact angle of the N-ER decreased gradually over time in the high-temperature NaCl solution, and a more pronounced decrease was observed in the high-temperature SWSC solution. This phenomenon can be attributed to the absorption of water by the hydrophilic groups in the epoxy resin, which causes swelling during the initial stages of corrosion. This, in turn, weakens the intermolecular interactions and induces internal expansion stress. The presence of polar functional groups, such as carboxyl groups, within the epoxy resin network facilitates the adsorption of corrosive ions, leading to their gradual accumulation in microcracks, pores, and surface defects, ultimately generating a driving force for damage after crystallization. Moreover, extensive chemical degradation occurs within the resin matrix during corrosion, particularly under the combined influence of water molecules, hydroxide ions, and elevated temperatures, resulting in the breakage of macromolecular chains within the epoxy resin network [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR39\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e39\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Notably, the average contact angles of M-ER in the NaCl solution and SWSC pore solution surpassed those of N-ER by 12% and 39%, respectively.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMoreover, the macroscopic mechanical properties of M-ER and N-ER in NaCl and SWSC solution at 60 ℃ were investigated (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003eb, c). Untreated M-ER exhibited tensile strength, shear strength, and elastic modulus of 75.0, 120.0, and 7.24 MPa, respectively, representing increases of 76.7%, 60%, and 32.8%, respectively, compared to N-ER. This enhancement is attributed to the incorporation of Si\\u0026ndash;O segments, enhanced polymer chain flexibility, and facilitated molecular chain rotation after curing, enabling the introduced chain segment to dissipate energy under external loads [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR40\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e40\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAfter 60 d of corrosion in NaCl and SWSC solutions at elevated temperatures, the M-ER exhibited retention rates of 94.7%, 85.5%, and 91.0% for the tensile strength, shear strength, and elastic modulus, respectively. In contrast, N-ER showed retention rates of 86.0%, 65.1%, and 69.3%, respectively, in the same corrosion environment. The advantages of the mechanical properties of M-ER became more pronounced after prolonged high-temperature corrosion, which was attributed to its exceptional hydrophobicity. The design concept inspired by the lotus-leaf hydrophobic system significantly enhanced the durability of the epoxy resin.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eVickers hardness testing was employed to evaluate the surface hardness of the epoxy resin, which was used to verify the penetration areas (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003ed). The measured microhardness of M-ER was approximately 36.5\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3 kgf mm\\u003csup\\u003e-2\\u003c/sup\\u003e, significantly surpassing that of N-ER (~\\u0026thinsp;24.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3 kgf mm\\u003csup\\u003e-2\\u003c/sup\\u003e). The enhancement in hardness can be attributed to several factors: firstly, the high strength and rigidity of CNTs and EG facilitate the formation of a three-dimensional network structure within the epoxy resin network, thereby augmenting the rigidity and hardness of the epoxy resin matrix; secondly, surface modification of nanomaterials increases surface roughness, promoting interactions between nanomaterials that can effectively withstand external stress and prevent material deformation [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR41\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e41\\u003c/span\\u003e]; thirdly, the chemical crosslinking structure formed by the PE chain segment and epoxy resin matrix restricts molecular movement, thereby boosting the hardness and elastic modulus of the epoxy resin matrix [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR42\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e42\\u003c/span\\u003e]. Following accelerated corrosion in the high-temperature SWSC solution, the disparity between the two became more pronounced (M-ER exhibited 68.4% higher hardness than N-ER after 45 d of corrosion, and 78.3% higher hardness after 60 d of corrosion). Considering the mechanical and microscopic characteristics of the two epoxy resins (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003ee), the superior mechanical properties and durability of M-ER are evident, suggesting that its exceptional durability renders it more suitable for the SWSC pore solution environment.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAttractively, to visually compare the corrosion of M-ER and N-ER in a SWSC corrosion solution, the corrosion depth of corrosion ions in epoxy resin was assessed using micro-area X-ray fluorescence (\\u0026micro;-XRF) (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003ef). Following exposure to the SWSC solution at 60\\u0026deg;C for 60 d, it was observed that corrosion ions Cl\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u003c/sup\\u003e and K\\u003csup\\u003e+\\u003c/sup\\u003e were predominantly concentrated in the surface layer of M-ER, resulting in a mean erosion depth of approximately 1022 \\u0026micro;m (10.2% of the total resin area). Conversely, in N-ER, Cl\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u003c/sup\\u003e and K\\u003csup\\u003e+\\u003c/sup\\u003e ions were detected in the interior, leading to the formation of corrosion holes (Fig. S6). The mean erosion depth in N-ER was measured at 5755 \\u0026micro;m (57.6% of the total resin area).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBased on the above findings, M-ER exhibited superior mechanical properties and durability compared to N-ER, showing heightened hydrophobicity, strength, hardness, and strength retention. The enhancement of the hydrophobic properties of the PE-doped epoxy resin (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003eg) based on the bionic lotus leaf hydrophobic principle, is attributed to the introduction of hydrophobic chain segments that weaken the molecular forces on the surface of the resin, leading to reduced surface free energy and enhanced hydrophobicity. The combined effect of the modified EG and CNTs with PE augmented the roughness of the epoxy resin, thereby bolstering its hydrophobicity. Additionally, the presence of flexible Si\\u0026ndash;O bonds in the modified PE component facilitates easy rotation of the internal macromolecular chains of the polymer, mitigating internal stress and endowing the resin matrix with robust toughness against bending stress. Moreover, the modified EG and CNTs acted as barriers to crack propagation during epoxy resin matrix fracture, promoting energy dissipation and facilitating stress transfer between the fiber and matrix, consequently elevating the overall strength.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec10\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.4 Mechanical Properties of FRP Bars\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTo assess the impact of M-ER on FRP bars and enhance their mechanical properties, a comprehensive investigation of BE-FRP bars is required. This study evaluated the tensile strength, interlaminar shear strength, and compressive strength of fabricated FRP bars and analyzed the failure model of FRP bars during shear processes using the acoustic emission technique. The results of the tensile strength tests (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003ea) revealed a notable enhancement in the tensile strength of the FRP tendon systems incorporating carbon and glass fibers, irrespective of the core design or outer edge distribution. This enhancement was primarily attributed to the superior tensile properties of the carbon fibers.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFurthermore, the compressive strength tests demonstrated that the compressive strength of the HFRP bars matched that of the GFRP bars, thus satisfying the current standard requirements for the compressive strength of FRP bars (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003eb). An investigation of the shear strength of various FRP bars (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003ec) indicates that the interlayer shear strength of the BE-FRP bars surpasses that of the other FRP bars by significant margins, being 41.6%, 95.6%, 18.1%, and 62.3% higher than those of the GFRP, H1FRP, H2FRP, and H3FRP bars, respectively. Comparative analysis of the shear acoustic emission signals and morphology of the BE-FRP and GFRP bars (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003ed, e) revealed that during shear failure, microcracks predominantly caused failure in the BE-FRP group, with a longer duration of microcracks aligned with the observed shearing morphology. In contrast, the GFRP bars exhibited larger crack signals during shear failure, indicating sudden crack propagation. Additionally, a comparison of the tensile/shear ratio between the two FRP bars indicates that the BE-FRP bars allocate more shear force to the tensile strength and endure less shear force (4.79% lower than the GFRP bars), which is a critical factor contributing to the enhancement of the interlaminar shear strength.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBased on the aforementioned test outcomes, the efficacy of the BE-FRP design approach is preliminarily validated. EDS mapping analysis was conducted on the longitudinal sections of BE-FRP and GFRP bars to further confirm that the enhancement of the shear strength of BE-FRP bars is related to the bionic cross-scale design of hybrid fibers (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003ef). Many unevenly distributed Si elements were found floating near the GFRP bars, while a significant accumulation of Si elements was observed near the BE-FRP bars, which is closely related to the modification of the resin. M-ER enhances the interfacial bonding ability between the resin and the fibers, further improving the mechanical properties of HFRP bars. The utilization of computed tomography (CT) to investigate the BE-FRP bars revealed a mere 0.01% porosity in the outer carbon fiber layer, in contrast to the 2.99% porosity in the inner glass fiber layer, which is consistent with the gradient distribution traits of bamboo (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003eg). These assessments confirmed the superior shear strength of the BE-FRP bars over alternative bar types without compromising other mechanical properties.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.5 Durability of FRP Bars\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe BE-FRP bars exhibited outstanding mechanical properties. To assess the durability of FRP bars in SWSC environments, it is essential to investigate the evolution of the mechanical properties and microstructures of the FRP bars exposed to SWSC solutions. Interlaminar shear strength assessments were conducted on various FRP bars immersed in SWSC pore solution at 60\\u0026deg;C for durations of 45, 60, 120, 180, and 240 d (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003ea). The results revealed that the BE-FRP bars exhibited the highest interlaminar shear strength retention rate, experiencing only a 20% strength reduction after 120 d of immersion, which is a substantial improvement compared to the ER-FRP bars (which decreased by 32%). This finding underscores the significant influence of M-ER on the durability of the FRP bars. Furthermore, in comparison to the GFRP bars (which decreased by 52%), the BE-FRP bars exhibited a 32% increase, indicating that the biomimetic bamboo structure not only enhanced the mechanical properties of the FRP bars but also had crucial implications for their durability. Additionally, a comparison of the strength degradation over time revealed that the GFRP bars exhibited pronounced aging after 120 d of corrosion, with fiber cracking leading to a near-complete loss of interlayer shear strength, whereas the BE-FRP bars retained nearly 75% of their interlayer shear strength even after 240 d of corrosion. The tensile strength of the specimens corroded in the SWSC solution followed a similar trend, with only the BE-FRP bars retaining over 70% of their tensile strength after 240 d of corrosion (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003eb).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAcoustic emission was utilized to monitor the signal variations in the BE-FRP and GFRP bars during shear following the corrosion. The study revealed a notable increase in the b value of the GFRP bars post-corrosion compared to the pre-corrosion levels (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003ec), indicating significant internal damage within the GFRP bars. Analysis of the rise amplitude - frequency (RA-AF) signals demonstrated a transition from tensile to shear failure in the corroded GFRP bars under shear force, with the tensile ratio decreasing from 91.33\\u0026ndash;22.1%. Conversely, the b value of the corroded BE-FRP bars exhibited no significant increase (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003ed), suggesting that these bars maintained a microcrack damage mode when subjected to a post-corrosion shear force. The RA-AF signals further indicated that the corroded BE-FRP bars retained a tension-dominated failure mode under a shear force, with the tensile ratio decreasing from 99.12\\u0026ndash;69.4%. This behavior accounts for the high interlayer shear strength of the BE-FRP bars. The micro morphologies of the GFRP and BE-FRP bars after corrosion were analyzed using SEM (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003ee, f). In GFRP bars, voids are formed at the fiber/resin interface post-corrosion owing to resin matrix degradation, leading to the loss of fibers, increased damage, and fiber etching. Conversely, in the BE-FRP bars, after corrosion, the carbon fibers were tightly wrapped around the periphery, the resin matrix exhibited no noticeable degradation, and the internal glass fibers remained intact and unetched.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNano-indentation and \\u0026micro;-XRF techniques were employed to assess micro-scale distinctions between GFRP and BE-FRP pre- and post-corrosion. Initially, the hardness and elastic modulus of the fiber, resin, and fiber/resin interface transition zones in both GFRP and BE-FRP were evaluated (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003ea). The results indicated that the hardness and elastic modulus of the BE-FRP bar were significantly higher than those of the GFRP bar. Specifically, within the resin and interface transition zones, the hardness increased by 58.6% and 43.4%, respectively, whereas the elastic modulus increased by 2.3% and 11.4%, respectively. The exceptional mechanical properties of M-ER were attributed to the incorporated lotus leaf system and the siliconized cell wall structure. A subsequent comparison of the hardness and elastic modulus of the fiber, resin, and fiber/resin interface transition zones after 120 d of corrosion (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003eb) revealed that the BE-FRP bar demonstrated significantly higher values than the GFRP bar. The fiber hardness, interface transition zone, and resin hardness of the BE-FRP bar were higher by 82.7%, 231%, and 192%, respectively, than those of the GFRP bar, whereas the elastic moduli were 6.2%, 21.3%, and 18.5% higher, respectively. These findings suggest that the incorporation of PE and modified nanofillers enhanced the crosslinking reaction within the epoxy resin, leading to closer bonding between the molecular chains. Moreover, the modified components exhibited exceptional anti-aging properties, safeguarding the integrity of the epoxy resin molecular chains and fibers from decomposition or degradation [\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR43\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e43\\u003c/span\\u003e].\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026micro;-XRF analysis was conducted to assess the ion corrosion depth of GFRP and BE-FRP bar specimens following a 120 d of corrosion in a SWSC solution at 60\\u0026deg;C. The results (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003ec) revealed that in the case of GFRP bars, the corrosion induced by Cl\\u003csup\\u003e\\u0026minus;\\u003c/sup\\u003e, K\\u003csup\\u003e+\\u003c/sup\\u003e, and Ca\\u003csup\\u003e2+\\u003c/sup\\u003e ions penetrated to a depth of 8.24 mm (equivalent to 82.4% of the FRP cross-sectional area), leading to observable fiber detachment at the surface. Conversely, the corrosion of the BE-FRP bars was limited to a depth of 1.36 mm, representing only 13.6% of the cross-sectional area, which was 68.8% less extensive than that observed in the GFRP bars, underscoring the superior durability of the BE-FRP bars (Fig. S7 and S8).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eRemarkably, biomimetic FRP bars incorporating multiple structural elements demonstrated substantial enhancements in both interlaminar shear strength and retention. Specifically, under the SWSC solution at 60\\u0026deg;C for 120 d, the biomimetic approach increased the interlaminar shear strength and its retention force to 75.4 MPa and 80.5%, respectively. These values were 2.8 and 1.6 times higher than those of conventional GFRP bars, and 2.4 and 1.3 times higher than those of basalt FRP (BFRP) bars. Furthermore, the performance surpassed that of previously reported FRP bars, including HFRP, resin-modified FRP (R-FRP), aramid FRP (AFRP), and carbon FRP (CFRP) bars, as illustrated in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003ed.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.6 Graded Toughness-Durability Synergy Mechanism of BE-FRP Composites\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBased on the above findings, the graded toughness - durability synergy mechanism of FRP bars immersed in SWSC solution was discussed. In traditional FRP bars, the adhesion between epoxy resin and fibers primarily relies on chemical bonding, physical adsorption, and mechanical interlocking mechanisms [44,45]. However, the presence of corrosive ions, particularly hydroxyl ions, can alter the chemical structure and properties of epoxy resins. Hydroxyl ions can disrupt the macromolecular chains within the epoxy groups, leading to a reduction in the density and molecular weight of the resin in the interface region, consequently affecting the bonding performance between the epoxy resin and SiO\\u003csub\\u003e2\\u003c/sub\\u003e substrate (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003ea). When conventional FRP bars are subjected to shear forces, their cohesive strength may not withstand the applied stress, resulting in rapid debonding between the resin and the fibers. This debonding initiates numerous cracks in the FRP bars, ultimately compromising their ability to withstand shear loads. In alkaline environments, this deterioration process is further accelerated, contributing significantly to the decline in the shear strength observed in traditional FRP bars.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn the BE-FRP bars with bionic cross-scale design based on hybrid fibers, M-ER significantly enhances the synergy between the epoxy resin and the hybrid fibers. At the molecular level, the modified CNTs and EG incorporated into the BE-FRP bars (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003eb) impede the mobility of the polymer molecular segments surrounding the nanoparticles, leading to a delay in segment relaxation. This mechanism contributed to the toughening and waterproofing properties of the material. Additionally, the inclusion of flexible segments in the PE component enabled the modified epoxy resin matrix to absorb significant amounts of energy under bending stress. Consequently, this enhanced the ductility of the epoxy resin matrix and improved its interlayer shear performance.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAt the nanoscale level, the modified CNTs and EG promoted mechanical interlocking between the epoxy resins, thereby reinforcing the cohesive strength between the epoxy resins and fibers, and ultimately enhancing the shear resistance. At the macroscopic level, the distribution of the fibers enables the carbon fibers at the outer edge to withstand tensile stress during bending. Simultaneously, the inner loosely arranged glass fibers dissipate energy through compressive stress, enhancing the shear resistance of the axial fibers. Additionally, mechanical interlocking among the nanofillers creates a bridging effect that decelerates crack propagation, thereby increasing the toughness of the resin matrix.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4. Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis study addresses the critical limitations of interlaminar shear strength and durability in FRP bars for marine concrete structures using a multi-bionic design strategy. By integrating bionic concepts, we combined the hydrophobic structure of lotus leaves (via nanomaterial modifications with TEOS/PMHS and PE-grafted silica films) with the gradient fiber concept of bamboo. Based on the bionic cross-scale design of hybrid fibers, we enhanced the overall synergy of the epoxy resin - hybrid fiber - FRP bars. This approach achieves breakthrough enhancements in both corrosion durability and shear strength: The engineered hydrophobic epoxy matrix forms a dense barrier layer, extending diffusion paths for corrosive ions, which reduces the resin corrosion rate by 47.4% while increasing its tensile/shear toughness by 68.6%; concurrently, bionic cross-scale design of hybrid fibers maximizes fiber-resin synergy, the interlaminar shear strength of FRP bars approaches 80 MPa. Following immersion in SWSC simulated pore solution at 60\\u0026deg;C for 120 d, the retention rate of interlaminar shear strength remains above 80%. Critically, this study elucidated the underlying chemical, morphological, and mechanical mechanisms. Thus, BE-FRP bars provide a material with dual functionality-superior shear capacity and long-term durability, for reliable deployment in marine load-bearing structures. This study establishes a new paradigm for high-performance FRP design with significant theoretical and practical implications for sustainable marine infrastructure.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eConflict of Interest\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eFunding\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study is a part of a series of projects financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52225905).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eZuquan Jin: Conceptualization, Writing review \\u0026amp; editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Hong Wang: Methodology, Writing-original draft, Data curation. Bo Pang: Writing review \\u0026amp; editing, Funding acquisition. Shicai Li: Data curation. Mingfei Xu: Formal analysis. Ao Shen: Data curation.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eData availability\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNo data was used for the research described in the article.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cspan\\u003eSun T, Wang X, Ashour A, Ding S, Li L, Han B (2025) High-durability, low-carbon, and low-cost nano-engineered concrete for marine concrete infrastructures. 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Prog Org Coat 111:124\\u0026ndash;163. \\u003cspan class=\\\"ExternalRef\\\"\\u003e\\u003cspan class=\\\"RefSource\\\"\\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2017.05.012\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003cspan address=\\\"10.1016/j.porgcoat.2017.05.012\\\" targettype=\\\"DOI\\\" class=\\\"RefTarget\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"advanced-composites-and-hybrid-materials\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"achm\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials](https://link.springer.com/journal/42114)\",\"snPcode\":\"42114\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/42114/3\",\"title\":\"Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"em\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Springer Hybrid\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false},\"keywords\":\"Hybrid composites, Multi-scale interfaces, Bio-inspired materials, Marine concrete, Synergistic reinforcement\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7344654/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7344654/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe widespread application of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites in aggressive marine concrete environments was hindered by the bottleneck of low interlayer shear strength and poor alkali corrosion resistance. In this work, a dual biomimetic strategy, inspired by the superhydrophobic architecture of lotus leaves and the gradient vascular bundles of bamboo, is proposed to engineer hybrid FRP composites with synergistic nanointerfaces and macro-scale fiber networks. This design integrates tetraethyl orthosilicate-polymethylhydrosiloxane (TEOS-PMHS)-modified graphite/carbon nanotubes as hydrophobic nanofillers into the epoxy matrix, alongside a bamboo-mimetic gradient arrangement of carbon/glass fibers. The resulting biomimetically-engineered FRP (BE-FRP) bars achieve an unprecedented interlaminar shear strength of 75.4 MPa and retain 80.5% of their strength after 120 days in seawater sea-sand concrete (SWSC) solution at 60\\u0026deg;C - representing a 280% increase in shear strength and 160% higher retention ratio than conventional GFRP bars. Such enhancements stem from multi-scale interfacial synergies: nano-scale hydrophobic barriers inhibit corrosive ion ingress and reinforcing the cohesive strength between the epoxy resins and fibers, while the gradient fiber network suppresses crack propagation through mechanical interlocking and stress redistribution. This biomimetic hybridization strategy provides a universal paradigm for designing next-generation composites that simultaneously transcend multiple property trade-offs in extreme environment.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Biomimetically-engineered FRP composites: integration of nanostructured resin matrix with hybrid fiber networks towards ultrahigh chemical stability and mechanical strengthening\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-09-22 16:55:33\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7344654/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2025-12-23T02:57:54+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-12-11T14:09:41+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"130867903342941765550414230616035211895\",\"date\":\"2025-11-20T16:12:27+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"199970066332320226299344636164452978307\",\"date\":\"2025-11-18T15:57:49+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-09-16T08:07:23+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"82172317841216599036024201320852617794\",\"date\":\"2025-09-15T09:20:49+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-09-14T14:07:51+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-08-22T16:48:47+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-08-12T07:22:10+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials\",\"date\":\"2025-08-11T09:14:58+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"advanced-composites-and-hybrid-materials\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"achm\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials](https://link.springer.com/journal/42114)\",\"snPcode\":\"42114\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/42114/3\",\"title\":\"Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"em\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Springer Hybrid\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"e50cafd0-9caf-42cd-a252-a23edaee605e\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"September 22nd, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"under-review\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-04-24T11:25:21+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-09-22 16:55:33\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-7344654\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-7344654\",\"identity\":\"rs-7344654\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}