{"paper_id":"045b0de8-076e-4ae9-8d78-b87c9ccb9cb1","body_text":"Academic Motivation as a Developmental Process for Resilience and Social Skills in Higher Education: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study of Japanese Physical Therapy Students | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Academic Motivation as a Developmental Process for Resilience and Social Skills in Higher Education: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study of Japanese Physical Therapy Students Junya Komagata, Yuta Sakamoto, Atsuya Otsuka, Yuki Komatsu, Aya Hasegawa, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8635370/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Academic motivation may function as a developmental process underlying the formation of resilience and social skills in higher education. However, little is known about how changes in academic motivation over time contribute to the development of noncognitive skills, particularly among healthcare students. This two-year longitudinal study examined the relationships between changes in academic motivation and the development of resilience and social skills among Japanese physical therapy students. A total of 129 students completed online surveys during their first and second academic years assessing academic motivation (Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale), resilience (Bidimensional Resilience Scale), and social skills (Kikuchi’s Scale of Social Skills). Changes in academic motivation and noncognitive skills were analysed using multiple regression models, including growth-based and hierarchical approaches, and relative importance analysis was conducted using the Lindeman, Merenda, and Gold method. The results showed that intrinsic motivation significantly declined from the first to the second year, while amotivation increased; in contrast, no significant changes were observed in resilience or social skills. Importantly, growth in intrinsic motivation consistently emerged as the strongest predictor of growth in dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills, accounting for the largest proportion of explained variance across all outcomes. In addition, increases in identified regulation and enjoyment of youth contributed to specific aspects of resilience and social skill development. These findings suggest that academic motivation should be conceptualized not as a static individual trait, but as a dynamic developmental process that shapes noncognitive skill formation in higher education. By demonstrating the longitudinal role of motivational change, this study provides empirical evidence for motivational processes as a key mechanism supporting psychological adaptability and interpersonal competence in healthcare education. Social science/Education Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology academic motivation resilience social skills intrinsic motivation longitudinal study physical therapy education Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction In higher education, understanding how changes in academic motivation shape the development of resilience and social skills is critical for supporting students’ long-term psychological and professional adaptation. Physical therapists and other healthcare professionals are often exposed to high levels of psychological and physical stress, which places them at a substantial risk of burnout. Burnout is a prevalent occupational phenomenon in healthcare professions and is closely associated with chronic workplace stress and adverse outcomes. Previous studies have reported that a substantial proportion of physical therapists experience burnout or elevated occupational stress across both international and Japanese contexts (Santos et al., 2010 ; Corrado et al., 2019 ; Sakamoto et al., 2018 ; Pugliese et al., 2023 ). Importantly, evidence suggests that burnout-related problems are not confined to experienced clinicians but can begin to emerge during the early stages of a healthcare career (Kim et al., 2020 ), raising concerns about their potential impact on the quality and safety of patient care (Hodkinson et al., 2022 ). Despite the urgent need for effective burnout interventions, current medical education still lacks systematic, organization-level programmes embedded in curricula (Boone et al., 2025 ). To address this educational gap, recent studies have emphasised the importance of noncognitive skills, particularly resilience and social skills, as key components of effective stress coping (Ho et al., 2024 ). As “the process and outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or challenging life experiences” (American Psychological Association, n.d.), resilience is associated with job satisfaction and mental health and mitigates burnout (McAllister & McKinnon, 2009 ; Zwack & Schweitzer, 2013 ). A recent multicenter study revealed that approximately 25% of physical therapy students had low resilience levels (Calo et al., 2022 ), highlighting the need for early educational interventions. However, despite the established importance of these skills, the dynamic longitudinal processes and motivational mechanisms that drive their development during higher education remain insufficiently explored. In addition to internal coping abilities such as resilience, external interpersonal competencies also play a key role in maintaining psychological well-being among healthcare professionals. For healthcare professionals, social skills have long been recognized as fundamental to effective therapeutic interventions. The ability to communicate empathically, collaborate within multidisciplinary teams, and build constructive relationships with patients is essential for achieving favorable clinical outcomes (Shah et al., 2025 ). In recent years, attention has shifted from viewing these skills solely as tools for improving care quality to recognising their role as protective factors against burnout. Interpersonal competencies such as effective communication, teamwork, and the ability to manage interpersonal difficulties have been shown to be closely linked to healthier psychosocial functioning among healthcare providers. Previous studies indicate that these skills contribute to more supportive work environments and are associated with lower levels of occupational stress and burnout symptoms (Pérez-Fuentes et al., 2020 ). Taken together, resilience and social skills represent complementary aspects of noncognitive competence, encompassing internal coping abilities that support psychological stability and external interpersonal competencies that sustain collaborative practice. Accordingly, physical therapy education programmes need to foster noncognitive skills, including resilience to cope with stress and social skills to build therapeutic relationships. While resilience and social skills are essential for sustaining professional well-being, fostering these skills within the curriculum presents challenges, particularly given that declining academic motivation is a common problem in higher education. The initial enthusiasm of students often decreases as they face increasing academic loads and greater academic demands. This issue is particularly relevant in Japan, where an unsupported transition from passive high school learning to active university learning results in decreased motivation. This trend has been highlighted in longitudinal studies. For example, Müller and Palekčić ( 2005 ) reported a “v-shaped” pattern of change and a substantial drop in motivation among medical students by the end of their second year. Similarly, Pan and Gauvain ( 2012 ) demonstrated a significant decline in intrinsic motivation from the first to the second year. On the basis of these findings, the second year is a critical turning point, making the maintenance of motivation a key challenge in university education. The framework of self-determination theory (SDT) categorises academic motivation as follows: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation (AMOT). Intrinsic motivation is associated with well-being and academic achievement, whereas extrinsic motivation can serve as a catalyst in the initial learning stages (Ryan & Deci, 2000 ). According to recent studies, noncognitive factors, such as resilience and social skills, are related to academic motivation (Yang et al., 2006 ; Kotera et al., 2022 ). Although these factors are thought to be interrelated, most previous studies have been cross-sectional. Thus, the longitudinal relationship between motivation changes and noncognitive skill development remains unclear. To address this gap, the present study aimed to longitudinally track academic motivation and noncognitive skills among physical therapy students from their first to second year. The specific purpose was to clarify how the “level” of and “change” in academic motivation contribute to the development of resilience and social skills. By doing so, this study advances the literature by conceptualising changes in academic motivation as a developmental process underlying the formation of noncognitive skills, rather than treating motivation as a static individual trait. Clarifying this relationship may offer useful implications for developing educational programmes that enhance resilience and social skills in healthcare professional training. 2. Methods 2.1 Study Design A two-year longitudinal cohort design was used in this study. The reporting adheres to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines. 2.2 Ethics Approval This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocol was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committees of [University A, Redacted for Peer Review] (Approval No: R1-029, approved on 8 May 2020) and [University B, Redacted for Peer Review] (Approval No: 2023-1, approved on 19 May 2023). Informed consent was obtained electronically from all participants at each wave of data collection. Data were collected annually between April and May from 2021 to 2024, and participants provided informed consent prior to each survey administration. 2.3 Participants and Setting The participants were physical therapy students from two Japanese universities, one urban and one regional. A total of 129 students (84 males and 45 females; mean age at baseline: 18.2 ± 0.6 years) who completed surveys in their first and second academic years were included in the final analysis. The participating universities shared a similar curriculum structure based on national standards for physical therapy education in Japan. The timing of the surveys and the measurement instruments used were identical across institutions. A flow diagram of participant recruitment, follow-up, and inclusion in the final analysis is presented in Fig. 1 . 2.4 Data Collection Data were collected via online surveys that were administered between April and May of the first (baseline) and second (follow-up) academic years. To ensure comparability across time points, surveys were conducted during the same academic period each year, immediately following the start of the new semester (in Japan, the academic year begins in April). 2.5 Measures 2.5.1 Academic Motivation Although the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) is widely used internationally (Vallerand et al., 1997 ) and was later reinterpreted by Ratelle et al. ( 2007 ), it does not fully capture the cultural characteristics of Japanese university students. To address this limitation, Aragaki and Tsuzuki ( 2016 ) developed the Japanese version of the AMS (AMS-J), which incorporates two culturally specific factors: enjoyment of youth (reflecting the motivation to enjoy the social and extracurricular aspects of university life) and expectations of others (reflecting the motivation to meet the expectations of significant others and society). The AMS-J comprises 28 items across seven factors, which are rated on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (“Does not correspond at all”) to 7 (“Corresponds exactly”): AMOT, extrinsic motivation – external regulation (EMER), extrinsic motivation – introjected regulation (EMIN), extrinsic motivation – identified regulation (EMID), intrinsic motivation (IM), non-academic motivation – enjoyment of youth (NAM–E), and non-academic motivation – expectations of others (NAM–EX). The reliability and validity of the AMS-J have been empirically confirmed (Aragaki & Tsuzuki, 2016 ), and the scale has since been widely used in studies involving Japanese university students. 2.5.2 Noncognitive Skills Noncognitive skills were assessed from two dimensions (i.e., resilience and social skills). Resilience was measured using the Bidimensional Resilience Scale (BRS), which was developed by Hirano ( 2010 ). A key feature of this scale, which is based on Cloninger et al.’s ( 1993 ) Temperament and Character Inventory, is that it can distinguish between “dispositional resilience” and “acquired resilience.” In the present study, these two primary scales were used for analysis. Social skills were evaluated using Kikuchi’s Scale of Social Skills (KiSS-18), which was developed by Kikuchi and Horike ( 1994 ). This 18-item scale is based on the theoretical framework of Goldstein et al.’s social skills model (Goldstein, 1986). Moreover, its reliability and validity have been established (Kikuchi & Horike, 1994 ). The total score of the KiSS-18 is used as a comprehensive indicator of social skills in clinical and educational settings. 2.6 Statistical Analysis In the present study, change scores were calculated for all AMS-J factors and noncognitive skill variables by subtracting the year 1 score from the corresponding year 2 score (year 2 − year 1). These scores were used to represent individual developmental changes over the one-year period and served as key variables in the growth-based analyses described below. All statistical analyses were performed using JMP (version 17, SAS Institute) and R (version 4.3.2), and the significance level was set at p < .05. First, each scale’s reliability was confirmed using Cronbach’s alpha, with α > .70 as the criterion. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were used to assess internal consistency, with α ≥ .70 considered acceptable, α ≥ .80 regarded as good, and α ≥ .90 as excellent reliability (George & Mallery, 2003 ). The target scales included the AMS-J (7 factors and 28 items), BRS (dispositional and acquired resilience, 21 items), and KiSS-18 (18 items). The normality of each variable was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Among the 20 variables analysed (seven AMS-J factors and three noncognitive skill variables, each measured in both the first and second years), only three showed an approximately normal distribution, while the others deviated from normality. Therefore, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for paired comparisons between the first- and second-year scores for each AMS-J factor and noncognitive skill. Furthermore, a series of multiple regression analyses was performed to examine the influence of academic motivation on the development of noncognitive skills. First, a baseline analysis was performed with year 1 AMS-J factors as independent variables and year 2 noncognitive skills as dependent variables. Second, a change score analysis was conducted with year 1 AMS-J factors as independent variables and the change in noncognitive skills as the dependent variable. Third, a growth-based multiple regression analysis was conducted using the change scores of the AMS-J factors as independent variables to predict the change scores of noncognitive skills. To evaluate the relative contribution of each motivational factor within these models, a relative importance analysis was performed using the Lindeman, Merenda, and Gold (LMG) method. In accordance with its interpretation as a proportion of explained variance, LMG values were constrained to be non-negative and normalized to sum to 100% within each outcome variable. Fourth, to examine the developmental influence of academic motivation beyond baseline individual differences, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted in which year 2 AMS-J factors were used to predict year 2 noncognitive skills after controlling for baseline levels of academic motivation and noncognitive skills from year 1. To confirm the appropriateness of including baseline covariates, model fit was compared using Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC). This comparison verified that including Year 1 scores as covariates substantially improved model fit, supporting the validity of controlling for baseline levels (Burnham & Anderson, 2002 ). The presence of multicollinearity was checked for all analyses. Missing data were examined, and participants with incomplete paired responses or who declined further participation were excluded from all analyses. Consequently, the final analyses included data from 129 participants who completed both the first- and second-year surveys. 3. Results 3.1 Scale Reliability Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to confirm each scale’s internal consistency. For the AMS-J (28 items), all factors except NAM–EX showed high reliability (α > .82). In addition, the NAM–EX factor demonstrated an acceptable level of internal consistency (α = .632). For the resilience scale, dispositional resilience (α = .858) and acquired resilience (α = .700) met the reliability criterion. The KiSS-18 showed good internal consistency (α = .880). 3.2 Comparison between Academic Years The AMS-J subscales were compared between the first and second academic years. AMOT significantly increased from 7.8 ± 3.8 in the first year to 10.0 ± 5.5 in the second year (Z = 3.29, p < .01). However, EMID and IM significantly decreased from 18.2 ± 2.4 and 22.7 ± 3.4 in the first year to 16.8 ± 3.4 (Z = − 3.51, p < .01) and 20.5 ± 4.7 (Z = − 3.92, p < .01), respectively. No significant changes were observed for the other factors: EMER (Z = − 0.26, p = .80), EMIN (Z = − 1.52, p = .13), NAM–E (Z = − 1.90, p = .06), and NAM–EX (Z = 0.09, p = .93). With regard to noncognitive skills, no statistically significant changes were observed for dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, or social skills between the first and second years (Table 1 ). Table 1 Comparison of academic motivation (subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale) and noncognitive skills between the first and second year Variable Year 1 Mean ± SD Year 2 Mean ± SD Change Mean ± SD p value Z value AMOT 7.8 ± 3.8 10.0 ± 5.5 2.2 ± 4.7 p < .01 ** 3.29 EMER 19.2 ± 5.2 19.2 ± 5.0 -0.1 ± 5.3 p = .80 -0.26 EMIN 16.9 ± 5.7 15.9 ± 5.4 -1.0 ± 5.5 p = .13 -1.52 EMID 18.2 ± 2.4 16.8 ± 3.4 -1.4 ± 3.4 p < .01 ** -3.51 IM 22.7 ± 3.4 20.5 ± 4.7 -2.2 ± 4.1 p < .01 ** -3.92 NAM-E 23.5 ± 5.9 22.1 ± 6.1 -1.3 ± 5.8 p = .06 † -1.90 NAM-EX 10.2 ± 3.8 10.3 ± 3.9 0.1 ± 3.9 p = .93 0.09 Dispositional resilience 43.0 ± 7.1 41.3 ± 8.1 -1.7 ± 6.3 p = .10 † -1.67 Acquired resilience 33.8 ± 4.3 33.0 ± 5.1 -0.8 ± 4.8 p = .23 -1.20 Social skills 60.8 ± 8.9 59.7 ± 9.9 -1.1 ± 10.2 p = .48 -0.71 Note: Values are expressed as the means ± standard deviations. Comparisons between year 1 and year 2 were performed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation – external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation – introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation – identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM-E, non-academic motivation – enjoyment of youth; NAM–EX, non-academic motivation – expectations of others. † p < .10, * p < .05, and ** p < .01. These findings suggest a decline in specific aspects of academic motivation, reflected in increased AMOT and decreased EMID and IM. However, no clear developmental trend was observed for noncognitive skills. 3.3 Predicting Year 2 Noncognitive Skills from Year 1 AMS-J Factors Multiple regression analysis was performed to determine whether the seven AMS-J factors in Year 1 could predict Year 2 noncognitive skills (dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills). Multicollinearity was not a concern in any regression model (all variance inflation factors [VIFs] were < 5). In the dispositional resilience model, no significant predictors were identified, although NAM–EX showed a trend-level negative association (β = −0.19, p = .098). In the acquired resilience model, EMER emerged as a significant positive predictor (β = 0.28, p = .013), suggesting that higher external regulation was associated with greater acquired resilience. In the social skills model, EMID demonstrated a trend-level positive association (β = 0.22, p = .093) (Table 2 ; see Supplementary Table S1 for the complete results). Table 2 Multiple regression analysis predicting year 2 noncognitive skills from year 1 subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-J) Predictor (AMS-J) Dispositional resilience β (p) Acquired resilience β (p) Social skills β (p) AMOT 0.05 (.67) 0.02 (.83) 0.13 (.22) EMER -0.01 (.93) 0.28 (.01) * 0.15 (.20) EMIN 0.01 (.96) -0.19 (.14) -0.13 (.32) EMID 0.15 (.23) 0.13 (.30) 0.22 (.09) † IM 0.18 (.20) 0.20 (.11) 0.14 (.28) NAM-E 0.01 (.94) -0.02 (.84) -0.02 (.86) NAM-EX -0.19 (.098) † -0.19 (.10) -0.14 (.22) Note: Values are standardized regression coefficients (β) with p-values in parentheses. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation – external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation – introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation – identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM–E, non-academic motivation – enjoyment of youth; NAM–EX, non-academic motivation – expectations of others. † p < .10 and * p < .05. Overall, these findings suggest that among the Year 1 dimensions of academic motivation, EMER and EMID may contribute to noncognitive skill development by Year 2, whereas other motivational factors (e.g., AMOT and NAM–EX) showed no clear associations. 3.4 Predicting the Growth of Noncognitive Skills from Year 1 AMS-J Factor Scores Multiple regression analysis was performed using the year 1 AMS-J factor scores as independent variables and the growth of noncognitive skills (i.e., change scores for dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills) as dependent variables. For dispositional resilience, no statistically significant predictors were identified, and the overall model only showed a trend-level effect (F(7,121) = 1.56, p = .155, adjusted R² = .03). However, EMER demonstrated a positive trend (β = .22, p = .068). By contrast, the acquired resilience model was significant (F(7,121) = 2.33, p = .029, adjusted R² = .068). In this model, EMER was a significant positive predictor (β = .27, p = .019), whereas EMIN was a significant negative predictor (β = −.26, p = .043). The social skills model was not significant overall (F(7,121) = 1.32, p = .248, adjusted R² = .017) although EMER and EMIN showed trend-level effects (β = .22, p = .061, and β = −.26, p = .052, respectively) (Table 3 ; see Supplementary Table S2 for the complete results). Table 3 Multiple regression analysis predicting changes in noncognitive skills from year 1 subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-J) Predictor (AMS-J) ΔDispositional resilience β (p) ΔAcquired resilience β (p) ΔSocial skills β (p) AMOT -0.02 (.88) -0.08 (.47) 0.05 (.64) EMER 0.22 (.07) † 0.27 (.02) * 0.22 (.06) † EMIN -0.08 (.57) -0.26 (.04) * -0.26 (.05) † EMID -0.17 (.20) -0.16 (.20) -0.16 (.21) IM -0.11 (.41) -0.14 (.27) 0.03 (.82) NAM–E -0.05 (.63) 0.06 (.55) 0.04 (.72) NAM–EX -0.12 (.32) -0.04 (.73) -0.04 (.71) Note: Values are standardized regression coefficients (β) with p-values in parentheses. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation – external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation – introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation – identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM–E, non-academic motivation – enjoyment of youth; NAM–EX, non-academic motivation – expectations of others. † p < .10 and * p < .05. These findings suggest that EMER in the first year may contribute to the growth of acquired resilience, whereas EMIN may hinder it. Associations with the growth of dispositional resilience and social skills were limited. 3.5 Predicting the Growth of Noncognitive Skills from the Growth of AMS-J Factors Multiple regression analysis was performed using the growth (change scores) of AMS-J factors as independent variables to predict the growth (change scores) of noncognitive skills (e.g., dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills). For dispositional resilience, the overall model was significant (F(7,121) = 8.77, p < .001, adjusted R² = .30). Among the predictors, the growth of IM showed a significant positive effect (β = .40, p < .001), and additionally, the growth of NAM–E was a significant positive predictor (β = .21, p = .029). The model was also significant for acquired resilience (F(7,121) = 6.01, p < .001, adjusted R² = .215). In this model, the growth of IM (β = .31, p = .008) and EMID (β = .26, p = .025) emerged as significant positive predictors. For social skills, the overall model was statistically significant (F(7,121) = 6.24, p < .001, adjusted R² = .223). In this model, the growth of IM (β = .35, p = .003) and NAM–E (β = .24, p = .020) were significantly associated with the growth of social skills (Table 4 ; see Supplementary Table S3 for the complete results). Table 4 Multiple regression analysis predicting changes in noncognitive skills from the changes in the subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-J) Predictor (ΔAMS-J) Δdispositional resilience β (p) ΔAcquired resilience β (p) ΔSocial skills β (p) AMOT 0.07 (.44) 0.03 (.73) 0.05 (.59) EMER -0.00 (.99) -0.03 (.79) -0.04 (.70) EMIN -0.03 (.78) 0.06 (.62) 0.11 (.33) EMID 0.14 (.19) 0.26 (.025) * 0.00 (.98) IM 0.40 (< .001) *** 0.31 (.008) ** 0.35 (.003) ** NAM–E 0.21 (.029) * 0.01 (.90) 0.24 (.02) * NAM–EX -0.12 (.20) -0.09 (.39) -0.10 (.31) Note: Values are standardized regression coefficients (β) with p-values in parentheses. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation – external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation – introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation – identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM–E, non-academic motivation – enjoyment of youth; NAM–EX, non-academic motivation – expectations of others. * p < .05, ** p < .01, and *** p < .001. Taken together, these findings indicate that the growth of IM was most consistently and strongly associated with the growth of all noncognitive skills. Moreover, the growth of EMID and NAM–E contributed to the development of resilience and interpersonal skills. 3.6 Relative Importance of AMS-J Growth Factors in Predicting the Growth of Noncognitive Skills Building on the results of the growth-based regression analyses reported in Section 3.5 , a relative importance analysis using the LMG method was conducted for each growth-based multiple regression model to quantify the relative contribution of changes in AMS-J factors to the development of noncognitive skills (Table 5 ). Table 5 Relative importance (LMG, normalized %) of changes in academic motivation (ΔAMS-J) for predicting changes in noncognitive skills Predictor (ΔAMS-J) ΔDispositional resilience ΔAcquired resilience ΔSocial skills β LMG% β LMG% β LMG% AMOT 0.07 1.5 0.03 1.8 0.05 1.1 EMER −0.00 4.8 −0.03 4.2 −0.04 4.1 EMIN −0.03 4.5 0.06 5.7 0.11 12.9 EMID 0.15 22.6 0.24 34.3 * 0.01 11.4 IM 0.40 44.7 *** 0.32 45.3 ** 0.34 40.1 ** NAM–E 0.21 19.8 * 0.02 7.0 0.24 28.0 * NAM–EX −0.12 2.1 −0.09 1.9 −0.11 2.5 Adjusted R² 0.30 0.21 0.22 Note: β values represent standardized regression coefficients derived from multiple regression analyses using change scores (Year 2 − Year 1). Relative importance values (LMG, %) were calculated using the LMG method and normalized to sum to 100% within each outcome, indicating the proportional contribution of each AMS-J subscale to the explained variance, independent of effect direction. Asterisks denote statistical significance (*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001). Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, external regulation; EMIN, introjected regulation; EMID, identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM–E, enjoyment of youth; NAM–EX, expectations of others. For dispositional resilience, the growth of IM accounted for the largest proportion of explained variance (LMG = 44.7%, β = 0.40, p < .001), followed by EMID (22.6%) and NAM–E (19.8%). The contributions of the remaining factors, including AMOT, EMER, EMIN and NAM–EX, were comparatively small (each < 5%). For acquired resilience, IM (45.3%) and EMID (34.3%) together accounted for approximately 80% of the explained variance, indicating that changes in these two motivational components were the dominant contributors to growth in acquired resilience. The relative importance of the other AMS-J factors was limited, with each accounting for 7.0% or less of the explained variance. For social skills, IM again showed the highest relative importance (40.1%), followed by NAM–E (28.0%), EMIN (12.9%), and EMID (11.4%). The remaining motivational factors contributed minimally to the explained variance in social skill development. In summary, the growth of IM consistently demonstrated the greatest relative importance across all three noncognitive skill outcomes. In addition, growth in EMID and NAM–E showed notable contributions depending on the outcome, suggesting that changes in both academic and socioemotional aspects of motivation are differentially associated with the development of noncognitive skills. 3.7 Influence of Year 2 AMS-J Factor Levels on Noncognitive Skills (Controlling for Year 1 Scores) Whereas Sections 3.5 and 3.6 focused on changes in AMS-J factors and noncognitive skills over time, Section 3.7 examined the influence of Year 2 AMS-J factor levels on Year 2 noncognitive skills, after controlling for baseline (Year 1) levels of both academic motivation and noncognitive skills (Table 6 ). Specifically, each model adjusted for the corresponding Year 1 scores of the seven AMS-J factors and the three noncognitive skill outcomes (dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills). Table 6 Multiple regression analysis predicting year 2 noncognitive skills from year 2 subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-J) controlling for year 1 levels Predictor (AMS-J) Dispositional resilience β (p) Acquired resilience β (p) Social skills β (p) AMOT -0.00 (.997) -0.00 (.967) -0.01 (.959) EMER 0.12 (.175) 0.03 (.746) 0.17 (.125) EMIN -0.03 (.734) -0.07 (.523) 0.01 (.924) EMID 0.01 (.931) 0.36 (.005) ** -0.09 (.522) IM 0.33 (.004) ** 0.18 (.188) 0.36 (.012) * NAM–E 0.22 (.018) * 0.07 (.534) 0.27 (.019) * NAM–EX -0.12 (.188) -0.05 (.655) -0.14 (.202) Note: Values are standardized regression coefficients (β) with p-values in parentheses. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation – external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation – introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation – identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM–E, non-academic motivation – enjoyment of youth; NAM–EX, non-academic motivation – expectations of others. *p < .05 and **p < .01. For dispositional resilience, IM (β = .33, p = .004) and NAM–E (β = .22, p = .018) emerged as significant positive predictors. With regard to acquired resilience, only EMID (β = .36, p = .005) showed a significant positive association, whereas IM was not significant (p = .188). For social skills, IM (β = .36, p = .012) and NAM–E (β = .27, p = .019) were significant positive predictors. Model comparisons based on AIC confirmed that including year 1 covariates substantially improved model fit. For all outcomes, models controlling for baseline scores yielded markedly lower AIC values than those without controls (dispositional resilience: 264 vs. 334; acquired resilience: 307 vs. 326; social skills: 324 vs. 343). The differences exceeded the conventional threshold (ΔAIC > 10), indicating clearly superior model fit. In summary, the year 2 levels of IM and NAM–E were consistently associated with higher dispositional resilience and social skills. Meanwhile, EMID uniquely predicted acquired resilience. These findings highlight that the cognitive and socioemotional aspects of academic motivation contribute to the development of noncognitive skills, even after accounting for baseline levels. 4. Discussion This study longitudinally examined the relationship between academic motivation and the development of noncognitive skills (specifically resilience and social skills) during the early stages of university education. The findings suggest that developmental changes in academic motivation are closely associated with the development of noncognitive skills. The analysis yielded four key findings. First, it confirmed a trend of declining academic motivation as students progressed academically, with a decrease in IM and EMID and an increase in AMOT. Second, no statistically significant growth in noncognitive skills was observed. Third, when examining the predictive power of initial motivational characteristics, extrinsic motivation in the first year (e.g., EMER and EMIN) was related to the subsequent growth of acquired resilience. Fourth, and most critically, when focusing on the changes in academic motivation, the increase in IM was strongly associated with the increase in all noncognitive skills. This suggests that while a student's initial motivational profile has some influence, developmental changes in motivation over time are more strongly associated with the growth of noncognitive skills. These results reaffirm the importance of intrinsic motivation as indicated by SDT while also suggesting that extrinsic motivation may play a developmental role in the initial stages. From an educational perspective, supporting the development of resilience and social skills can be achieved by appropriately leveraging extrinsic motivation in early university years while fostering a gradual shift toward intrinsic motivation (e.g., intellectual curiosity) and a focus on self-growth as students advance. 4.1 Changes in Resilience and Academic Motivation Across Academic Years Our results confirmed a trend wherein certain aspects of academic motivation (intrinsic motivation to know and identified regulation) significantly decreased from the first to the second year, whereas amotivation increased. By contrast, there were no significant changes in noncognitive skills (e.g., dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills). These results indicate a notable decline in academic motivation while also showing that noncognitive skills do not improve naturally over time. Compared with previous studies on noncognitive skills, our findings are not entirely consistent. For example, according to Martinez et al. ( 2025 ), the resilience of nursing students decreased as they progressed through their academic programme. Park et al. ( 2020 ) also observed a decline in social skills during the first two years after university admission. Conversely, Wang et al. ( 2022 ) found no significant change in the resilience levels of medical students. Similarly, Wu et al. ( 2020b ) reported that resilience among Chinese college students showed no significant longitudinal change over four years. These mixed results suggest that resilience does not uniformly improve across academic years and that changes in noncognitive skills may depend on the quality of the educational environment and learning experiences. Our findings suggest that the development of noncognitive skills is insufficiently promoted by academic progression or aging alone and requires intentional support within the curriculum. As indicated by Rudland et al. ( 2020 ), resilience and grit are nurtured by experiencing moderate stress and challenging situations. Therefore, university education that incorporates initiatives to deliberately foster these foundational noncognitive skills, while also creating an environment that sustains motivation from the first year, is crucial for promoting students’ long-term growth. 4.2 Influence of First-Year Motivational Characteristics on Resilience Growth This study examined the influence of first-year motivational characteristics on the enhancement of acquired resilience by the second year. A focus on external regulation significantly predicted an increase in resilience, whereas introjected regulation tended to suppress its growth. This finding suggests that it is not only the level of academic motivation but also its quality and direction that differentially influences the development of noncognitive skills. The positive influence of external regulation on the increase in students’ resilience may indicate that rewards and external approval serve as catalysts for enhancing a sense of achievement and self-efficacy in the early stages of learning, thereby fostering a positive attitude toward one’s potential for growth (Ryan & Deci, 2000 ). According to the concept of \"“internalization” in SDT, extrinsic motivation promotes sustained effort and adaptive behaviours when it is transformed into more self-determined motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000 ). Thus, in the first year, external rewards may function as an entry point to learning behaviours, creating a pathway that leads to the subsequent development of intrinsic motivation and resilience. Notably, introjected regulation tends to suppress resilience-building. Students with strong introjected regulation tend to engage in learning primarily to prove their self-worth to others. When this “ego involvement” is strong, students are more likely to associate failure with a negation of the self (Dweck & Leggett, 1988 ). Such a defensive posture can hinder flexible adaptation to difficulties and stress, potentially becoming a factor that impedes the growth of resilience. These results suggest that the appropriate use of external rewards in the early stages of learning is effective for fostering noncognitive skills. Meanwhile, creating a learning environment that mitigates an excessive focus on self-affirmation and is tolerant of failure is crucial. Future educational practices will need to support students in shifting the basis of their self-worth from “being evaluated” to “growing.” 4.3 Growth of Intrinsic Motivation and Development of Noncognitive Skills This study longitudinally examined the relationship between changes in academic motivation and the development of noncognitive skills from the first to the second year of university. Among the aspects of academic motivation, the growth of IM was significantly associated with the improvement of all noncognitive skills measured: dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills. Furthermore, although IM was the most consistent predictor of noncognitive skill development, EMID, which represents a more self-determined form of extrinsic motivation, was also associated with the improvement of acquired resilience. This suggests that not only intrinsic enjoyment but also recognising the personal value of learning can contribute to fostering adaptive resilience, consistent with the emphasis in self-determination theory on autonomous forms of motivation (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009 ). In addition, the results from the level-based models demonstrated the robustness of this association, showing that higher IM and NAM–E levels in the second year were still associated with higher dispositional resilience and social skill levels even after controlling for the baseline levels. This finding aligns with the self-determination theory (SDT) framework by demonstrating that increases in intrinsic motivation function as a psychological mechanism underlying the development of noncognitive skills. According to SDT, an increase in intrinsic motivation reflects an enhancement of autonomous academic drive, which is considered to promote deeper engagement in learning and improved self-regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2000 ). Previous studies have also reported that increased academic motivation contributes to better academic performance and lower dropout rates (Kryshko et al., 2020 ; Wu et al., 2020a ). Moreover, in Chen et al.’s ( 2022 ) cross-sectional study, academic motivation and goal-setting functioned as serial mediators in the pathway from emotional regulation to well-being and resilience, suggesting that academic motivation contributes to the development of emotional stability and adaptability. In addition, Ye et al. ( 2024 ) reported that self-efficacy enhances academic motivation, which in turn predicts academic resilience, and that academic motivation mediates the relationship between parenting styles and resilience. These findings theoretically support the notion that academic motivation can serve as a psychological mechanism underlying the development of noncognitive skills. However, many of these studies were cross-sectional, thereby limiting the verification of causality. A novel contribution of the present study is its use of a longitudinal design, allowing us to demonstrate that the growth of academic motivation is significantly associated with the development of resilience and social skills, thereby providing supplementary evidence for the developmental process wherein changes in motivation influence noncognitive skills. Notably, this study longitudinally supports the possibility that an increase in intrinsic motivation (namely, intellectual curiosity) leads not only to academic achievement but also to the cultivation of both internal skills such as resilience that foster psychological adaptability and external skills such as interpersonal competence that enhance collaborative communication in healthcare education. 4.4 Educational and Theoretical Implications The present findings provide several implications for understanding the developmental role of academic motivation in higher education. First, the results indicate that noncognitive skills such as resilience and social skills do not automatically improve through academic progression alone, despite students’ advancement in university years. This suggests that individual development in higher education should not be assumed to follow a linear trajectory driven solely by age or academic exposure, but rather depends on qualitative changes in motivational processes. Second, the strong and consistent association between the growth of intrinsic motivation (IM) and the development of noncognitive skills highlights the importance of motivational dynamics, rather than static motivational levels. This finding extends self-determination theory (SDT) by demonstrating that changes in autonomous motivation function as a developmental mechanism underlying psychological adaptability and interpersonal competence. From a theoretical perspective, the results suggest that intrinsic motivation may serve as a key driver linking academic engagement with broader psychosocial development. Third, the differential contributions of identified regulation (EMID) and enjoyment of youth (NAM–E) across outcomes indicate that both academic and socioemotional dimensions of motivation play distinct roles in shaping noncognitive skills. These findings underscore the need to conceptualize academic motivation as a multidimensional construct that encompasses not only learning-oriented motives but also motivational orientations related to social engagement and emotional fulfillment in university life. Importantly, the consistency of the associations observed in both change-based and level-based models strengthens the robustness of these conclusions. Even after controlling for baseline individual differences, year 2 levels of intrinsic motivation and enjoyment of youth remained significantly associated with noncognitive skill levels, suggesting that motivational development exerts a lasting influence beyond initial dispositions. Taken together, these findings contribute to the broader literature on student development by highlighting academic motivation as a dynamic psychological process that shapes noncognitive skill formation. Resilience and social skills are widely recognized as key protective factors against burnout in healthcare professionals. From this perspective, the present findings suggest that fostering academic motivation, particularly intrinsic motivation, may contribute indirectly to burnout prevention by supporting the development of these foundational noncognitive skills during higher education. From a higher education perspective, the results emphasize the importance of learning environments that support autonomy, personal meaning, and socioemotional engagement, thereby fostering not only academic success but also the development of adaptive capacities essential for long-term professional functioning. 5. Limitations Although this longitudinal study examined the changes in academic motivation and noncognitive skills in university students, it has several limitations. First, although validated and widely used scales were employed in this study and their validity was confirmed within the current sample, the data were based on self-report questionnaires. Therefore, potential influences of social desirability and self-presentation biases cannot be completely ruled out. Moreover, the possibility of a sample biased toward more highly motivated students cannot be denied because the analysis was limited to those who responded continuously over two years. Future studies should include students with more diverse backgrounds and employ a triangulated approach that combines self-reports with behavioural and objective measures. Second, although the findings are from a study conducted with Japanese students, they provide valuable longitudinal data from a non-Western context, contributing to a field where much of the research on motivation in healthcare professions has been performed in Western settings. Although cultural variations in values and practices should be acknowledged, the AMS is grounded in SDT, which posits that autonomy plays a universal functional role across cultures (Ryan & Deci, 2020 ). Thus, our findings may offer insights with potential relevance beyond the Japanese context. However, cross-cultural research must be conducted to verify whether our results can be replicated in other cultural settings. Third, how these variables affect future academic performance, clinical competence, or professional adaptation could not be determined in this study. Thus, future long-term follow-up studies are needed to connect the trajectories of academic motivation and noncognitive skills with concrete academic and professional outcomes. Future studies that address these limitations are needed to further clarify the causal relationships examined in this research. 6. Future Directions and Conclusion Taken together, the present findings support the view that academic motivation operates as a developmental mechanism underlying the formation of resilience and social skills in higher education. Fostering resilience and social skills is a critical issue that is directly linked to the quality of medical care and sustainability of the healthcare workforce because healthcare students, including those in physical therapy, are exposed to highly stressful situations, such as clinical placements and national examinations. Using the findings of this study as an evidence base, the development and evaluation of systematic educational programmes designed to cultivate noncognitive skills are identified as urgent priorities for future research and practice. Addressing these limitations will allow us to advance the elucidation of causal relationships, expand the research findings’ applicability, and translate the obtained knowledge into evidence-based educational interventions. Ultimately, these efforts may also contribute to mitigating burnout and supporting the long-term sustainability of the healthcare workforce. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical approval This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocol was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committees of [University A, Redacted for Peer Review] (Approval No: R1-029; approved on 8 May 2020) and [University B, Redacted for Peer Review] (Approval No: 2023-1; approved on 19 May 2023). Informed consent Informed consent was obtained electronically from all individual participants prior to each annual data collection wave via the online survey system. Data were collected annually between April and May from 2021 to 2024. Participants reviewed the study information, including the purpose and data protection protocols, and provided consent before each survey administration. Participation was voluntary, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time. Author Contribution JK: conceptualisation, methodology, data analysis, writing (original draft, review and editing), project administration, participant recruitment, resources;YS: conceptualisation, methodology, data analysis, writing (review and editing), participant recruitment, resources;AO: conceptualisation, methodology, investigation, data curation, writing (review and editing), participant recruitment, resources;YK: investigation, data curation, writing (review and editing), consultation;AH: investigation, data curation, writing (review and editing), consultation;DF: data analysis, writing (review and editing), consultation;TT: investigation, participant recruitment, writing (review and editing), consultation. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Takahiro Mishina (Health Science University) and Kazuto Ishida (Nagoya Aoi University) for their valuable contributions. The authors would also like to acknowledge the Research Institute of Integrated Sciences and Humanities, Nagoya Aoi University, for providing research support for this project. The authors are grateful to these universities for supporting data collection and to the physical therapy students for participating in this study. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to participant privacy and the lack of informed consent for public data sharing. However, for the purpose of editorial evaluation and peer review, these datasets (both raw and processed versions) have been provided to the editors and reviewers. Beyond the review process, the data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References American Psychological Association (n.d.) Resilience. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience. Accessed 1 Nov 2025 Aragaki N, Tsuzuki Y (2016) The effects of motivation patterns on lifestyle, satisfaction, and occupational values among university students. J Soc Innov Stud 11:159–178 [in Japanese] Boone A, Braeckman L, Michels N et al (2025) Burnout in medical education: Interventions from a co-creation process. BMC Med Educ 25:230. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-06833-4 Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multimodel inference: A practical information-theoretic approach, 2nd edn. Springer, New York Calo M, Judd B, Chipchase L et al (2022) Grit, resilience, mindset, and academic success in physical therapist students: A cross-sectional, multicenter study. Phys Ther 102:pzac038. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/pzac038 Chen X, Huang Z, Lin W (2022) The effect of emotion regulation on happiness and resilience of university students: The chain mediating role of learning motivation and target positioning. Front Psychol 13:1029655. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1029655 Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR (1993) A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50:975–990. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008 Corrado B, Ciardi G, Fortunato L et al (2019) Burnout syndrome among Italian physiotherapists: A cross-sectional study. Eur J Physiother 21:240–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/21679169.2018.1536765 Dweck CS, Leggett EL (1988) A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychol Rev 95:256–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256 George D, Mallery P (2003) SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference, 4th edn. Allyn & Bacon, Boston Goldstein AP, Sprafkin RP, Gershaw NJ et al (1986) The adolescent: Social skills training through structured learning. In: Cartledge G, Milburn JF (eds) Teaching social skills to children: Innovative approaches. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 249–277 Hirano M (2010) A study of the classification of resilience factors: Development of the Bidimensional Resilience Scale (BRS). Jpn J Personal 19:94–106 [in Japanese] Ho SS, Sosina W, DePierro JM et al (2024) Promoting resilience in healthcare workers: A preventative mental health education program. Int J Environ Res Public Health 21:1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21101365 Hodkinson A, Zhou A, Johnson J et al (2022) Associations of physician burnout with career engagement and quality of patient care: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 378:e070442. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2022-070442 Kikuchi A, Horike K (1994) Development of the 18-item version of Kikuchi’s Scale of Social Skills (KiSS-18). Jpn J Educ Psychol 42:292–300 [in Japanese] Kim JH, Kim AR, Kim MG et al (2020) Burnout syndrome and work-related stress in physical and occupational therapists working in different types of hospitals: Which group is the most vulnerable? Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:5001. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145001 Kotera Y, Aledeh M, Barnes K et al (2022) Academic motivation of Indonesian university students: Relationship with self-compassion and resilience. Healthcare 10:2092. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10102092 Kryshko O, Fleischer J, Waldeyer J et al (2020) Do motivational regulation strategies contribute to university students’ academic success? Learn Individ Differ 82:101912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101912 Martinez WD, Casaleiro T, de Souza Menezes JD et al (2025) Mental health and resilience in nursing students: A longitudinal study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 22:735. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22050735 McAllister M, McKinnon J (2009) The importance of teaching and learning resilience in the health disciplines: A critical review of the literature. Nurse Educ Today 29:371–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2008.10.011 Müller FH, Palekčić M (2005) Continuity of motivation in higher education: A three-year follow-up study. Rev Psychol 12:31–43 Niemiec CP, Ryan RM (2009) Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory Res Educ 7:133–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509104318 Pan Y, Gauvain M (2012) The continuity of college students’ autonomous learning motivation and its predictors: A three-year longitudinal study. Learn Individ Differ 22:92–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.11.010 Park CL, Williams MK, Hernandez PR et al (2020) Development of emotion regulation across the first two years of college. J Adolesc 84:230–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.09.009 Pérez-Fuentes MC, Molero Jurado MM, Martos Martínez Á et al (2020) Burnout and psychological health among health professionals: The mediating role of emotional intelligence. Front Psychol 11:1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00706 Pugliese M, Brismée JM, Allen B et al (2023) Mentorship and self-efficacy are associated with lower burnout in physical therapists in the United States: A cross-sectional survey study. J Educ Eval Health Prof 20:27. https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2023.20.27 Ratelle CF, Guay F, Vallerand RJ et al (2007) Autonomous, controlled, and amotivated types of academic motivation: A person-oriented analysis. J Educ Psychol 99:734–746. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.734 Rudland JR, Golding C, Wilkinson TJ (2020) The stress paradox: How stress can be good for learning. Med Educ 54:40–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13830 Ryan RM, Deci EL (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am Psychol 55(1):68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Ryan RM, Deci EL (2020) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemp Educ Psychol 61:101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Sakamoto Y, Amari T, Shimo S (2018) The relationship between pain psychological factors and job stress in rehabilitation workers with or without chronic pain. Work 61:357–365. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-182814 Shah A, Mian N, Ahmad I et al (2025) Teamwork and therapeutic communication among health care providers on patient satisfaction at Saidu Group of Teaching Hospital. medtigo J Med 3:30623112. https://doi.org/10.63096/medtigo30623112 Santos MC, Barros L, Carolino E (2010) Occupational stress and coping resources in physiotherapists: A survey of physiotherapists in three general hospitals. Physiotherapy 96:303–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physio.2010.03.001 Vallerand RJ, Fortier MS, Guay F (1997) Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high school dropout. J Pers Soc Psychol 72:1161–1176. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.72.5.1161 Wang Q, Sun W, Wu H (2022) Associations between academic burnout, resilience and life satisfaction among medical students: A three-wave longitudinal study. BMC Med Educ 22:248. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03326-6 Wu H, Li S, Zheng J (2020a) Medical students’ motivation and academic performance: The mediating roles of self-efficacy and learning engagement. Med Educ Online 25:1712954. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2020.1712954 Wu Y, Sang ZQ, Zhang XC et al (2020b) The relationship between resilience and mental health in Chinese college students: A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis. Front Psychol 11:108. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2020.1742964 Yang CC, Tsai IC, Kim B et al (2006) Exploring the relationships between students’ academic motivation and social ability in online learning environments. Internet High Educ 9:277–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2006.08.002 Ye S, Jenatabadi HS, Ye M et al (2024) Academic resilience, self-efficacy, and motivation: The role of parenting style. Sci Rep 14:5571. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-55530-7 Zwack J, Schweitzer J (2013) If every fifth physician is affected by burnout, what about the other four? Resilience strategies of experienced physicians. Acad Med 88:382–389. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e318281696b Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryTableHSSC260115.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 10 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 May, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 06 May, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 27 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 26 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 24 Feb, 2026 First submitted to journal 24 Feb, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {\"props\":{\"pageProps\":{\"initialData\":{\"identity\":\"rs-8635370\",\"acceptedTermsAndConditions\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"archivedVersions\":[],\"articleType\":\"Article\",\"associatedPublications\":[],\"authors\":[{\"id\":637655048,\"identity\":\"620e8c6f-6ebd-4505-888b-91b54737dadf\",\"order_by\":0,\"name\":\"Junya Komagata\",\"email\":\"data:image/png;base64,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\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Nagoya Aoi University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":true,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Junya\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Komagata\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":637655049,\"identity\":\"b64178d7-03c0-4123-9954-03282b2b778d\",\"order_by\":1,\"name\":\"Yuta Sakamoto\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Health Science University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Yuta\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Sakamoto\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":637655050,\"identity\":\"34f00af0-e34c-4eb8-9fdb-cf4194a663c2\",\"order_by\":2,\"name\":\"Atsuya Otsuka\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"International University of Health and Welfare\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Atsuya\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Otsuka\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":637655051,\"identity\":\"c8db385e-dec2-4062-84c8-86d4abb00723\",\"order_by\":3,\"name\":\"Yuki Komatsu\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Kamiina Seikyo Hospital\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Yuki\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Komatsu\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":637655052,\"identity\":\"61b2d093-70a3-48d3-b02a-670644ab6b53\",\"order_by\":4,\"name\":\"Aya Hasegawa\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Nagoya Aoi University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Aya\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Hasegawa\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":637655053,\"identity\":\"e3f39128-de5c-4fc6-96b7-7596cad89b40\",\"order_by\":5,\"name\":\"Daisuke Fujita\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Fukuoka International University of Health and Welfare\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Daisuke\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Fujita\",\"suffix\":\"\"},{\"id\":637655054,\"identity\":\"9a91dab4-1b62-4cb2-8de3-19c47004ad05\",\"order_by\":6,\"name\":\"Toru Tamaki\",\"email\":\"\",\"orcid\":\"\",\"institution\":\"Nagoya Aoi University\",\"correspondingAuthor\":false,\"prefix\":\"\",\"firstName\":\"Toru\",\"middleName\":\"\",\"lastName\":\"Tamaki\",\"suffix\":\"\"}],\"badges\":[],\"createdAt\":\"2026-01-19 05:38:41\",\"currentVersionCode\":1,\"declarations\":\"\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8635370/v1\",\"doiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8635370/v1\",\"draftVersion\":[],\"editorialEvents\":[],\"editorialNote\":\"\",\"failedWorkflow\":false,\"files\":[{\"id\":109324072,\"identity\":\"95ffcb12-7bad-4068-acd4-6f6dcfa8db2b\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-05-15 14:16:48\",\"extension\":\"jpeg\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"Figure 1\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":450053,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eParticipant flow diagram and final analytic sample selection.\\u003c/strong\\u003e Questionnaires were distributed to 277 first-year university students (Year 1), and 194 valid responses were obtained. Among these respondents, 131 participants completed both the Year 1 and Year 2 surveys. At follow-up (Year 2), 52 participants did not respond and 11 participants discontinued enrollment. Two participants declined participation or withdrew consent, resulting in a final analytic sample of 129 participants.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage1.jpeg\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8635370/v1/1f8d75b12cd7727e8d2503bc.jpeg\"},{\"id\":109324075,\"identity\":\"724f0d45-0121-4aea-a7a6-0d37b636e333\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-05-15 14:16:52\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":842054,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8635370/v1/d67f330a-d7fc-400c-bbd3-98e90eced761.pdf\"},{\"id\":109324073,\"identity\":\"94940e90-22a4-4f7c-9e86-3352a00a6618\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2026-05-15 14:16:48\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"supplement\",\"size\":150297,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"SupplementaryTableHSSC260115.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8635370/v1/aa9410341d7c8a5b5b2601c8.pdf\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Academic Motivation as a Developmental Process for Resilience and Social Skills in Higher Education: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study of Japanese Physical Therapy Students\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"1. Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eIn higher education, understanding how changes in academic motivation shape the development of resilience and social skills is critical for supporting students\\u0026rsquo; long-term psychological and professional adaptation. Physical therapists and other healthcare professionals are often exposed to high levels of psychological and physical stress, which places them at a substantial risk of burnout. Burnout is a prevalent occupational phenomenon in healthcare professions and is closely associated with chronic workplace stress and adverse outcomes. Previous studies have reported that a substantial proportion of physical therapists experience burnout or elevated occupational stress across both international and Japanese contexts (Santos et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR33\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2010\\u003c/span\\u003e; Corrado et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR8\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2019\\u003c/span\\u003e; Sakamoto et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR31\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2018\\u003c/span\\u003e; Pugliese et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR26\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2023\\u003c/span\\u003e). Importantly, evidence suggests that burnout-related problems are not confined to experienced clinicians but can begin to emerge during the early stages of a healthcare career (Kim et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e), raising concerns about their potential impact on the quality and safety of patient care (Hodkinson et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). Despite the urgent need for effective burnout interventions, current medical education still lacks systematic, organization-level programmes embedded in curricula (Boone et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e). To address this educational gap, recent studies have emphasised the importance of noncognitive skills, particularly resilience and social skills, as key components of effective stress coping (Ho et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e). As \\u0026ldquo;the process and outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or challenging life experiences\\u0026rdquo; (American Psychological Association, n.d.), resilience is associated with job satisfaction and mental health and mitigates burnout (McAllister \\u0026amp; McKinnon, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR20\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2009\\u003c/span\\u003e; Zwack \\u0026amp; Schweitzer, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR40\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2013\\u003c/span\\u003e). A recent multicenter study revealed that approximately 25% of physical therapy students had low resilience levels (Calo et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR5\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e), highlighting the need for early educational interventions. However, despite the established importance of these skills, the dynamic longitudinal processes and motivational mechanisms that drive their development during higher education remain insufficiently explored.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn addition to internal coping abilities such as resilience, external interpersonal competencies also play a key role in maintaining psychological well-being among healthcare professionals. For healthcare professionals, social skills have long been recognized as fundamental to effective therapeutic interventions. The ability to communicate empathically, collaborate within multidisciplinary teams, and build constructive relationships with patients is essential for achieving favorable clinical outcomes (Shah et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR32\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e). In recent years, attention has shifted from viewing these skills solely as tools for improving care quality to recognising their role as protective factors against burnout. Interpersonal competencies such as effective communication, teamwork, and the ability to manage interpersonal difficulties have been shown to be closely linked to healthier psychosocial functioning among healthcare providers. Previous studies indicate that these skills contribute to more supportive work environments and are associated with lower levels of occupational stress and burnout symptoms (P\\u0026eacute;rez-Fuentes et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR25\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e). Taken together, resilience and social skills represent complementary aspects of noncognitive competence, encompassing internal coping abilities that support psychological stability and external interpersonal competencies that sustain collaborative practice. Accordingly, physical therapy education programmes need to foster noncognitive skills, including resilience to cope with stress and social skills to build therapeutic relationships.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhile resilience and social skills are essential for sustaining professional well-being, fostering these skills within the curriculum presents challenges, particularly given that declining academic motivation is a common problem in higher education. The initial enthusiasm of students often decreases as they face increasing academic loads and greater academic demands. This issue is particularly relevant in Japan, where an unsupported transition from passive high school learning to active university learning results in decreased motivation. This trend has been highlighted in longitudinal studies. For example, M\\u0026uuml;ller and Palekčić (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR21\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2005\\u003c/span\\u003e) reported a \\u0026ldquo;v-shaped\\u0026rdquo; pattern of change and a substantial drop in motivation among medical students by the end of their second year. Similarly, Pan and Gauvain (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR23\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2012\\u003c/span\\u003e) demonstrated a significant decline in intrinsic motivation from the first to the second year. On the basis of these findings, the second year is a critical turning point, making the maintenance of motivation a key challenge in university education.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe framework of self-determination theory (SDT) categorises academic motivation as follows: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation (AMOT). Intrinsic motivation is associated with well-being and academic achievement, whereas extrinsic motivation can serve as a catalyst in the initial learning stages (Ryan \\u0026amp; Deci, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e). According to recent studies, noncognitive factors, such as resilience and social skills, are related to academic motivation (Yang et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR38\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2006\\u003c/span\\u003e; Kotera et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR17\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). Although these factors are thought to be interrelated, most previous studies have been cross-sectional. Thus, the longitudinal relationship between motivation changes and noncognitive skill development remains unclear. To address this gap, the present study aimed to longitudinally track academic motivation and noncognitive skills among physical therapy students from their first to second year. The specific purpose was to clarify how the \\u0026ldquo;level\\u0026rdquo; of and \\u0026ldquo;change\\u0026rdquo; in academic motivation contribute to the development of resilience and social skills. By doing so, this study advances the literature by conceptualising changes in academic motivation as a developmental process underlying the formation of noncognitive skills, rather than treating motivation as a static individual trait. Clarifying this relationship may offer useful implications for developing educational programmes that enhance resilience and social skills in healthcare professional training.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2. Methods\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Study Design\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eA two-year longitudinal cohort design was used in this study. The reporting adheres to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec4\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.2 Ethics Approval\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocol was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committees of [University A, Redacted for Peer Review] (Approval No: R1-029, approved on 8 May 2020) and [University B, Redacted for Peer Review] (Approval No: 2023-1, approved on 19 May 2023).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cstrong\\u003eInformed consent\\u003c/strong\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ewas obtained electronically from all participants at each wave of data collection. Data were collected annually between April and May from 2021 to 2024, and participants provided informed consent prior to each survey administration.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.3 Participants and Setting\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe participants were physical therapy students from two Japanese universities, one urban and one regional. A total of 129 students (84 males and 45 females; mean age at baseline: 18.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;0.6 years) who completed surveys in their first and second academic years were included in the final analysis. The participating universities shared a similar curriculum structure based on national standards for physical therapy education in Japan. The timing of the surveys and the measurement instruments used were identical across institutions. A flow diagram of participant recruitment, follow-up, and inclusion in the final analysis is presented in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec6\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.4 Data Collection\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eData were collected via online surveys that were administered between April and May of the first (baseline) and second (follow-up) academic years. To ensure comparability across time points, surveys were conducted during the same academic period each year, immediately following the start of the new semester (in Japan, the academic year begins in April).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.5 Measures\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.5.1 Academic Motivation\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAlthough the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) is widely used internationally (Vallerand et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR34\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1997\\u003c/span\\u003e) and was later reinterpreted by Ratelle et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR27\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2007\\u003c/span\\u003e), it does not fully capture the cultural characteristics of Japanese university students. To address this limitation, Aragaki and Tsuzuki (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2016\\u003c/span\\u003e) developed the Japanese version of the AMS (AMS-J), which incorporates two culturally specific factors: enjoyment of youth (reflecting the motivation to enjoy the social and extracurricular aspects of university life) and expectations of others (reflecting the motivation to meet the expectations of significant others and society). The AMS-J comprises 28 items across seven factors, which are rated on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (\\u0026ldquo;Does not correspond at all\\u0026rdquo;) to 7 (\\u0026ldquo;Corresponds exactly\\u0026rdquo;): AMOT, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; external regulation (EMER), extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; introjected regulation (EMIN), extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; identified regulation (EMID), intrinsic motivation (IM), non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; enjoyment of youth (NAM\\u0026ndash;E), and non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; expectations of others (NAM\\u0026ndash;EX). The reliability and validity of the AMS-J have been empirically confirmed (Aragaki \\u0026amp; Tsuzuki, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2016\\u003c/span\\u003e), and the scale has since been widely used in studies involving Japanese university students.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec9\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.5.2 Noncognitive Skills\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNoncognitive skills were assessed from two dimensions (i.e., resilience and social skills). Resilience was measured using the Bidimensional Resilience Scale (BRS), which was developed by Hirano (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR12\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2010\\u003c/span\\u003e). A key feature of this scale, which is based on Cloninger et al.\\u0026rsquo;s (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1993\\u003c/span\\u003e) Temperament and Character Inventory, is that it can distinguish between \\u0026ldquo;dispositional resilience\\u0026rdquo; and \\u0026ldquo;acquired resilience.\\u0026rdquo; In the present study, these two primary scales were used for analysis.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSocial skills were evaluated using Kikuchi\\u0026rsquo;s Scale of Social Skills (KiSS-18), which was developed by Kikuchi and Horike (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1994\\u003c/span\\u003e). This 18-item scale is based on the theoretical framework of Goldstein et al.\\u0026rsquo;s social skills model (Goldstein, 1986). Moreover, its reliability and validity have been established (Kikuchi \\u0026amp; Horike, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR15\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1994\\u003c/span\\u003e). The total score of the KiSS-18 is used as a comprehensive indicator of social skills in clinical and educational settings.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec10\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e2.6 Statistical Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn the present study, change scores were calculated for all AMS-J factors and noncognitive skill variables by subtracting the year 1 score from the corresponding year 2 score (year 2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;year 1). These scores were used to represent individual developmental changes over the one-year period and served as key variables in the growth-based analyses described below. All statistical analyses were performed using JMP (version 17, SAS Institute) and R (version 4.3.2), and the significance level was set at p \\u0026lt; .05. First, each scale\\u0026rsquo;s reliability was confirmed using Cronbach\\u0026rsquo;s alpha, with α\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;.70 as the criterion. Cronbach\\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients were used to assess internal consistency, with α\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026ge;\\u0026thinsp;.70 considered acceptable, α\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026ge;\\u0026thinsp;.80 regarded as good, and α\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026ge;\\u0026thinsp;.90 as excellent reliability (George \\u0026amp; Mallery, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2003\\u003c/span\\u003e). The target scales included the AMS-J (7 factors and 28 items), BRS (dispositional and acquired resilience, 21 items), and KiSS-18 (18 items). The normality of each variable was assessed using the Shapiro\\u0026ndash;Wilk test. Among the 20 variables analysed (seven AMS-J factors and three noncognitive skill variables, each measured in both the first and second years), only three showed an approximately normal distribution, while the others deviated from normality. Therefore, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for paired comparisons between the first- and second-year scores for each AMS-J factor and noncognitive skill. Furthermore, a series of multiple regression analyses was performed to examine the influence of academic motivation on the development of noncognitive skills. First, a baseline analysis was performed with year 1 AMS-J factors as independent variables and year 2 noncognitive skills as dependent variables. Second, a change score analysis was conducted with year 1 AMS-J factors as independent variables and the change in noncognitive skills as the dependent variable. Third, a growth-based multiple regression analysis was conducted using the change scores of the AMS-J factors as independent variables to predict the change scores of noncognitive skills. To evaluate the relative contribution of each motivational factor within these models, a relative importance analysis was performed using the Lindeman, Merenda, and Gold (LMG) method. In accordance with its interpretation as a proportion of explained variance, LMG values were constrained to be non-negative and normalized to sum to 100% within each outcome variable. Fourth, to examine the developmental influence of academic motivation beyond baseline individual differences, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted in which year 2 AMS-J factors were used to predict year 2 noncognitive skills after controlling for baseline levels of academic motivation and noncognitive skills from year 1. To confirm the appropriateness of including baseline covariates, model fit was compared using Akaike\\u0026rsquo;s Information Criterion (AIC). This comparison verified that including Year 1 scores as covariates substantially improved model fit, supporting the validity of controlling for baseline levels (Burnham \\u0026amp; Anderson, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR4\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2002\\u003c/span\\u003e). The presence of multicollinearity was checked for all analyses. Missing data were examined, and participants with incomplete paired responses or who declined further participation were excluded from all analyses. Consequently, the final analyses included data from 129 participants who completed both the first- and second-year surveys.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.1 Scale Reliability\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCronbach\\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients were calculated to confirm each scale\\u0026rsquo;s internal consistency. For the AMS-J (28 items), all factors except NAM\\u0026ndash;EX showed high reliability (α\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;.82). In addition, the NAM\\u0026ndash;EX factor demonstrated an acceptable level of internal consistency (α\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.632). For the resilience scale, dispositional resilience (α\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.858) and acquired resilience (α\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.700) met the reliability criterion. The KiSS-18 showed good internal consistency (α\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.880).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec13\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.2 Comparison between Academic Years\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe AMS-J subscales were compared between the first and second academic years. AMOT significantly increased from 7.8\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.8 in the first year to 10.0\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.5 in the second year (Z\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;3.29, p \\u0026lt; .01). However, EMID and IM significantly decreased from 18.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;2.4 and 22.7\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.4 in the first year to 16.8\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.4 (Z\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;3.51, p \\u0026lt; .01) and 20.5\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;4.7 (Z\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;3.92, p \\u0026lt; .01), respectively. No significant changes were observed for the other factors: EMER (Z\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;0.26, p = .80), EMIN (Z\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1.52, p = .13), NAM\\u0026ndash;E (Z\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;1.90, p = .06), and NAM\\u0026ndash;EX (Z\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.09, p = .93).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWith regard to noncognitive skills, no statistically significant changes were observed for dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, or social skills between the first and second years (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eComparison of academic motivation (subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale) and noncognitive skills between the first and second year\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eVariable\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eYear 1 Mean\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;SD\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eYear 2 Mean\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;SD\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eChange Mean\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;SD\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c6\\\" namest=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep value\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eZ value\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAMOT\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.8\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10.0\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;4.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep \\u0026lt; .01\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e3.29\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMER\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e19.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e19.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.1\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep = .80\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.26\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMIN\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e16.9\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e15.9\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.0\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep = .13\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.52\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMID\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e18.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;2.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e16.8\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.4\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep \\u0026lt; .01\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-3.51\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eIM\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e22.7\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e20.5\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;4.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-2.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;4.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep \\u0026lt; .01\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-3.92\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM-E\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e23.5\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e22.1\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;6.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.3\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep = .06\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026dagger;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.90\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM-EX\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10.2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e10.3\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.1\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;3.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep = .93\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.09\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eDispositional resilience\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e43.0\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;7.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e41.3\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;8.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.7\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;6.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep = .10\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026dagger;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.67\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAcquired resilience\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e33.8\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;4.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e33.0\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;5.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.8\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;4.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep = .23\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.20\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eSocial skills\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e60.8\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;8.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e59.7\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;9.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\"\\u0026plusmn;\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-1.1\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;10.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ep = .48\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.71\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003ctfoot\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"8\\\"\\u003eNote: Values are expressed as the means\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;standard deviations. Comparisons between year 1 and year 2 were performed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM-E, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; enjoyment of youth; NAM\\u0026ndash;EX, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; expectations of others. \\u0026dagger; p \\u0026lt; .10, * p \\u0026lt; .05, and ** p \\u0026lt; .01.\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tfoot\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThese findings suggest a decline in specific aspects of academic motivation, reflected in increased AMOT and decreased EMID and IM. However, no clear developmental trend was observed for noncognitive skills.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec14\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.3 Predicting Year 2 Noncognitive Skills from Year 1 AMS-J Factors\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMultiple regression analysis was performed to determine whether the seven AMS-J factors in Year 1 could predict Year 2 noncognitive skills (dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills). Multicollinearity was not a concern in any regression model (all variance inflation factors [VIFs] were \\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;5).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn the dispositional resilience model, no significant predictors were identified, although NAM\\u0026ndash;EX showed a trend-level negative association (β = \\u0026minus;0.19, p = .098). In the acquired resilience model, EMER emerged as a significant positive predictor (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.28, p = .013), suggesting that higher external regulation was associated with greater acquired resilience. In the social skills model, EMID demonstrated a trend-level positive association (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.22, p = .093) (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e; see Supplementary Table \\u003cspan refid=\\\"MOESM1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003eS1\\u003c/span\\u003e for the complete results).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMultiple regression analysis predicting year 2 noncognitive skills from year 1 subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-J)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePredictor (AMS-J)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDispositional resilience β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAcquired resilience β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSocial skills β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAMOT\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.05 (.67)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.02 (.83)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.13 (.22)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMER\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.01 (.93)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.28 (.01)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.15 (.20)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMIN\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.01 (.96)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.19 (.14)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.13 (.32)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMID\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.15 (.23)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.13 (.30)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.22 (.09)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026dagger;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eIM\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.18 (.20)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.20 (.11)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.14 (.28)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM-E\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.01 (.94)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.02 (.84)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.02 (.86)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM-EX\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.19 (.098) \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026dagger;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.19 (.10)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.14 (.22)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003ctfoot\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"7\\\"\\u003eNote: Values are standardized regression coefficients (β) with p-values in parentheses. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM\\u0026ndash;E, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; enjoyment of youth; NAM\\u0026ndash;EX, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; expectations of others. \\u0026dagger; p \\u0026lt; .10 and * p \\u0026lt; .05.\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tfoot\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOverall, these findings suggest that among the Year 1 dimensions of academic motivation, EMER and EMID may contribute to noncognitive skill development by Year 2, whereas other motivational factors (e.g., AMOT and NAM\\u0026ndash;EX) showed no clear associations.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec15\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.4 Predicting the Growth of Noncognitive Skills from Year 1 AMS-J Factor Scores\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMultiple regression analysis was performed using the year 1 AMS-J factor scores as independent variables and the growth of noncognitive skills (i.e., change scores for dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills) as dependent variables.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFor dispositional resilience, no statistically significant predictors were identified, and the overall model only showed a trend-level effect (F(7,121)\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.56, p = .155, adjusted R\\u0026sup2; = .03). However, EMER demonstrated a positive trend (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.22, p = .068). By contrast, the acquired resilience model was significant (F(7,121)\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;2.33, p = .029, adjusted R\\u0026sup2; = .068). In this model, EMER was a significant positive predictor (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.27, p = .019), whereas EMIN was a significant negative predictor (β = \\u0026minus;.26, p = .043). The social skills model was not significant overall (F(7,121)\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;1.32, p = .248, adjusted R\\u0026sup2; = .017) although EMER and EMIN showed trend-level effects (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.22, p = .061, and β = \\u0026minus;.26, p = .052, respectively) (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e; see Supplementary Table S2 for the complete results).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMultiple regression analysis predicting changes in noncognitive skills from year 1 subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-J)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePredictor (AMS-J)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔDispositional resilience β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔAcquired resilience β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔSocial skills β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAMOT\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.02 (.88)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.08 (.47)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.05 (.64)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMER\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.22 (.07)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026dagger;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.27 (.02)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.22 (.06)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026dagger;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMIN\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.08 (.57)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.26 (.04)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.26 (.05)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026dagger;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMID\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.17 (.20)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.16 (.20)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.16 (.21)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eIM\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.11 (.41)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.14 (.27)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.03 (.82)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM\\u0026ndash;E\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.05 (.63)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.06 (.55)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.04 (.72)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM\\u0026ndash;EX\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.12 (.32)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.04 (.73)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.04 (.71)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003ctfoot\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"7\\\"\\u003eNote: Values are standardized regression coefficients (β) with p-values in parentheses. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM\\u0026ndash;E, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; enjoyment of youth; NAM\\u0026ndash;EX, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; expectations of others. \\u0026dagger; p \\u0026lt; .10 and * p \\u0026lt; .05.\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tfoot\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThese findings suggest that EMER in the first year may contribute to the growth of acquired resilience, whereas EMIN may hinder it. Associations with the growth of dispositional resilience and social skills were limited.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.5 Predicting the Growth of Noncognitive Skills from the Growth of AMS-J Factors\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMultiple regression analysis was performed using the growth (change scores) of AMS-J factors as independent variables to predict the growth (change scores) of noncognitive skills (e.g., dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFor dispositional resilience, the overall model was significant (F(7,121)\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;8.77, p \\u0026lt; .001, adjusted R\\u0026sup2; = .30). Among the predictors, the growth of IM showed a significant positive effect (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.40, p \\u0026lt; .001), and additionally, the growth of NAM\\u0026ndash;E was a significant positive predictor (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.21, p = .029). The model was also significant for acquired resilience (F(7,121)\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;6.01, p \\u0026lt; .001, adjusted R\\u0026sup2; = .215). In this model, the growth of IM (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.31, p = .008) and EMID (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.26, p = .025) emerged as significant positive predictors. For social skills, the overall model was statistically significant (F(7,121)\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;6.24, p \\u0026lt; .001, adjusted R\\u0026sup2; = .223). In this model, the growth of IM (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.35, p = .003) and NAM\\u0026ndash;E (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.24, p = .020) were significantly associated with the growth of social skills (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e4\\u003c/span\\u003e; see Supplementary Table S3 for the complete results).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab4\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 4\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMultiple regression analysis predicting changes in noncognitive skills from the changes in the subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-J)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePredictor (ΔAMS-J)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔdispositional resilience β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔAcquired resilience β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔSocial skills β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAMOT\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.07 (.44)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.03 (.73)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.05 (.59)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMER\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.00 (.99)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.03 (.79)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.04 (.70)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMIN\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.03 (.78)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.06 (.62)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.11 (.33)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMID\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.14 (.19)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.26 (.025)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.00 (.98)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eIM\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.40 (\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;.001)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.31 (.008)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.35 (.003)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM\\u0026ndash;E\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.21 (.029)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.01 (.90)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.24 (.02)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM\\u0026ndash;EX\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.12 (.20)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.09 (.39)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.10 (.31)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003ctfoot\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"7\\\"\\u003eNote: Values are standardized regression coefficients (β) with p-values in parentheses. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM\\u0026ndash;E, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; enjoyment of youth; NAM\\u0026ndash;EX, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; expectations of others. * p \\u0026lt; .05, ** p \\u0026lt; .01, and *** p \\u0026lt; .001.\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tfoot\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTaken together, these findings indicate that the growth of IM was most consistently and strongly associated with the growth of all noncognitive skills. Moreover, the growth of EMID and NAM\\u0026ndash;E contributed to the development of resilience and interpersonal skills.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec17\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.6 Relative Importance of AMS-J Growth Factors in Predicting the Growth of Noncognitive Skills\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eBuilding on the results of the growth-based regression analyses reported in Section \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3.5\\u003c/span\\u003e, a relative importance analysis using the LMG method was conducted for each growth-based multiple regression model to quantify the relative contribution of changes in AMS-J factors to the development of noncognitive skills (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab5\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 5\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eRelative importance (LMG, normalized %) of changes in academic motivation (ΔAMS-J) for predicting changes in noncognitive skills\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"14\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\" colnum=\\\"8\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\" colnum=\\\"9\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\" colnum=\\\"10\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\" colnum=\\\"11\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\" colnum=\\\"12\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\" colnum=\\\"13\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\" colnum=\\\"14\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"1\\\" rowspan=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePredictor (ΔAMS-J)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c5\\\" namest=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔDispositional resilience\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c9\\\" namest=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔAcquired resilience\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"3\\\" nameend=\\\"c13\\\" namest=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eΔSocial skills\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eβ\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLMG%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eβ\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLMG%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eβ\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eLMG%\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAMOT\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.07\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.03\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.05\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMER\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;0.00\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;0.03\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4.2\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;0.04\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMIN\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;0.03\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e4.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.06\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e5.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e12.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMID\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.15\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e22.6\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.24\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e34.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.01\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e11.4\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eIM\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.40\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e44.7\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e***\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.32\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e45.3\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.34\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e40.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM\\u0026ndash;E\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.21\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e19.8\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.02\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e7.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.24\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e28.0\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM\\u0026ndash;EX\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;0.12\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.1\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;0.09\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e1.9\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u0026minus;0.11\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e2.5\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAdjusted R\\u0026sup2;\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.30\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c8\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.21\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c9\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c10\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c11\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c12\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.22\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c13\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c14\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003ctfoot\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"14\\\"\\u003eNote: \\u003cb\\u003eβ\\u003c/b\\u003e values represent standardized regression coefficients derived from multiple regression analyses using change scores (Year 2\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;Year 1). Relative importance values (LMG, %) were calculated using the LMG method and normalized to sum to 100% within each outcome, indicating the proportional contribution of each AMS-J subscale to the explained variance, independent of effect direction. Asterisks denote statistical significance (*p \\u0026lt; .05, **p \\u0026lt; .01, ***p \\u0026lt; .001). Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, external regulation; EMIN, introjected regulation; EMID, identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM\\u0026ndash;E, enjoyment of youth; NAM\\u0026ndash;EX, expectations of others.\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tfoot\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFor dispositional resilience, the growth of IM accounted for the largest proportion of explained variance (LMG\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;44.7%, β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.40, p \\u0026lt; .001), followed by EMID (22.6%) and NAM\\u0026ndash;E (19.8%). The contributions of the remaining factors, including AMOT, EMER, EMIN and NAM\\u0026ndash;EX, were comparatively small (each \\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;5%). For acquired resilience, IM (45.3%) and EMID (34.3%) together accounted for approximately 80% of the explained variance, indicating that changes in these two motivational components were the dominant contributors to growth in acquired resilience. The relative importance of the other AMS-J factors was limited, with each accounting for 7.0% or less of the explained variance. For social skills, IM again showed the highest relative importance (40.1%), followed by NAM\\u0026ndash;E (28.0%), EMIN (12.9%), and EMID (11.4%). The remaining motivational factors contributed minimally to the explained variance in social skill development.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn summary, the growth of IM consistently demonstrated the greatest relative importance across all three noncognitive skill outcomes. In addition, growth in EMID and NAM\\u0026ndash;E showed notable contributions depending on the outcome, suggesting that changes in both academic and socioemotional aspects of motivation are differentially associated with the development of noncognitive skills.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec18\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e3.7 Influence of Year 2 AMS-J Factor Levels on Noncognitive Skills (Controlling for Year 1 Scores)\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eWhereas Sections \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3.5\\u003c/span\\u003e and \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Sec17\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3.6\\u003c/span\\u003e focused on changes in AMS-J factors and noncognitive skills over time, Section \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Sec18\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3.7\\u003c/span\\u003e examined the influence of Year 2 AMS-J factor levels on Year 2 noncognitive skills, after controlling for baseline (Year 1) levels of both academic motivation and noncognitive skills (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e). Specifically, each model adjusted for the corresponding Year 1 scores of the seven AMS-J factors and the three noncognitive skill outcomes (dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab6\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e \\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 6\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eMultiple regression analysis predicting year 2 noncognitive skills from year 2 subscales of the Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-J) controlling for year 1 levels\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/caption\\u003e \\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\" colnum=\\\"5\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\" colnum=\\\"6\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\" colnum=\\\"7\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cthead\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003ePredictor (AMS-J)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eDispositional resilience β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAcquired resilience β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSocial skills β (p)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/th\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/thead\\u003e \\u003ctbody\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eAMOT\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.00 (.997)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.00 (.967)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.01 (.959)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMER\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.12 (.175)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.03 (.746)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.17 (.125)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMIN\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.03 (.734)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.07 (.523)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.01 (.924)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eEMID\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.01 (.931)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.36 (.005)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.09 (.522)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eIM\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.33 (.004)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e**\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.18 (.188)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.36 (.012)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM\\u0026ndash;E\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.22 (.018)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.07 (.534)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e0.27 (.019)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e*\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eNAM\\u0026ndash;EX\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.12 (.188)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.05 (.655)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c5\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c6\\\"\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e-0.14 (.202)\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c7\\\"\\u003e\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/td\\u003e \\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tbody\\u003e \\u003c/colgroup\\u003e \\u003ctfoot\\u003e \\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"7\\\"\\u003eNote: Values are standardized regression coefficients (β) with p-values in parentheses. Predictor abbreviations: AMOT, amotivation; EMER, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; external regulation; EMIN, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; introjected regulation; EMID, extrinsic motivation \\u0026ndash; identified regulation; IM, intrinsic motivation; NAM\\u0026ndash;E, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; enjoyment of youth; NAM\\u0026ndash;EX, non-academic motivation \\u0026ndash; expectations of others. *p \\u0026lt; .05 and **p \\u0026lt; .01.\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e \\u003c/tfoot\\u003e \\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFor dispositional resilience, IM (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.33, p = .004) and NAM\\u0026ndash;E (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.22, p = .018) emerged as significant positive predictors. With regard to acquired resilience, only EMID (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.36, p = .005) showed a significant positive association, whereas IM was not significant (p = .188). For social skills, IM (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.36, p = .012) and NAM\\u0026ndash;E (β\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;.27, p = .019) were significant positive predictors. Model comparisons based on AIC confirmed that including year 1 covariates substantially improved model fit. For all outcomes, models controlling for baseline scores yielded markedly lower AIC values than those without controls (dispositional resilience: 264 vs. 334; acquired resilience: 307 vs. 326; social skills: 324 vs. 343). The differences exceeded the conventional threshold (ΔAIC\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;10), indicating clearly superior model fit.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn summary, the year 2 levels of IM and NAM\\u0026ndash;E were consistently associated with higher dispositional resilience and social skills. Meanwhile, EMID uniquely predicted acquired resilience. These findings highlight that the cognitive and socioemotional aspects of academic motivation contribute to the development of noncognitive skills, even after accounting for baseline levels.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4. Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis study longitudinally examined the relationship between academic motivation and the development of noncognitive skills (specifically resilience and social skills) during the early stages of university education. The findings suggest that developmental changes in academic motivation are closely associated with the development of noncognitive skills. The analysis yielded four key findings. First, it confirmed a trend of declining academic motivation as students progressed academically, with a decrease in IM and EMID and an increase in AMOT. Second, no statistically significant growth in noncognitive skills was observed. Third, when examining the predictive power of initial motivational characteristics, extrinsic motivation in the first year (e.g., EMER and EMIN) was related to the subsequent growth of acquired resilience. Fourth, and most critically, when focusing on the changes in academic motivation, the increase in IM was strongly associated with the increase in all noncognitive skills. This suggests that while a student's initial motivational profile has some influence, developmental changes in motivation over time are more strongly associated with the growth of noncognitive skills.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThese results reaffirm the importance of intrinsic motivation as indicated by SDT while also suggesting that extrinsic motivation may play a developmental role in the initial stages. From an educational perspective, supporting the development of resilience and social skills can be achieved by appropriately leveraging extrinsic motivation in early university years while fostering a gradual shift toward intrinsic motivation (e.g., intellectual curiosity) and a focus on self-growth as students advance.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec20\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e4.1 Changes in Resilience and Academic Motivation Across Academic Years\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOur results confirmed a trend wherein certain aspects of academic motivation (intrinsic motivation to know and identified regulation) significantly decreased from the first to the second year, whereas amotivation increased. By contrast, there were no significant changes in noncognitive skills (e.g., dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills). These results indicate a notable decline in academic motivation while also showing that noncognitive skills do not improve naturally over time.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eCompared with previous studies on noncognitive skills, our findings are not entirely consistent. For example, according to Martinez et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR19\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e), the resilience of nursing students decreased as they progressed through their academic programme. Park et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR24\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e) also observed a decline in social skills during the first two years after university admission. Conversely, Wang et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR35\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) found no significant change in the resilience levels of medical students. Similarly, Wu et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR37\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020b\\u003c/span\\u003e) reported that resilience among Chinese college students showed no significant longitudinal change over four years. These mixed results suggest that resilience does not uniformly improve across academic years and that changes in noncognitive skills may depend on the quality of the educational environment and learning experiences.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eOur findings suggest that the development of noncognitive skills is insufficiently promoted by academic progression or aging alone and requires intentional support within the curriculum. As indicated by Rudland et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR28\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e), resilience and grit are nurtured by experiencing moderate stress and challenging situations. Therefore, university education that incorporates initiatives to deliberately foster these foundational noncognitive skills, while also creating an environment that sustains motivation from the first year, is crucial for promoting students\\u0026rsquo; long-term growth.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec21\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e4.2 Influence of First-Year Motivational Characteristics on Resilience Growth\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis study examined the influence of first-year motivational characteristics on the enhancement of acquired resilience by the second year. A focus on external regulation significantly predicted an increase in resilience, whereas introjected regulation tended to suppress its growth. This finding suggests that it is not only the level of academic motivation but also its quality and direction that differentially influences the development of noncognitive skills.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe positive influence of external regulation on the increase in students\\u0026rsquo; resilience may indicate that rewards and external approval serve as catalysts for enhancing a sense of achievement and self-efficacy in the early stages of learning, thereby fostering a positive attitude toward one\\u0026rsquo;s potential for growth (Ryan \\u0026amp; Deci, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e). According to the concept of \\\"\\u0026ldquo;internalization\\u0026rdquo; in SDT, extrinsic motivation promotes sustained effort and adaptive behaviours when it is transformed into more self-determined motivation (Ryan \\u0026amp; Deci, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e). Thus, in the first year, external rewards may function as an entry point to learning behaviours, creating a pathway that leads to the subsequent development of intrinsic motivation and resilience.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eNotably, introjected regulation tends to suppress resilience-building. Students with strong introjected regulation tend to engage in learning primarily to prove their self-worth to others. When this \\u0026ldquo;ego involvement\\u0026rdquo; is strong, students are more likely to associate failure with a negation of the self (Dweck \\u0026amp; Leggett, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR9\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e1988\\u003c/span\\u003e). Such a defensive posture can hinder flexible adaptation to difficulties and stress, potentially becoming a factor that impedes the growth of resilience.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThese results suggest that the appropriate use of external rewards in the early stages of learning is effective for fostering noncognitive skills. Meanwhile, creating a learning environment that mitigates an excessive focus on self-affirmation and is tolerant of failure is crucial. Future educational practices will need to support students in shifting the basis of their self-worth from \\u0026ldquo;being evaluated\\u0026rdquo; to \\u0026ldquo;growing.\\u0026rdquo;\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec22\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e4.3 Growth of Intrinsic Motivation and Development of Noncognitive Skills\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis study longitudinally examined the relationship between changes in academic motivation and the development of noncognitive skills from the first to the second year of university. Among the aspects of academic motivation, the growth of IM was significantly associated with the improvement of all noncognitive skills measured: dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFurthermore, although IM was the most consistent predictor of noncognitive skill development, EMID, which represents a more self-determined form of extrinsic motivation, was also associated with the improvement of acquired resilience. This suggests that not only intrinsic enjoyment but also recognising the personal value of learning can contribute to fostering adaptive resilience, consistent with the emphasis in self-determination theory on autonomous forms of motivation (Niemiec \\u0026amp; Ryan, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR22\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2009\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eIn addition, the results from the level-based models demonstrated the robustness of this association, showing that higher IM and NAM\\u0026ndash;E levels in the second year were still associated with higher dispositional resilience and social skill levels even after controlling for the baseline levels. This finding aligns with the self-determination theory (SDT) framework by demonstrating that increases in intrinsic motivation function as a psychological mechanism underlying the development of noncognitive skills. According to SDT, an increase in intrinsic motivation reflects an enhancement of autonomous academic drive, which is considered to promote deeper engagement in learning and improved self-regulation (Ryan \\u0026amp; Deci, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR29\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2000\\u003c/span\\u003e). Previous studies have also reported that increased academic motivation contributes to better academic performance and lower dropout rates (Kryshko et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR18\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e; Wu et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR36\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020a\\u003c/span\\u003e). Moreover, in Chen et al.\\u0026rsquo;s (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR6\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) cross-sectional study, academic motivation and goal-setting functioned as serial mediators in the pathway from emotional regulation to well-being and resilience, suggesting that academic motivation contributes to the development of emotional stability and adaptability. In addition, Ye et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR39\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e) reported that self-efficacy enhances academic motivation, which in turn predicts academic resilience, and that academic motivation mediates the relationship between parenting styles and resilience. These findings theoretically support the notion that academic motivation can serve as a psychological mechanism underlying the development of noncognitive skills.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eHowever, many of these studies were cross-sectional, thereby limiting the verification of causality. A novel contribution of the present study is its use of a longitudinal design, allowing us to demonstrate that the growth of academic motivation is significantly associated with the development of resilience and social skills, thereby providing supplementary evidence for the developmental process wherein changes in motivation influence noncognitive skills. Notably, this study longitudinally supports the possibility that an increase in intrinsic motivation (namely, intellectual curiosity) leads not only to academic achievement but also to the cultivation of both internal skills such as resilience that foster psychological adaptability and external skills such as interpersonal competence that enhance collaborative communication in healthcare education.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e \\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec23\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e \\u003ch2\\u003e4.4 Educational and Theoretical Implications\\u003c/h2\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe present findings provide several implications for understanding the developmental role of academic motivation in higher education. First, the results indicate that noncognitive skills such as resilience and social skills do not automatically improve through academic progression alone, despite students\\u0026rsquo; advancement in university years. This suggests that individual development in higher education should not be assumed to follow a linear trajectory driven solely by age or academic exposure, but rather depends on qualitative changes in motivational processes.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSecond, the strong and consistent association between the growth of intrinsic motivation (IM) and the development of noncognitive skills highlights the importance of motivational dynamics, rather than static motivational levels. This finding extends self-determination theory (SDT) by demonstrating that changes in autonomous motivation function as a developmental mechanism underlying psychological adaptability and interpersonal competence. From a theoretical perspective, the results suggest that intrinsic motivation may serve as a key driver linking academic engagement with broader psychosocial development.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThird, the differential contributions of identified regulation (EMID) and enjoyment of youth (NAM\\u0026ndash;E) across outcomes indicate that both academic and socioemotional dimensions of motivation play distinct roles in shaping noncognitive skills. These findings underscore the need to conceptualize academic motivation as a multidimensional construct that encompasses not only learning-oriented motives but also motivational orientations related to social engagement and emotional fulfillment in university life.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eImportantly, the consistency of the associations observed in both change-based and level-based models strengthens the robustness of these conclusions. Even after controlling for baseline individual differences, year 2 levels of intrinsic motivation and enjoyment of youth remained significantly associated with noncognitive skill levels, suggesting that motivational development exerts a lasting influence beyond initial dispositions.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eTaken together, these findings contribute to the broader literature on student development by highlighting academic motivation as a dynamic psychological process that shapes noncognitive skill formation. Resilience and social skills are widely recognized as key protective factors against burnout in healthcare professionals. From this perspective, the present findings suggest that fostering academic motivation, particularly intrinsic motivation, may contribute indirectly to burnout prevention by supporting the development of these foundational noncognitive skills during higher education. From a higher education perspective, the results emphasize the importance of learning environments that support autonomy, personal meaning, and socioemotional engagement, thereby fostering not only academic success but also the development of adaptive capacities essential for long-term professional functioning.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"5. Limitations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eAlthough this longitudinal study examined the changes in academic motivation and noncognitive skills in university students, it has several limitations.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFirst, although validated and widely used scales were employed in this study and their validity was confirmed within the current sample, the data were based on self-report questionnaires. Therefore, potential influences of social desirability and self-presentation biases cannot be completely ruled out. Moreover, the possibility of a sample biased toward more highly motivated students cannot be denied because the analysis was limited to those who responded continuously over two years. Future studies should include students with more diverse backgrounds and employ a triangulated approach that combines self-reports with behavioural and objective measures.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eSecond, although the findings are from a study conducted with Japanese students, they provide valuable longitudinal data from a non-Western context, contributing to a field where much of the research on motivation in healthcare professions has been performed in Western settings. Although cultural variations in values and practices should be acknowledged, the AMS is grounded in SDT, which posits that autonomy plays a universal functional role across cultures (Ryan \\u0026amp; Deci, \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR30\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2020\\u003c/span\\u003e). Thus, our findings may offer insights with potential relevance beyond the Japanese context. However, cross-cultural research must be conducted to verify whether our results can be replicated in other cultural settings.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThird, how these variables affect future academic performance, clinical competence, or professional adaptation could not be determined in this study. Thus, future long-term follow-up studies are needed to connect the trajectories of academic motivation and noncognitive skills with concrete academic and professional outcomes.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFuture studies that address these limitations are needed to further clarify the causal relationships examined in this research.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"6. Future Directions and Conclusion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eTaken together, the present findings support the view that academic motivation operates as a developmental mechanism underlying the formation of resilience and social skills in higher education.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eFostering resilience and social skills is a critical issue that is directly linked to the quality of medical care and sustainability of the healthcare workforce because healthcare students, including those in physical therapy, are exposed to highly stressful situations, such as clinical placements and national examinations. Using the findings of this study as an evidence base, the development and evaluation of systematic educational programmes designed to cultivate noncognitive skills are identified as urgent priorities for future research and practice.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eAddressing these limitations will allow us to advance the elucidation of causal relationships, expand the research findings\\u0026rsquo; applicability, and translate the obtained knowledge into evidence-based educational interventions. Ultimately, these efforts may also contribute to mitigating burnout and supporting the long-term sustainability of the healthcare workforce.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cstrong\\u003eCompeting interests\\u003c/strong\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cstrong\\u003eEthical approval\\u003c/strong\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003eThis study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocol was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committees of [University A, Redacted for Peer Review] (Approval No: R1-029; approved on 8 May 2020) and [University B, Redacted for Peer Review] (Approval No: 2023-1; approved on 19 May 2023).\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e \\u003cstrong\\u003eInformed consent\\u003c/strong\\u003e \\u003cp\\u003e Informed consent was obtained electronically from all individual participants prior to each annual data collection wave via the online survey system. Data were collected annually between April and May from 2021 to 2024. Participants reviewed the study information, including the purpose and data protection protocols, and provided consent before each survey administration. Participation was voluntary, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time.\\u003c/p\\u003e \\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAuthor Contribution\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eJK: conceptualisation, methodology, data analysis, writing (original draft, review and editing), project administration, participant recruitment, resources;YS: conceptualisation, methodology, data analysis, writing (review and editing), participant recruitment, resources;AO: conceptualisation, methodology, investigation, data curation, writing (review and editing), participant recruitment, resources;YK: investigation, data curation, writing (review and editing), consultation;AH: investigation, data curation, writing (review and editing), consultation;DF: data analysis, writing (review and editing), consultation;TT: investigation, participant recruitment, writing (review and editing), consultation.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eAcknowledgement\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe authors would like to thank Takahiro Mishina (Health Science University) and Kazuto Ishida (Nagoya Aoi University) for their valuable contributions. The authors would also like to acknowledge the Research Institute of Integrated Sciences and Humanities, Nagoya Aoi University, for providing research support for this project. The authors are grateful to these universities for supporting data collection and to the physical therapy students for participating in this study.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003eData Availability\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to participant privacy and the lack of informed consent for public data sharing. However, for the purpose of editorial evaluation and peer review, these datasets (both raw and processed versions) have been provided to the editors and reviewers. Beyond the review process, the data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAmerican Psychological Association (n.d.) Resilience. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience. Accessed 1 Nov 2025\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAragaki N, Tsuzuki Y (2016) The effects of motivation patterns on lifestyle, satisfaction, and occupational values among university students. J Soc Innov Stud 11:159\\u0026ndash;178 [in Japanese]\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eBoone A, Braeckman L, Michels N et al (2025) Burnout in medical education: Interventions from a co-creation process. BMC Med Educ 25:230. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-06833-4\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eBurnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multimodel inference: A practical information-theoretic approach, 2nd edn. Springer, New York\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCalo M, Judd B, Chipchase L et al (2022) Grit, resilience, mindset, and academic success in physical therapist students: A cross-sectional, multicenter study. Phys Ther 102:pzac038. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/pzac038\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eChen X, Huang Z, Lin W (2022) The effect of emotion regulation on happiness and resilience of university students: The chain mediating role of learning motivation and target positioning. Front Psychol 13:1029655. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1029655 \\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR (1993) A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50:975\\u0026ndash;990. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eCorrado B, Ciardi G, Fortunato L et al (2019) Burnout syndrome among Italian physiotherapists: A cross-sectional study. Eur J Physiother 21:240\\u0026ndash;245. https://doi.org/10.1080/21679169.2018.1536765\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eDweck CS, Leggett EL (1988) A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychol Rev 95:256\\u0026ndash;273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eGeorge D, Mallery P (2003) SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference, 4th edn. Allyn \\u0026amp; Bacon, Boston\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eGoldstein AP, Sprafkin RP, Gershaw NJ et al (1986) The adolescent: Social skills training through structured learning. In: Cartledge G, Milburn JF (eds) Teaching social skills to children: Innovative approaches. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 249\\u0026ndash;277\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHirano M (2010) A study of the classification of resilience factors: Development of the Bidimensional Resilience Scale (BRS). Jpn J Personal 19:94\\u0026ndash;106 [in Japanese]\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHo SS, Sosina W, DePierro JM et al (2024) Promoting resilience in healthcare workers: A preventative mental health education program. Int J Environ Res Public Health 21:1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21101365\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eHodkinson A, Zhou A, Johnson J et al (2022) Associations of physician burnout with career engagement and quality of patient care: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 378:e070442. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2022-070442\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eKikuchi A, Horike K (1994) Development of the 18-item version of Kikuchi\\u0026rsquo;s Scale of Social Skills (KiSS-18). Jpn J Educ Psychol 42:292\\u0026ndash;300 [in Japanese]\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eKim JH, Kim AR, Kim MG et al (2020) Burnout syndrome and work-related stress in physical and occupational therapists working in different types of hospitals: Which group is the most vulnerable? Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:5001. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145001\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eKotera Y, Aledeh M, Barnes K et al (2022) Academic motivation of Indonesian university students: Relationship with self-compassion and resilience. Healthcare 10:2092. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10102092\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eKryshko O, Fleischer J, Waldeyer J et al (2020) Do motivational regulation strategies contribute to university students\\u0026rsquo; academic success? Learn Individ Differ 82:101912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101912\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eMartinez WD, Casaleiro T, de Souza Menezes JD et al (2025) Mental health and resilience in nursing students: A longitudinal study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 22:735. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22050735\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eMcAllister M, McKinnon J (2009) The importance of teaching and learning resilience in the health disciplines: A critical review of the literature. Nurse Educ Today 29:371\\u0026ndash;379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2008.10.011\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eM\\u0026uuml;ller FH, Palekčić M (2005) Continuity of motivation in higher education: A three-year follow-up study. Rev Psychol 12:31\\u0026ndash;43\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eNiemiec CP, Ryan RM (2009) Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory Res Educ 7:133\\u0026ndash;144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509104318\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003ePan Y, Gauvain M (2012) The continuity of college students\\u0026rsquo; autonomous learning motivation and its predictors: A three-year longitudinal study. Learn Individ Differ 22:92\\u0026ndash;99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.11.010\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003ePark CL, Williams MK, Hernandez PR et al (2020) Development of emotion regulation across the first two years of college. J Adolesc 84:230\\u0026ndash;242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.09.009\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eP\\u0026eacute;rez-Fuentes MC, Molero Jurado MM, Martos Mart\\u0026iacute;nez \\u0026Aacute; et al (2020) Burnout and psychological health among health professionals: The mediating role of emotional intelligence. Front Psychol 11:1\\u0026ndash;9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00706\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003ePugliese M, Brism\\u0026eacute;e JM, Allen B et al (2023) Mentorship and self-efficacy are associated with lower burnout in physical therapists in the United States: A cross-sectional survey study. J Educ Eval Health Prof 20:27. https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2023.20.27\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eRatelle CF, Guay F, Vallerand RJ et al (2007) Autonomous, controlled, and amotivated types of academic motivation: A person-oriented analysis. J Educ Psychol 99:734\\u0026ndash;746. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.734\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eRudland JR, Golding C, Wilkinson TJ (2020) The stress paradox: How stress can be good for learning. Med Educ 54:40\\u0026ndash;45. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13830\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eRyan RM, Deci EL (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am Psychol 55(1):68\\u0026ndash;78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eRyan RM, Deci EL (2020) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemp Educ Psychol 61:101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSakamoto Y, Amari T, Shimo S (2018) The relationship between pain psychological factors and job stress in rehabilitation workers with or without chronic pain. Work 61:357\\u0026ndash;365. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-182814\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eShah A, Mian N, Ahmad I et al (2025) Teamwork and therapeutic communication among health care providers on patient satisfaction at Saidu Group of Teaching Hospital. medtigo J Med 3:30623112. https://doi.org/10.63096/medtigo30623112\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSantos MC, Barros L, Carolino E (2010) Occupational stress and coping resources in physiotherapists: A survey of physiotherapists in three general hospitals. Physiotherapy 96:303\\u0026ndash;310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physio.2010.03.001\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eVallerand RJ, Fortier MS, Guay F (1997) Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high school dropout. J Pers Soc Psychol 72:1161\\u0026ndash;1176. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.72.5.1161\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eWang Q, Sun W, Wu H (2022) Associations between academic burnout, resilience and life satisfaction among medical students: A three-wave longitudinal study. BMC Med Educ 22:248. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03326-6\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eWu H, Li S, Zheng J (2020a) Medical students\\u0026rsquo; motivation and academic performance: The mediating roles of self-efficacy and learning engagement. Med Educ Online 25:1712954. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2020.1712954\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eWu Y, Sang ZQ, Zhang XC et al (2020b) The relationship between resilience and mental health in Chinese college students: A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis. Front Psychol 11:108. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2020.1742964\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eYang CC, Tsai IC, Kim B et al (2006) Exploring the relationships between students\\u0026rsquo; academic motivation and social ability in online learning environments. Internet High Educ 9:277\\u0026ndash;286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2006.08.002\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eYe S, Jenatabadi HS, Ye M et al (2024) Academic resilience, self-efficacy, and motivation: The role of parenting style. Sci Rep 14:5571. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-55530-7\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eZwack J, Schweitzer J (2013) If every fifth physician is affected by burnout, what about the other four? Resilience strategies of experienced physicians. Acad Med 88:382\\u0026ndash;389. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e318281696b\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":false,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"palcomms\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Humanities \\u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)\",\"snPcode\":\"41599\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3\",\"title\":\"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Nature AJ\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false},\"keywords\":\"academic motivation, resilience, social skills, intrinsic motivation, longitudinal study, physical therapy education\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8635370/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8635370/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eAcademic motivation may function as a developmental process underlying the formation of resilience and social skills in higher education. However, little is known about how changes in academic motivation over time contribute to the development of noncognitive skills, particularly among healthcare students. This two-year longitudinal study examined the relationships between changes in academic motivation and the development of resilience and social skills among Japanese physical therapy students. A total of 129 students completed online surveys during their first and second academic years assessing academic motivation (Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale), resilience (Bidimensional Resilience Scale), and social skills (Kikuchi\\u0026rsquo;s Scale of Social Skills). Changes in academic motivation and noncognitive skills were analysed using multiple regression models, including growth-based and hierarchical approaches, and relative importance analysis was conducted using the Lindeman, Merenda, and Gold method. The results showed that intrinsic motivation significantly declined from the first to the second year, while amotivation increased; in contrast, no significant changes were observed in resilience or social skills. Importantly, growth in intrinsic motivation consistently emerged as the strongest predictor of growth in dispositional resilience, acquired resilience, and social skills, accounting for the largest proportion of explained variance across all outcomes. In addition, increases in identified regulation and enjoyment of youth contributed to specific aspects of resilience and social skill development. These findings suggest that academic motivation should be conceptualized not as a static individual trait, but as a dynamic developmental process that shapes noncognitive skill formation in higher education. By demonstrating the longitudinal role of motivational change, this study provides empirical evidence for motivational processes as a key mechanism supporting psychological adaptability and interpersonal competence in healthcare education.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Academic Motivation as a Developmental Process for Resilience and Social Skills in Higher Education: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study of Japanese Physical Therapy Students\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2026-05-15 14:16:44\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8635370/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"277220535539642522536454448307721397415\",\"date\":\"2026-05-10T07:53:02+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"150950194330366963742874175875506310021\",\"date\":\"2026-05-08T19:47:17+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-05-06T15:03:07+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-04-27T16:45:26+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-02-26T09:04:06+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2026-02-25T01:20:54+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications\",\"date\":\"2026-02-25T01:16:14+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"palcomms\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Humanities \\u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)\",\"snPcode\":\"41599\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3\",\"title\":\"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Nature AJ\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":false}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"8617d4b1-30f4-4a2b-9d9d-40ff9aef079a\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"May 15th, 2026\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"277220535539642522536454448307721397415\",\"date\":\"2026-05-10T07:53:02+00:00\",\"index\":106,\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"150950194330366963742874175875506310021\",\"date\":\"2026-05-08T19:47:17+00:00\",\"index\":104,\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"20\",\"date\":\"2026-05-06T15:03:07+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"under-review\",\"subjectAreas\":[{\"id\":67868528,\"name\":\"Social science/Education\"},{\"id\":67868529,\"name\":\"Biological sciences/Psychology\"},{\"id\":67868530,\"name\":\"Social science/Psychology\"}],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-05-15T14:16:44+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2026-05-15 14:16:44\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-8635370\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-8635370\",\"identity\":\"rs-8635370\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}