{"paper_id":"0058c807-7fc3-47bf-ade9-ea68bf19a796","body_text":"Climate Responsive Courtyard Design for Urban Sustainability in Five Marla Houses in Rawalpindi Pakistan | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Climate Responsive Courtyard Design for Urban Sustainability in Five Marla Houses in Rawalpindi Pakistan Erum Zareen, Shahbaz Altaf This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7867131/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 14 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Rapid urbanization and climate change have dramatically increased energy consumption in South Asian residential buildings. Traditional courtyard houses, once common in the region, provided passive cooling solutions that have largely been abandoned in favor of maximizing built up floor area. This mixed methods study examines the thermal performance and social acceptability of courtyard integration in 5 Marla (≈ 125 m²) urban houses in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Building performance simulations compare a conventional house with a courtyard integrated design featuring mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry. Survey results demonstrate that compact courtyards integrated with vernacular materials offer significant potential for enhancing natural cooling, which in turn reduces the need for mechanical energy consumption. This reduction in energy use contributes significantly to urban sustainability by lowering carbon emissions and improving environmental quality in space-constrained environments. The findings highlight the importance of climate-responsive design rooted in local traditions as a pathway for sustainable urban development. Climate responsive design Urban sustainability Vernacular architecture courtyard houses Passive cooling Pakistan Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. Introduction The built environment stands at the center of global sustainability challenges. Buildings consume over one-third of the world's energy and emit approximately 30% of CO2, with mechanical heating and cooling systems responsible for the largest amount of energy use in the residential sector. (IEA, 2023). Nowhere are these challenges more acute than in rapidly urbanizing South Asia, where cities like Rawalpindi, Pakistan, are experiencing rising temperatures, urban heat islands, and, consequently, increasing energy demand for indoor cooling (Khan et al., 2020; UN-Habitat, 2021). Historically, South Asian courtyard houses provided natural ventilation and passive cooling, harmonizing with the local climate (Figs. 1 & 2 ). Modern building patterns, however, have prioritized maximizing built-up areas at the expense of these climate-responsive elements. The application of passive methods like natural ventilation and use of solar orientation to lower energy consumption is part of a design philosophy that integrates building activities with the local climatic environment as shown in Fig. 2 . The strategy anticipates both the comfort of the occupants and the sustainability of the environment, thus reducing the use of artificial air-conditioning and heating systems. (Green Building & Design Magazine, 2024). As a result, contemporary urban housing is increasingly reliant on energy-intensive mechanical systems, exacerbating environmental and economic pressures (Zhu et al., 2022). Traditional South Asian courtyard houses exhibited impressive climate-responsive features, controlling internal temperature through passive solar designs, thermal mass, and natural ventilation systems (Salman et al., 2018). Thermal mass is the ability of a material to receive, retain and later de-give heat energy to maintain the temperatures of the interiors. Through the absorption of surplus heat throughout the day and its release at night or during cooler times of the day (Alayed et al., 2022 ). These vernacular solutions provided comfy indoor environments, having little energy input but at the same time the many social activities such as family get-togethers and community weaving or craftwork that often took place in the shaded courtyard spaces and served as safe outdoor play areas were also provided. Nevertheless, the current urbanization has discarded these principles in favor of sealed, mechanically conditioned areas, which not only raise the cost of energy but also carbon emissions (Lazarus Adua et al., 2024) The thermal performance of courtyards in different climatic regimes has been recorded in many recent studies. (Taleghani, 2014; Al-Hafith et al., 2022). Studies in arid and semi-arid areas have shown cooling load reductions of between 20 and 30 percent in courtyard houses compared to traditional building designs. (Almahmoud, et al., 2024; Taleb et al., 2022). Traditional building designs often rely on closed, mechanically ventilated rooms with insufficient natural ventilation and thermal mass, which leads to increased energy usage and reduced comfort of occupants. (Taleghani, et al., 2014). Nonetheless, most studies have focused on bigger plots, thus creating a huge knowledge gap on the performance of courtyards in the urban environment that is spatially limited, as is the case in Pakistani cities. This research paper attempts to fill this gap between tradition and modernity by assessing the potential of courtyard integration in compact urban residential buildings. By combining household surveys and building performance simulations, this study is aimed at providing evidence-based recommendations for climate-resilient urban housing in Pakistan. Traditional South Asian courtyard houses demonstrated remarkable climate-responsive capabilities, moderating internal temperatures through passive solar design, thermal mass, and natural ventilation strategies (Salman et al., 2018). These vernacular designs delivered low-energy thermal comfort and provided settings for daily social interactions and cultural rituals. However, contemporary urban development has largely abandoned these principles in favor of sealed, mechanically conditioned spaces that increase both energy costs and carbon emissions. Thus, this study addresses three critical research questions: 1) How do courtyards contribute to climate change adaptation within residential building design in Rawalpindi? 2) What impact do courtyards have on enhancing indoor thermal comfort in 5 Marla urban houses? and 3) How can courtyard configurations be optimized to improve energy efficiency and advance climate resilient residential design? The overall goal is to evaluate the effectiveness of climate-responsive courtyard design, based on the vernacular architecture of Pakistan, to enhance thermal comfort and save energy consumption in five-Marla (square foot) urban dwellings, contributing to broader urban sustainability goals. 2. Literature Review Urban sustainability is creating cities that suit current demands without jeopardizing future prosperity. Climate-responsive design is a cornerstone of this vision, as it seeks to harmonize built environments with local climatic conditions, reducing environmental impact while enhancing human comfort (Firoozi et al., 2024 ). Rather than imposing standardized, energy-intensive solutions, climate-responsive strategies leverage natural elements such as sun orientation, wind, and thermal mass to create resilient and pleasant spaces (Sanagustín-Fons et al., 2025 ). Rapid urban growth, particularly in developing regions, has caused increased energy usage, production of greenhouse gases, and the propagation of urban heat islands. (IEA, 2023; Khan et al., 2020; Gunasekaran & Priya, 2025). The above issues are compounded by an existing tendency in modern architecture to focus on aesthetic values and spatial density, as opposed to environmental performance, often disregarding the rich experience provided by vernacular design cultures. With the trends of rapid urbanization, the problem of critical concern arises: how to make sure that the developmental process will not result in the destruction of the environment? Climate-responsive design is a feasible solution to the attainment of sustainable urbanism, a combination of environmental conservation and financial viability. (Baker & Steemers et al., 2003 ). Traditional architectural practices, in hot and arid climates, have long proved the possibilities of buildings to adapt to the prevalent climate conditions by passive means, such as courtyards, thick masonry, and natural ventilation (Rusen Ergun & Ayhan Bekleyen et al., 2024). These approaches not only reduce energy demand but also create cultural continuity (Sanagustin-France et al., 2025). As cities struggle to withstand the consequences of unsustainable growth, there is a renewed interest in vernacular architecture that is likely to be observed for contemporary design (Nguyen et al., 2019 ). In South Asia, courtyard houses are a great example of this tradition with geometry, materiality, and space organization being deployed to moderate internal temperatures of the house as well as facilitate communal living practices and, as studies from across a wide range of climates have demonstrated, such house designs may reduce cooling loads by between 20–30 per cent compared to conventional houses. The vernacular principles are not easy to introduce to modern urban housing (Sherwani et al., 2024 ). The integration of vernacular principles into modern urban housing experienced many setbacks. Space constraints, regulatory barriers, and changing lifestyles can limit the applicability of traditional forms (Azhani Abd Manaf et al., 2025 ). However, research indicates that even in compact plots, features like courtyards and wind catchers can deliver substantial energy savings and comfort improvements (Tabatabaei et al., 2024). Moreover, these elements resonate with cultural values and social practices, enhancing the acceptability and viability of sustainable design interventions. 2.1 Local Context Pakistan, among the world’s most climate-vulnerable nations, faces acute pressures from urbanization and rising temperatures (Khan et al., 2020; UN-Habitat Pakistan, 2021). As a representative metropolis of South Asia, Rawalpindi has been witnessing an increasing temperature and aggravating urban heat islands, which further increase the energy requirements of the cooling process. The standardization of small residential parcels has triggered the almost complete eradication of the courtyards increasing the reliance on mechanical conditioning and hindering the process of transforming the city to sustainable urban development. In this context, there is an urgent need to revisit the place of traditional architecture in contemporary urban housing. This research will contribute to the global discussion on sustainable urban development by examining the performance and acceptability of courtyard integration in 5-Marla houses. The results provide empirical evidence and practical insights for policymakers, designers, and communities interested in balancing modern aspirations with environmental responsibility. 3. Methods & Data Given the pressing need for sustainable development in Pakistan, our study set out to investigate whether and how courtyards could be mainstreamed in contemporary urban housing. 3.1 Site and Setting The selection of the 5 Marla plot as our research focus was deliberate. The 5 Marla dwelling is the most owned residential unit in Rawalpindi and much of northern Punjab, representing the modal form of urban homeownership. The 5 Marla dwelling is the most owned residential unit in Rawalpindi and much of northern Punjab, representing the modal form of urban homeownership. 3.2 Study Design The investigation was conducted in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, and focused specifically on single-family homes situated on 5 Marla plots, a prevalent housing typology in the composite hot-humid/hot semi-arid climate of northern Punjab. This research utilized a convergent mixed methods approach, combining quantitative building simulations with comprehensive cross-sectional household surveys and building performance simulations. 3.2.1 Household Survey A structured questionnaire captured demographic data, dwelling characteristics, prevalence of existing courtyard, thermal comfort perceptions, and reliance on mechanical conditioning (see Annex I for details). The survey instrument was initially developed in English, then translated into Urdu and subsequently back-translated to ensure semantic accuracy. It was piloted in 10 households before the final version was deployed. A stratified multi-stage sampling design was used: First, Rawalpindi was divided into administrative zones of City and Cantonment, and then each zone was further divided into low-, middle-, and high-income neighborhoods using median monthly income data. Within these strata, systematic random sampling was then used, and fixed intervals (e.g., age groups and income bands) were established from total dwelling counts to ensure representative coverage. This study area falls under the regulatory authority of Rawalpindi, i.e., Rawalpindi Development Authority (RDA). These residential designs are in compliance with RDA byelaws. The conventional model of this research observes the 5 Marla byelaws, where 5 mandatory open spaces should be given at both front and rear sides of the plot. Out of the 300 households originally targeted, 273 provided usable responses. 3.2.2 Building Performance Simulation In this study, two residential building design models are developed to perform comprehensive simulations assessing energy consumption and thermal comfort by using vernacular materials in compact urban residential settings. The first model represents a conventional house layout typical of contemporary 5 Marla urban homes in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. This conventional design features a fully built-up footprint with rooms arranged around a central service core, constructed with 230mm thick fired brick walls and a flat roof, following prevailing building norms and construction standards. The second model uses a courtyard house style within the same footprint with an 80-square-foot courtyard in the center. This courtyard house uses 300mm thick mudbrick internal walls with high thermal mass, and a 900mm high roof lantern, which also acts as a wind catcher to improve natural ventilation. The design is inspired by traditional South Asian vernacular architecture that is renowned for its climate-responsive passive cooling and heating strategies. The simulation methodology includes creating detailed 3D models of both designs in Autodesk CAD and Revit 2023, followed by building-performance simulations to assess energy demand and thermal-comfort metrics. Local climate data of Rawalpindi was used, and material properties of construction elements were taken from authoritative databases of the National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan. Simulation outputs include heating and cooling energy consumption, Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices; these measures are crucial in assessing indoor environmental quality. At the outset, thermal performance analysis will be performed, including energy consumption, and indoor comfort benefits of the courtyard house model relative to a conventional layout. This combined methodological approach enables a comprehensive assessment of both the user experience and the technical efficacy of climate-responsive courtyard design in a compact urban setting. Model 1 (Conventional House) Fully built-up 5 Marla footprints with rooms arranged around a central service core, 230mm fired brick walls, and flat roof configuration in Fig. 3 . Source: Authors Model 2 (Courtyard House) Identical footprint with 80 ft² central courtyard, 300mm mud brick interior walls, and 900mm high roof lantern functioning as a wind catcher in Fig. 4. 4. Analysis and Results This section first analyzes the household survey data to understand public perceptions, preferences, and behaviors related to courtyard integration in 5 Marla urban homes. Survey insights provide critical context on spatial priorities and willingness to adopt vernacular design elements, which directly inform the design parameters and assumptions used for building performance simulations. As a result, the present paper presents results of the simulation that quantitatively assess the thermal performance, energy consumption, and indoor comfort advantages of the courtyard house model compared to a conventional layout. 4.1 Demographics and Housing Characteristics Survey data were analyzed using SPSS version 29. The final sample comprised of 273 households with predominantly young respondents (51.5 percent aged between 18–30 years). Monthly income showed a bell-shaped distribution: 20.6 percent earning < PKR 35,000, 41.9 percent earning PKR 36–60,000, 17.6 percent earning PKR 61–100,000, and 19.9 percent earning > PKR 100,000. Educational attainment was relatively high, with 45.6 percent holding bachelor's or master's degrees. Household sizes are clustered around 5–6 occupants (58 percent), with a mean occupancy of 5.2 persons per dwelling. Plot sizes were predominantly 3–5 Marlas (39.3 percent) and 5–10 Marlas (38.3 percent), confirming the target demographic. Survey results revealed strong support for courtyard integration (Table 1 ). A majority (59.6 percent) believed courtyards can reduce artificial heating and cooling needs, while 57.2% expressed willingness to sacrifice indoor area for a larger courtyard. Front yard locations were strongly preferred (63.4 percent) over central (28.7 percent) or back yard (7.9 percent) configurations. Regarding purchasing decisions, lifestyle compatibility is the primary driver (53.3%), followed by architectural aesthetics (26.7%). Energy savings, while recognized, ranked lower as a decisive factor (2.6%). Nearly two-thirds (59.8%) expressed willingness to pay a premium for well-designed courtyards. Table 1 Household Attitude towards Courtyard Integration in Rawalpindi Variable Response % Courtyards reduce artificial conditioning Yes 59.6 No 21.9 Unsure 18.5 Willing to sacrifice the indoor area Yes 57.2 Maybe 31.2 No 11.7 Preferred courtyard location Front 63.4 Central 28.7 Back 7.9 Willing to pay premium for courtyard Yes 59.8 Maybe 31.4 No 8.8 Source: Authors 4.2 Building Performance 4.2.1 Energy Performance Two prototypical digital models were developed in Autodesk Revit and CAD 2023: Model 1 (Conventional House) : Fully built up 5 Marla house with rooms arranged around a central service core, 230mm fired brick walls, and flat roof configuration. Model 2 (Courtyard House) : Identical footprint with 80 ft² central courtyard, 300mm mud brick interior walls, and 900mm high roof lantern functioning as a wind catcher. Simulation results demonstrated significant energy reductions in the courtyard design (Table 2 ). Total annual delivered energy decreased from 267,768 kBtu in Model 1 to 208,652 kBtu in Model 2, representing a 22.1% reduction. Cooling loads dropped by 21.3% (261,114 to 205,619 kBtu), while heating demand fell by 54.4% (6,654 to 3,033 kBtu). KBtu is a unit of energy in the building industry, especially for measuring heating, cooling, and energy consumption in buildings. 4.2.2 Solar Analysis The 3D models were created using Revit CAD 2023, a software platform well-suited for detailed architectural modeling and simulation. The design chosen for the models reflects typical building patterns in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, conforming to local construction norms and building by-laws. This ensures that the simulation results are relevant and representative of prevailing residential construction practices in the region. Figures 5 and 6 show the solar analysis of both models i.e. Existing conventional and Proposed with courtyard design. Model 1 Conventional Source: Authors Model 2 with Courtyard Figure 6 : Solar Analysis of Proposed 5 Marla House with Courtyard Source: Authors Table 2 Comparison of energy load of Model 1 & Model 2 End Use Model 1 Consumption (kBtu) Model 2 Consumption (kBtu) Reduction (%) Heating 6,654 3,033 54.4 Cooling 261,114 205,619 21.3 Total 267,768 208,652 22.1 The comparative analysis of the two residential building models (Table 2 ), Model 1 (without a courtyard, conventional design) and Model 2 (with an 80 sq. ft courtyard as a proposed design), demonstrate that the introduction of a courtyard leads to substantial energy savings. Model 2 achieves a dramatic 54.4% reduction in heating energy consumption, decreasing from 6,654 kBtu in Model 1 to just 3,033 kBtu. Cooling energy usage also drops by 21.3%, from 261,114 kBtu to 205,619 kBtu. In comparison to the typical layout, the courtyard design greatly improves the building's thermal efficiency and lowers utility needs, as demonstrated by the overall 22.1% reduction in consumed energy. 4.2.3 Vernacular Elements Impact Analysis This analysis was conducted using Autodesk Revit 2023, allowing detailed building performance simulations. The process involved creating a control model with both mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry as shown in Fig. 6 , then isolating and removing each element in subsequent simulations to quantify their individual impact on energy loads and thermal comfort. Source: Authors A control simulation isolating the effects of mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry (Fig. 06 ) revealed their critical contribution. Removing these vernacular elements while retaining the courtyard increased cooling loads by 10.9% and doubled heating demand. PMV shifted thermal mass effects, with the wind catcher contributing an additional 5–6% reduction in peak cooling loads from + 0.1 to + 0.4, while PPD increased from 5.2% to 11.7%. These results demonstrate that approximately half of the cooling savings and virtually all winter benefits derive from. 4.2.4 Thermal Comfort Analysis Using the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) metrics to calculate comfort and incorporate environmental variables like the air's temperature, mean radiant temperature, velocity of air, and relative humidity, the courtyard design is improved with a quantitative thermal comfort evaluation of the internal space, and automatically computes PMV and PPD values following ASHRAE standards to assess occupant comfort. The tool is widely used for compliance with thermal comfort standards and for analyzing comfort in building design. A statistical evaluation of indoor thermal comfort is demonstrated in the courtyard design utilizing the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices, calculated from several environmental and human factors. Many studies have employed PMV and PPD indices derived from building simulation models and courtyard environments for diverse research goals. Tabadkani et al. ( 2022 ) conducted a parametric study of courtyard design options for residential buildings, considering indoor thermal comfort and utility costs using PMV-PPD models, incorporating dynamic simulation inputs like this study. Table 3 indicates the air velocity, mean radiant temperature, and humidity values are sourced from building simulation performance models, reflecting dynamic interactions between envelope design, HVAC operation, and internal load conditions as simulated rather than measured directly. Table 3 Calculation of PPD & PMV For Proposed Courtyard Model Calculation of PMV and PPD 70 M (W/m2), Metabolic energy production (58 to 232 W/m2) 0 W (W/m2), Rate of mechanical work, (normally O) 24 Ta (C). Ambient air temperature (10–30) 22 Tr (C). Mean radiant temperature (often close to ambient air temperature) 0.6 V (m/s), Relative air velocity (0.1 to 1 m/s) 44 rh (%), Relative humidity 1 Id (CIO), basic clothing insulation (1 clo = 0.155 W/m2K) Results for PMV and PPD PMV -0.04 PPD 5 Source: Authors Source: Authors The graph (Fig. 7 ) illustrates how the indoor conditions, influenced by factors like air velocity, humidity, air temperature, clothing, and activity, affect occupants’ thermal comfort. It helps identify whether space is too warm or too cool for most people and guides design decisions to maintain comfort levels within acceptable standards, typically between − 0.5 and + 0.5 on the scale. These results position the courtyard environment at the optimal center of the thermal comfort graph, as PMV values within ± 0.5 are internationally recognized benchmarks for design acceptability, with PPD values below 10% indicating that the vast majority of occupants will perceive no thermal discomfort. Such findings empirically validate the efficacy of the courtyard configuration in modulating microclimatic parameters to achieve nearly neutral indoor thermal sensation and minimal occupant dissatisfaction, thus supporting courtyard integration as a robust passive design strategy in residential architecture. 4.2.5 ASHRAE Compliance Assessment By using benchmarking in this way, it is possible to measure the progress toward code compliance and demonstrate that sophisticated courtyard designs, simulation-based envelope optimizations, or passive cooling strategies effectively narrow down the compliance gap for housing fabrics. A worldwide renowned standards organization, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) establishes guidelines for user comfort, safety, and efficiency of energy in the built environment, safety well as environmental stewardship. In this assessment (Fig. 8 ), Model 2 registers an annual EUI (Energy Use Intensity) of 452 kWh/m²/yr, exceeding the ASHRAE code requirement of 341 kWh/m²/yr by 32.5%, thus falling short of compliance. However, compared to Model 1’s much higher EUI of 580 kWh/m²/yr, Model 2 achieves a 40% reduction in excess consumption relative to the earlier design, reflecting a substantial improvement in meeting regulatory energy targets. Source: Authors Overall, the results show the powerful benefits of bringing traditional, climate-responsive architecture into today’s urban homes. The simulation for a typical 5 Marla house in Rawalpindi shows that integrating a small courtyard can reduce yearly energy use by over 22%, cut cooling needs by about 21%, and slash heating demand by more than half compared to a conventional enclosed design. These impressive savings align with and in some cases exceed what other researchers have found for larger homes and different climates (IEA, 2023; Khan et al., 2020). 5. Discussion This research affirms that traditional building techniques, when carefully adapted, can meet modern energy codes and delight occupants, even in cramped urban settings. A modest 80 square foot courtyard with thick walls could be a pivotal element, proving that downsizing doesn’t mean losing passive benefits. This opens doors for widespread retrofitting and new construction projects throughout the region with a similar climate, and homeowners are eager to blend traditional building practices with contemporary needs. Passive cooling and heating techniques, such as enhanced air circulation, thermal mass regulation, and evaporative cooling, have been shown to significantly improve indoor thermal comfort and reduce reliance on mechanical systems in hot-arid climates (Shiva Manshour & Lehmann, et al., 2025). What is striking is that even when scaled down to fit tight urban plots, classic features like courtyards, thick mud brick walls, and wind catcher ventilation still work effectively. This dispels doubts about whether such vernacular methods can survive in crowded, modern cities (Khan et al., 2020). Moreover, our household survey data revealed that many residents are not only open to smaller indoor spaces if it means having a courtyard but are also willing to pay a premium for homes that incorporate these thoughtful, climate-sensitive design elements. Efficacy comes from combining heavy thermal mass with natural ventilation, a timeless strategy rooted in local culture and climate. These passive solutions deliver reliable energy savings and comfort, reinforcing insights from studies in Iran, India, and the UAE, where urban heat islands are tackled with dense, shaded, and well-designed neighborhoods (IEA, 2023; UN-Habitat Pakistan, 2021). Policy and Design Recommendations : Based on these findings, here’s how cities and developers can make this happen: Update Building Codes Utilizing sustainable and locally sourced building materials (e.g., mud brick, lime, rammed earth) should be promoted as long as they meet proper safety standards. Passive design measures, such as wind catchers, sun shading devices, and climate-responsive building orientations, should be required or encouraged through regulatory mechanisms. Furthermore, traditional architectural elements of new developments, such as deep eaves and verandahs, should be promoted. Projects that embody this design principles could be rewarded with fast-track approval processes, and developers who can demonstrate measurable energy savings could be rewarded with bonuses such as increased allowable building density. To help architects balance the need for courtyards with privacy, security, and cultural context, user-friendly design toolkits should be created and shared. Provide Financial Incentives : Financial incentives - including grants, rebates or lower administrative fees - shall be offered for structures that use low-impact natural materials and passive cooling designs. Tax credits or subsidies should be granted to homeowners and developers who use effective courtyard configurations that show documented energy savings. Traditional sustainable construction methods should be taught to local builders and craftsmen to guarantee quality implementation and further spread of these methods. The development of climate-smart residential housing should be rapidly expanded by accelerating the permitting process and providing incentives for planning. Boost Public Awareness : Public education initiatives need to be implemented to demonstrate the real benefits of courtyard use, such as improved air quality, lower utility bills, and healthier living conditions for families. These efforts need to highlight the multi-functional role of courtyards as safe, multi-purpose outdoor areas for children's play, gardening, and social interaction, thus reflecting the current lifestyle needs of people. The design of courtyard spaces, which should meet current expectations for comfort and maintenance, should be done so in ways that celebrate successful projects that integrate heritage and modern sustainability, and invite resident participation early in the design process. Together, these measures have the potential to change the urban housing in Pakistan and other similar environments, combining cultural heritage with the latest sustainability standards to create healthier and more active societies. In order to respond to the twin urban demands of occupant comfort and energy-efficiency optimization, traditional elements of vernacular design, i.e., courtyard arrangements and materials sensitive to climate, are strategically incorporated. Empirical studies indicate that residents show a high level of acceptance and willingness to invest in well-designed courtyards, and that the well-designed courtyards are associated with a high level of satisfaction and quality of life. (Khan et al., 2020; Gaitani et al., 2007). Revising building codes and offering incentives for sustainable materials and passive architectural strategies can help speed up the widespread adoption of climate-responsive housing, with positive repercussions for urban sustainability and cultural continuity (Sharaf et al., 2020; Salman et al., 2018; Gunasekaran and Priya 2007; Gunasekaran and Priya, 2025). 6. Conclusion The findings of this study demonstrate that small courtyards significantly improve neighborhoods, not only by enhancing thermal comfort but also by decreasing energy demand. Courtyards act as natural climatic buffers and are important adaptation mechanisms of cities to the effects of climate change. Residential buildings with courtyards - especially when combined with mud-brick walls and chimney-style ventilation stacks - provide levels of comfort inside that are equal to or better than international standards, substantially reducing occupant discomfort. This is a significant improvement in traditional house designs. By focusing on maximizing open outdoor space, using thermal mass and vernacular forms of ventilation such as wind catchers, architects and planners can design homes that are energy efficient and desirable to residents, even in dense urban lots that were once considered too small to support such features. Above all, this research confirms the fact that the thoughtful integration of vernacular design with modern techniques enhances sustainability, lessens dependence on expensive mechanical cooling, and increases natural cooling of urban spaces. This study emphasizes the importance of vernacular components such as mud-brick walls and wind catchers and implies that further research on the optimization of these elements using modern materials, construction technologies, and integration with advanced mechanical systems may open up further potential energy-efficiency improvements. The synergies between courtyard design and new smart-building technologies offer an exciting new area to investigate. By overcoming these shortcomings, future research can further develop the practical implementation of climate-responsive courtyard design in modern urban housing and thus contribute to the attainment of sustainable development goals in a variety of socio-environmental settings. Declarations Funding Declaration: The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work. Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Clinical trial number: not applicable. Consent to participate: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent to publish: The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent for the publication of their anonymized data. 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Annals of Human and Social Sciences , 5 (I). https://doi.org/10.35484/ahss.2024(5-i)54 Shiva Manshour, & Lehmann, S. (2025, July 12). A Systematic Review of Passive Cooling Strategies Integrating Traditional Wisdom and Modern Innovations for Sustainable Development in Arid Urban Environments . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2507.09365 Tabadkani, A., Aghasizadeh, S., Banihashemi, S., & Hajirasouli, A. (2022). Courtyard design impact on indoor thermal comfort and utility costs for residential households: Comparative analysis and deep-learning predictive model. Frontiers of Architectural Research . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2022.02.006 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files AnnexI.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 24 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 23 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 20 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 18 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 18 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 16 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 12 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 02 Dec, 2025 Editor invited by journal 11 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 04 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 03 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 03 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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4\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":175781,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eExisting Plan of the House without Courtyard\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage4.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7867131/v1/700bae3b1779e720957cfb09.png\"},{\"id\":97665553,\"identity\":\"ff138f29-552b-4725-927a-2a3b64fc07e9\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-08 09:19:03\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":5,\"title\":\"Figure 5\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":87808,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSolar Analysis of an Existing 5 Marla House Model in Rawalpindi\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage5.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7867131/v1/d24a59b186d24a13096f291f.png\"},{\"id\":97390395,\"identity\":\"86c049f5-8321-406d-a4e9-6e2df9396dd8\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-03 22:04:10\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":6,\"title\":\"Figure 6\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":148508,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eSolar Analysis of Proposed 5 Marla House with Courtyard\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage6.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7867131/v1/534ab71423daa9a98d5e4a07.png\"},{\"id\":97665240,\"identity\":\"40aed4a7-0249-40f7-97c3-a6481fe5cd86\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-08 09:17:33\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":7,\"title\":\"Figure 7\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":164280,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFigure 6: Courtyard with Mud Cladding and Wind Catcher\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage7.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7867131/v1/87e413771e43919280c98e24.png\"},{\"id\":97390391,\"identity\":\"be3f0cd9-3833-4f07-99f6-3018a2ee177e\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-03 22:04:10\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":8,\"title\":\"Figure 8\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":99133,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFigure 7: Thermal Comfort Graph as per Table 03\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage8.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7867131/v1/b1fcbdb04092e2d000f4d2c0.png\"},{\"id\":97390397,\"identity\":\"5ec760fd-cff6-4f65-92df-86e52ec575c1\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-03 22:04:10\",\"extension\":\"png\",\"order_by\":9,\"title\":\"Figure 9\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"figure\",\"size\":25535,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eFigure 8: ASHRAE Compliance Assessment\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"floatimage9.png\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7867131/v1/148a78496071131b0aa0e65e.png\"},{\"id\":97677310,\"identity\":\"3c3d729b-fcbf-4797-ac3b-0227b1ed4099\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-08 09:52:57\",\"extension\":\"pdf\",\"order_by\":0,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"manuscript-pdf\",\"size\":3722143,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"manuscript.pdf\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7867131/v1/6b738474-bf16-43e4-986b-d8fb09712291.pdf\"},{\"id\":97390375,\"identity\":\"8d1ad927-c952-4d3f-b627-df5f01db3898\",\"added_by\":\"auto\",\"created_at\":\"2025-12-03 22:04:09\",\"extension\":\"docx\",\"order_by\":1,\"title\":\"\",\"display\":\"\",\"copyAsset\":false,\"role\":\"supplement\",\"size\":18826,\"visible\":true,\"origin\":\"\",\"legend\":\"\",\"description\":\"\",\"filename\":\"AnnexI.docx\",\"url\":\"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7867131/v1/4f7dbaa423c98b1bc8e82270.docx\"}],\"financialInterests\":\"No competing interests reported.\",\"formattedTitle\":\"Climate Responsive Courtyard Design for Urban Sustainability in Five Marla Houses in Rawalpindi Pakistan\",\"fulltext\":[{\"header\":\"1. Introduction\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe built environment stands at the center of global sustainability challenges. Buildings consume over one-third of the world's energy and emit approximately 30% of CO2, with mechanical heating and cooling systems responsible for the largest amount of energy use in the residential sector. (IEA, 2023). Nowhere are these challenges more acute than in rapidly urbanizing South Asia, where cities like Rawalpindi, Pakistan, are experiencing rising temperatures, urban heat islands, and, consequently, increasing energy demand for indoor cooling (Khan et al., 2020; UN-Habitat, 2021).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHistorically, South Asian courtyard houses provided natural ventilation and passive cooling, harmonizing with the local climate (Figs.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e \\u0026amp; \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). Modern building patterns, however, have prioritized maximizing built-up areas at the expense of these climate-responsive elements. The application of passive methods like natural ventilation and use of solar orientation to lower energy consumption is part of a design philosophy that integrates building activities with the local climatic environment as shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e. The strategy anticipates both the comfort of the occupants and the sustainability of the environment, thus reducing the use of artificial air-conditioning and heating systems. (Green Building \\u0026amp; Design Magazine, 2024). As a result, contemporary urban housing is increasingly reliant on energy-intensive mechanical systems, exacerbating environmental and economic pressures (Zhu et al., 2022).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTraditional South Asian courtyard houses exhibited impressive climate-responsive features, controlling internal temperature through passive solar designs, thermal mass, and natural ventilation systems (Salman et al., 2018). Thermal mass is the ability of a material to receive, retain and later de-give heat energy to maintain the temperatures of the interiors. Through the absorption of surplus heat throughout the day and its release at night or during cooler times of the day (Alayed et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR1\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e). These vernacular solutions provided comfy indoor environments, having little energy input but at the same time the many social activities such as family get-togethers and community weaving or craftwork that often took place in the shaded courtyard spaces and served as safe outdoor play areas were also provided. Nevertheless, the current urbanization has discarded these principles in favor of sealed, mechanically conditioned areas, which not only raise the cost of energy but also carbon emissions (Lazarus Adua et al., 2024)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe thermal performance of courtyards in different climatic regimes has been recorded in many recent studies. (Taleghani, 2014; Al-Hafith et al., 2022). Studies in arid and semi-arid areas have shown cooling load reductions of between 20 and 30 percent in courtyard houses compared to traditional building designs. (Almahmoud, et al., 2024; Taleb et al., 2022). Traditional building designs often rely on closed, mechanically ventilated rooms with insufficient natural ventilation and thermal mass, which leads to increased energy usage and reduced comfort of occupants. (Taleghani, et al., 2014). Nonetheless, most studies have focused on bigger plots, thus creating a huge knowledge gap on the performance of courtyards in the urban environment that is spatially limited, as is the case in Pakistani cities.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis research paper attempts to fill this gap between tradition and modernity by assessing the potential of courtyard integration in compact urban residential buildings. By combining household surveys and building performance simulations, this study is aimed at providing evidence-based recommendations for climate-resilient urban housing in Pakistan. Traditional South Asian courtyard houses demonstrated remarkable climate-responsive capabilities, moderating internal temperatures through passive solar design, thermal mass, and natural ventilation strategies (Salman et al., 2018). These vernacular designs delivered low-energy thermal comfort and provided settings for daily social interactions and cultural rituals.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHowever, contemporary urban development has largely abandoned these principles in favor of sealed, mechanically conditioned spaces that increase both energy costs and carbon emissions. Thus, this study addresses three critical research questions: 1) How do courtyards contribute to climate change adaptation within residential building design in Rawalpindi? 2) What impact do courtyards have on enhancing indoor thermal comfort in 5 Marla urban houses? and 3) How can courtyard configurations be optimized to improve energy efficiency and advance climate resilient residential design? The overall goal is to evaluate the effectiveness of climate-responsive courtyard design, based on the vernacular architecture of Pakistan, to enhance thermal comfort and save energy consumption in five-Marla (square foot) urban dwellings, contributing to broader urban sustainability goals.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"2. Literature Review\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eUrban sustainability is creating cities that suit current demands without jeopardizing future prosperity. Climate-responsive design is a cornerstone of this vision, as it seeks to harmonize built environments with local climatic conditions, reducing environmental impact while enhancing human comfort (Firoozi et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR7\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e). Rather than imposing standardized, energy-intensive solutions, climate-responsive strategies leverage natural elements such as sun orientation, wind, and thermal mass to create resilient and pleasant spaces (Sanagust\\u0026iacute;n-Fons et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR13\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eRapid urban growth, particularly in developing regions, has caused increased energy usage, production of greenhouse gases, and the propagation of urban heat islands. (IEA, 2023; Khan et al., 2020; Gunasekaran \\u0026amp; Priya, 2025). The above issues are compounded by an existing tendency in modern architecture to focus on aesthetic values and spatial density, as opposed to environmental performance, often disregarding the rich experience provided by vernacular design cultures. With the trends of rapid urbanization, the problem of critical concern arises: how to make sure that the developmental process will not result in the destruction of the environment? Climate-responsive design is a feasible solution to the attainment of sustainable urbanism, a combination of environmental conservation and financial viability. (Baker \\u0026amp; Steemers et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR3\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2003\\u003c/span\\u003e).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTraditional architectural practices, in hot and arid climates, have long proved the possibilities of buildings to adapt to the prevalent climate conditions by passive means, such as courtyards, thick masonry, and natural ventilation (Rusen Ergun \\u0026amp; Ayhan Bekleyen et al., 2024). These approaches not only reduce energy demand but also create cultural continuity (Sanagustin-France et al., 2025). As cities struggle to withstand the consequences of unsustainable growth, there is a renewed interest in vernacular architecture that is likely to be observed for contemporary design (Nguyen et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR10\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2019\\u003c/span\\u003e). In South Asia, courtyard houses are a great example of this tradition with geometry, materiality, and space organization being deployed to moderate internal temperatures of the house as well as facilitate communal living practices and, as studies from across a wide range of climates have demonstrated, such house designs may reduce cooling loads by between 20\\u0026ndash;30 per cent compared to conventional houses. The vernacular principles are not easy to introduce to modern urban housing (Sherwani et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR14\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2024\\u003c/span\\u003e). The integration of vernacular principles into modern urban housing experienced many setbacks. Space constraints, regulatory barriers, and changing lifestyles can limit the applicability of traditional forms (Azhani Abd Manaf et al., \\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR2\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2025\\u003c/span\\u003e). However, research indicates that even in compact plots, features like courtyards and wind catchers can deliver substantial energy savings and comfort improvements (Tabatabaei et al., 2024). Moreover, these elements resonate with cultural values and social practices, enhancing the acceptability and viability of sustainable design interventions.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec3\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e2.1 Local Context\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePakistan, among the world\\u0026rsquo;s most climate-vulnerable nations, faces acute pressures from urbanization and rising temperatures (Khan et al., 2020; UN-Habitat Pakistan, 2021). As a representative metropolis of South Asia, Rawalpindi has been witnessing an increasing temperature and aggravating urban heat islands, which further increase the energy requirements of the cooling process. The standardization of small residential parcels has triggered the almost complete eradication of the courtyards increasing the reliance on mechanical conditioning and hindering the process of transforming the city to sustainable urban development.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn this context, there is an urgent need to revisit the place of traditional architecture in contemporary urban housing. This research will contribute to the global discussion on sustainable urban development by examining the performance and acceptability of courtyard integration in 5-Marla houses. The results provide empirical evidence and practical insights for policymakers, designers, and communities interested in balancing modern aspirations with environmental responsibility.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"3. Methods \\u0026 Data\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eGiven the pressing need for sustainable development in Pakistan, our study set out to investigate whether and how courtyards could be mainstreamed in contemporary urban housing.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec5\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.1 Site and Setting\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe selection of the 5 Marla plot as our research focus was deliberate. The 5 Marla dwelling is the most owned residential unit in Rawalpindi and much of northern Punjab, representing the modal form of urban homeownership. The 5 Marla dwelling is the most owned residential unit in Rawalpindi and much of northern Punjab, representing the modal form of urban homeownership.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec6\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.2 Study Design\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe investigation was conducted in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, and focused specifically on single-family homes situated on 5 Marla plots, a prevalent housing typology in the composite hot-humid/hot semi-arid climate of northern Punjab. This research utilized a convergent mixed methods approach, combining quantitative building simulations with comprehensive cross-sectional household surveys and building performance simulations.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec7\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.2.1 Household Survey\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA structured questionnaire captured demographic data, dwelling characteristics, prevalence of existing courtyard, thermal comfort perceptions, and reliance on mechanical conditioning (see Annex I for details).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe survey instrument was initially developed in English, then translated into Urdu and subsequently back-translated to ensure semantic accuracy. It was piloted in 10 households before the final version was deployed.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA stratified multi-stage sampling design was used: First, Rawalpindi was divided into administrative zones of City and Cantonment, and then each zone was further divided into low-, middle-, and high-income neighborhoods using median monthly income data. Within these strata, systematic random sampling was then used, and fixed intervals (e.g., age groups and income bands) were established from total dwelling counts to ensure representative coverage.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis study area falls under the regulatory authority of Rawalpindi, i.e., Rawalpindi Development Authority (RDA). These residential designs are in compliance with RDA byelaws. The conventional model of this research observes the 5 Marla byelaws, where 5 mandatory open spaces should be given at both front and rear sides of the plot.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOut of the 300 households originally targeted, 273 provided usable responses.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec8\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e3.2.2 Building Performance Simulation\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn this study, two residential building design models are developed to perform comprehensive simulations assessing energy consumption and thermal comfort by using vernacular materials in compact urban residential settings. The first model represents a conventional house layout typical of contemporary 5 Marla urban homes in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. This conventional design features a fully built-up footprint with rooms arranged around a central service core, constructed with 230mm thick fired brick walls and a flat roof, following prevailing building norms and construction standards.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe second model uses a courtyard house style within the same footprint with an 80-square-foot courtyard in the center. This courtyard house uses 300mm thick mudbrick internal walls with high thermal mass, and a 900mm high roof lantern, which also acts as a wind catcher to improve natural ventilation. The design is inspired by traditional South Asian vernacular architecture that is renowned for its climate-responsive passive cooling and heating strategies.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe simulation methodology includes creating detailed 3D models of both designs in Autodesk CAD and Revit 2023, followed by building-performance simulations to assess energy demand and thermal-comfort metrics. Local climate data of Rawalpindi was used, and material properties of construction elements were taken from authoritative databases of the National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan. Simulation outputs include heating and cooling energy consumption, Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices; these measures are crucial in assessing indoor environmental quality.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eAt the outset, thermal performance analysis will be performed, including energy consumption, and indoor comfort benefits of the courtyard house model relative to a conventional layout. This combined methodological approach enables a comprehensive assessment of both the user experience and the technical efficacy of climate-responsive courtyard design in a compact urban setting.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eModel 1 (Conventional House)\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFully built-up 5 Marla footprints with rooms arranged around a central service core, 230mm fired brick walls, and flat roof configuration in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eModel 2 (Courtyard House)\\u003c/strong\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIdentical footprint with 80 ft\\u0026sup2; central courtyard, 300mm mud brick interior walls, and 900mm high roof lantern functioning as a wind catcher in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;4.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"4. Analysis and Results\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis section first analyzes the household survey data to understand public perceptions, preferences, and behaviors related to courtyard integration in 5 Marla urban homes. Survey insights provide critical context on spatial priorities and willingness to adopt vernacular design elements, which directly inform the design parameters and assumptions used for building performance simulations. As a result, the present paper presents results of the simulation that quantitatively assess the thermal performance, energy consumption, and indoor comfort advantages of the courtyard house model compared to a conventional layout.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec10\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.1 Demographics and Housing Characteristics\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSurvey data were analyzed using SPSS version 29. The final sample comprised of 273 households with predominantly young respondents (51.5 percent aged between 18\\u0026ndash;30 years). Monthly income showed a bell-shaped distribution: 20.6 percent earning\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026lt;\\u0026thinsp;PKR 35,000, 41.9 percent earning PKR 36\\u0026ndash;60,000, 17.6 percent earning PKR 61\\u0026ndash;100,000, and 19.9 percent earning\\u0026thinsp;\\u0026gt;\\u0026thinsp;PKR 100,000. Educational attainment was relatively high, with 45.6 percent holding bachelor's or master's degrees. Household sizes are clustered around 5\\u0026ndash;6 occupants (58 percent), with a mean occupancy of 5.2 persons per dwelling. Plot sizes were predominantly 3\\u0026ndash;5 Marlas (39.3 percent) and 5\\u0026ndash;10 Marlas (38.3 percent), confirming the target demographic.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSurvey results revealed strong support for courtyard integration (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab1\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e1\\u003c/span\\u003e). A majority (59.6 percent) believed courtyards can reduce artificial heating and cooling needs, while 57.2% expressed willingness to sacrifice indoor area for a larger courtyard. Front yard locations were strongly preferred (63.4 percent) over central (28.7 percent) or back yard (7.9 percent) configurations.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eRegarding purchasing decisions, lifestyle compatibility is the primary driver (53.3%), followed by architectural aesthetics (26.7%). Energy savings, while recognized, ranked lower as a decisive factor (2.6%). Nearly two-thirds (59.8%) expressed willingness to pay a premium for well-designed courtyards.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab1\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 1\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHousehold Attitude towards Courtyard Integration in Rawalpindi\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eVariable\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eResponse\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e%\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCourtyards reduce artificial conditioning\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e59.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNo\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e21.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eUnsure\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e18.5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWilling to sacrifice the indoor area\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e57.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMaybe\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e31.2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNo\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e11.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePreferred courtyard location\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFront\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e63.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCentral\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e28.7\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBack\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e7.9\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" morerows=\\\"2\\\" rowspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eWilling to pay premium for courtyard\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eYes\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e59.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eMaybe\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e31.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eNo\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e8.8\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003ctfoot\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd colspan=\\\"3\\\"\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tfoot\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec11\\\" class=\\\"Section2\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.2 Building Performance\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec12\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.2.1 Energy Performance\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTwo prototypical digital models were developed in Autodesk Revit and CAD 2023: \\u003cem\\u003eModel 1 (Conventional House)\\u003c/em\\u003e: Fully built up 5 Marla house with rooms arranged around a central service core, 230mm fired brick walls, and flat roof configuration. \\u003cem\\u003eModel 2 (Courtyard House)\\u003c/em\\u003e: Identical footprint with 80 ft\\u0026sup2; central courtyard, 300mm mud brick interior walls, and 900mm high roof lantern functioning as a wind catcher.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSimulation results demonstrated significant energy reductions in the courtyard design (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e). Total annual delivered energy decreased from 267,768 kBtu in Model 1 to 208,652 kBtu in Model 2, representing a 22.1% reduction. Cooling loads dropped by 21.3% (261,114 to 205,619 kBtu), while heating demand fell by 54.4% (6,654 to 3,033 kBtu). KBtu is a unit of energy in the building industry, especially for measuring heating, cooling, and energy consumption in buildings.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec13\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.2.2 Solar Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe 3D models were created using Revit CAD 2023, a software platform well-suited for detailed architectural modeling and simulation. The design chosen for the models reflects typical building patterns in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, conforming to local construction norms and building by-laws. This ensures that the simulation results are relevant and representative of prevailing residential construction practices in the region. Figures\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig4\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e5\\u003c/span\\u003e and \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e show the solar analysis of both models i.e. Existing conventional and Proposed with courtyard design.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cspan type=\\\"ItalicUnderline\\\" class=\\\"ItalicUnderline\\\" name=\\\"Emphasis\\\"\\u003eModel 1 Conventional\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cspan type=\\\"ItalicUnderline\\\" class=\\\"ItalicUnderline\\\" name=\\\"Emphasis\\\"\\u003eModel 2 with Courtyard\\u003c/span\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFigure \\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e: Solar Analysis of Proposed 5 Marla House with Courtyard\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab2\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 2\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eComparison of energy load of Model 1 \\u0026amp; Model 2\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\" colnum=\\\"3\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\" colnum=\\\"4\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEnd Use\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eModel 1 Consumption\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e(kBtu)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eModel 2 Consumption (kBtu)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eReduction\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e(%)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eHeating\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e6,654\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e3,033\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e54.4\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCooling\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e261,114\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e205,619\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e21.3\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTotal\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e267,768\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c3\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e208,652\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"char\\\" char=\\\".\\\" colname=\\\"c4\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e22.1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe comparative analysis of the two residential building models (Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab2\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e2\\u003c/span\\u003e), Model 1 (without a courtyard, conventional design) and Model 2 (with an 80 sq. ft courtyard as a proposed design), demonstrate that the introduction of a courtyard leads to substantial energy savings. Model 2 achieves a dramatic 54.4% reduction in heating energy consumption, decreasing from 6,654 kBtu in Model 1 to just 3,033 kBtu. Cooling energy usage also drops by 21.3%, from 261,114 kBtu to 205,619 kBtu. In comparison to the typical layout, the courtyard design greatly improves the building's thermal efficiency and lowers utility needs, as demonstrated by the overall 22.1% reduction in consumed energy.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec14\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.2.3 Vernacular Elements Impact Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThis analysis was conducted using Autodesk Revit 2023, allowing detailed building performance simulations. The process involved creating a control model with both mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry as shown in Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e6\\u003c/span\\u003e, then isolating and removing each element in subsequent simulations to quantify their individual impact on energy loads and thermal comfort.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA control simulation isolating the effects of mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig5\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e06\\u003c/span\\u003e) revealed their critical contribution. Removing these vernacular elements while retaining the courtyard increased cooling loads by 10.9% and doubled heating demand. PMV shifted thermal mass effects, with the wind catcher contributing an additional 5\\u0026ndash;6% reduction in peak cooling loads from +\\u0026thinsp;0.1 to +\\u0026thinsp;0.4, while PPD increased from 5.2% to 11.7%. These results demonstrate that approximately half of the cooling savings and virtually all winter benefits derive from.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec15\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.2.4 Thermal Comfort Analysis\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eUsing the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) metrics to calculate comfort and incorporate environmental variables like the air's temperature, mean radiant temperature, velocity of air, and relative humidity, the courtyard design is improved with a quantitative thermal comfort evaluation of the internal space, and automatically computes PMV and PPD values following ASHRAE standards to assess occupant comfort. The tool is widely used for compliance with thermal comfort standards and for analyzing comfort in building design.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA statistical evaluation of indoor thermal comfort is demonstrated in the courtyard design utilizing the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices, calculated from several environmental and human factors. Many studies have employed PMV and PPD indices derived from building simulation models and courtyard environments for diverse research goals. Tabadkani et al. (\\u003cspan citationid=\\\"CR16\\\" class=\\\"CitationRef\\\"\\u003e2022\\u003c/span\\u003e) conducted a parametric study of courtyard design options for residential buildings, considering indoor thermal comfort and utility costs using PMV-PPD models, incorporating dynamic simulation inputs like this study. Table\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Tab3\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e3\\u003c/span\\u003e indicates the air velocity, mean radiant temperature, and humidity values are sourced from building simulation performance models, reflecting dynamic interactions between envelope design, HVAC operation, and internal load conditions as simulated rather than measured directly.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"gridtable\\\"\\u003e\\u003ctable float=\\\"Yes\\\" id=\\\"Tab3\\\" border=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003ccaption language=\\\"En\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionNumber\\\"\\u003eTable 3\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv class=\\\"CaptionContent\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCalculation of PPD \\u0026amp; PMV For Proposed Courtyard Model\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/caption\\u003e\\u003ccolgroup cols=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\" colnum=\\\"1\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv align=\\\"left\\\" class=\\\"colspec\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\" colnum=\\\"2\\\"\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cthead\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003cth align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c2\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eCalculation of PMV and PPD\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/th\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/thead\\u003e\\u003ctbody\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e70\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eM (W/m2), Metabolic energy production (58 to 232 W/m2)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eW (W/m2), Rate of mechanical work, (normally O)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e24\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTa (C). Ambient air temperature (10\\u0026ndash;30)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e22\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTr (C). Mean radiant temperature (often close to ambient air temperature)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e0.6\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eV (m/s), Relative air velocity (0.1 to 1 m/s)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e44\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003erh (%), Relative humidity\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e1\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eId (CIO), basic clothing insulation (1 clo\\u0026thinsp;=\\u0026thinsp;0.155 W/m2K)\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colspan=\\\"2\\\" nameend=\\\"c2\\\" namest=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eResults for PMV and PPD\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePMV\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e-0.04\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003ctr\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c1\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePPD\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003ctd align=\\\"left\\\" colname=\\\"c2\\\"\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e5\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/td\\u003e\\u003c/tr\\u003e\\u003c/tbody\\u003e\\u003c/colgroup\\u003e\\u003c/table\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe graph (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig6\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e7\\u003c/span\\u003e) illustrates how the indoor conditions, influenced by factors like air velocity, humidity, air temperature, clothing, and activity, affect occupants\\u0026rsquo; thermal comfort. It helps identify whether space is too warm or too cool for most people and guides design decisions to maintain comfort levels within acceptable standards, typically between \\u0026minus;\\u0026thinsp;0.5 and +\\u0026thinsp;0.5 on the scale.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThese results position the courtyard environment at the optimal center of the thermal comfort graph, as PMV values within \\u0026plusmn;\\u0026thinsp;0.5 are internationally recognized benchmarks for design acceptability, with PPD values below 10% indicating that the vast majority of occupants will perceive no thermal discomfort. Such findings empirically validate the efficacy of the courtyard configuration in modulating microclimatic parameters to achieve nearly neutral indoor thermal sensation and minimal occupant dissatisfaction, thus supporting courtyard integration as a robust passive design strategy in residential architecture.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003cdiv id=\\\"Sec16\\\" class=\\\"Section3\\\"\\u003e\\u003ch2\\u003e4.2.5 ASHRAE Compliance Assessment\\u003c/h2\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBy using benchmarking in this way, it is possible to measure the progress toward code compliance and demonstrate that sophisticated courtyard designs, simulation-based envelope optimizations, or passive cooling strategies effectively narrow down the compliance gap for housing fabrics.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eA worldwide renowned standards organization, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) establishes guidelines for user comfort, safety, and efficiency of energy in the built environment, safety well as environmental stewardship.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eIn this assessment (Fig.\\u0026nbsp;\\u003cspan refid=\\\"Fig7\\\" class=\\\"InternalRef\\\"\\u003e8\\u003c/span\\u003e), Model 2 registers an annual EUI (Energy Use Intensity) of 452 kWh/m\\u0026sup2;/yr, exceeding the ASHRAE code requirement of 341 kWh/m\\u0026sup2;/yr by 32.5%, thus falling short of compliance. However, compared to Model 1\\u0026rsquo;s much higher EUI of 580 kWh/m\\u0026sup2;/yr, Model 2 achieves a 40% reduction in excess consumption relative to the earlier design, reflecting a substantial improvement in meeting regulatory energy targets.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eSource: Authors\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eOverall, the results show the powerful benefits of bringing traditional, climate-responsive architecture into today\\u0026rsquo;s urban homes. The simulation for a typical 5 Marla house in Rawalpindi shows that integrating a small courtyard can reduce yearly energy use by over 22%, cut cooling needs by about 21%, and slash heating demand by more than half compared to a conventional enclosed design. These impressive savings align with and in some cases exceed what other researchers have found for larger homes and different climates (IEA, 2023; Khan et al., 2020).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\\u003c/div\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"5. Discussion\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThis research affirms that traditional building techniques, when carefully adapted, can meet modern energy codes and delight occupants, even in cramped urban settings. A modest 80 square foot courtyard with thick walls could be a pivotal element, proving that downsizing doesn\\u0026rsquo;t mean losing passive benefits. This opens doors for widespread retrofitting and new construction projects throughout the region with a similar climate, and homeowners are eager to blend traditional building practices with contemporary needs.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePassive cooling and heating techniques, such as enhanced air circulation, thermal mass regulation, and evaporative cooling, have been shown to significantly improve indoor thermal comfort and reduce reliance on mechanical systems in hot-arid climates (Shiva Manshour \\u0026amp; Lehmann, et al., 2025). What is striking is that even when scaled down to fit tight urban plots, classic features like courtyards, thick mud brick walls, and wind catcher ventilation still work effectively. This dispels doubts about whether such vernacular methods can survive in crowded, modern cities (Khan et al., 2020). Moreover, our household survey data revealed that many residents are not only open to smaller indoor spaces if it means having a courtyard but are also willing to pay a premium for homes that incorporate these thoughtful, climate-sensitive design elements.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eEfficacy comes from combining heavy thermal mass with natural ventilation, a timeless strategy rooted in local culture and climate. These passive solutions deliver reliable energy savings and comfort, reinforcing insights from studies in Iran, India, and the UAE, where urban heat islands are tackled with dense, shaded, and well-designed neighborhoods (IEA, 2023; UN-Habitat Pakistan, 2021).\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003ePolicy and Design Recommendations\\u003c/b\\u003e:\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eBased on these findings, here\\u0026rsquo;s how cities and developers can make this happen:\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eUpdate Building Codes\\u003c/b\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cul\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eUtilizing sustainable and locally sourced building materials (e.g., mud brick, lime, rammed earth) should be promoted as long as they meet proper safety standards.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePassive design measures, such as wind catchers, sun shading devices, and climate-responsive building orientations, should be required or encouraged through regulatory mechanisms.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFurthermore, traditional architectural elements of new developments, such as deep eaves and verandahs, should be promoted.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eProjects that embody this design principles could be rewarded with fast-track approval processes, and developers who can demonstrate measurable energy savings could be rewarded with bonuses such as increased allowable building density.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTo help architects balance the need for courtyards with privacy, security, and cultural context, user-friendly design toolkits should be created and shared.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ul\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eProvide Financial Incentives\\u003c/b\\u003e:\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cul\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eFinancial incentives - including grants, rebates or lower administrative fees - shall be offered for structures that use low-impact natural materials and passive cooling designs.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTax credits or subsidies should be granted to homeowners and developers who use effective courtyard configurations that show documented energy savings.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTraditional sustainable construction methods should be taught to local builders and craftsmen to guarantee quality implementation and further spread of these methods.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe development of climate-smart residential housing should be rapidly expanded by accelerating the permitting process and providing incentives for planning.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ul\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cb\\u003eBoost Public Awareness\\u003c/b\\u003e:\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cul\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003ePublic education initiatives need to be implemented to demonstrate the real benefits of courtyard use, such as improved air quality, lower utility bills, and healthier living conditions for families.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThese efforts need to highlight the multi-functional role of courtyards as safe, multi-purpose outdoor areas for children's play, gardening, and social interaction, thus reflecting the current lifestyle needs of people.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003cli\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eThe design of courtyard spaces, which should meet current expectations for comfort and maintenance, should be done so in ways that celebrate successful projects that integrate heritage and modern sustainability, and invite resident participation early in the design process.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003c/li\\u003e\\u003c/ul\\u003e\\u003c/p\\u003e\\u003cp\\u003eTogether, these measures have the potential to change the urban housing in Pakistan and other similar environments, combining cultural heritage with the latest sustainability standards to create healthier and more active societies. In order to respond to the twin urban demands of occupant comfort and energy-efficiency optimization, traditional elements of vernacular design, i.e., courtyard arrangements and materials sensitive to climate, are strategically incorporated. Empirical studies indicate that residents show a high level of acceptance and willingness to invest in well-designed courtyards, and that the well-designed courtyards are associated with a high level of satisfaction and quality of life. (Khan et al., 2020; Gaitani et al., 2007). Revising building codes and offering incentives for sustainable materials and passive architectural strategies can help speed up the widespread adoption of climate-responsive housing, with positive repercussions for urban sustainability and cultural continuity (Sharaf et al., 2020; Salman et al., 2018; Gunasekaran and Priya 2007; Gunasekaran and Priya, 2025).\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"6. Conclusion \",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate that small courtyards significantly improve neighborhoods, not only by enhancing thermal comfort but also by decreasing energy demand. Courtyards act as natural climatic buffers and are important adaptation mechanisms of cities to the effects of climate change. Residential buildings with courtyards - especially when combined with mud-brick walls and chimney-style ventilation stacks - provide levels of comfort inside that are equal to or better than international standards, substantially reducing occupant discomfort. This is a significant improvement in traditional house designs. By focusing on maximizing open outdoor space, using thermal mass and vernacular forms of ventilation such as wind catchers, architects and planners can design homes that are energy efficient and desirable to residents, even in dense urban lots that were once considered too small to support such features. Above all, this research confirms the fact that the thoughtful integration of vernacular design with modern techniques enhances sustainability, lessens dependence on expensive mechanical cooling, and increases natural cooling of urban spaces. This study emphasizes the importance of vernacular components such as mud-brick walls and wind catchers and implies that further research on the optimization of these elements using modern materials, construction technologies, and integration with advanced mechanical systems may open up further potential energy-efficiency improvements. The synergies between courtyard design and new smart-building technologies offer an exciting new area to investigate. By overcoming these shortcomings, future research can further develop the practical implementation of climate-responsive courtyard design in modern urban housing and thus contribute to the attainment of sustainable development goals in a variety of socio-environmental settings.\\u003c/p\\u003e\"},{\"header\":\"Declarations\",\"content\":\"\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eFunding Declaration:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003eThe authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eData Availability Statement:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eClinical trial number:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003enot applicable.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eConsent to participate:\\u003c/strong\\u003e Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eConsent to publish:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003eThe authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent for the publication of their anonymized data.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\\u003cp\\u003e\\u003cstrong\\u003eEthics statement:\\u0026nbsp;\\u003c/strong\\u003eThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, and conducted in accordance with its guidelines and the Declaration of Helsinki.\\u003c/p\\u003e\\n\"},{\"header\":\"References\",\"content\":\"\\u003col\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAlayed, E., Bensaid, D., O\\u0026rsquo;hegarty, R., \\u0026amp; Kinnane, Oliver. (2022). Thermal mass impact on energy consumption for buildings in hot climates: A novel finite element modelling study comparing building constructions for arid climates in Saudi Arabia. \\u003cem\\u003eEnergy and Buildings\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e271\\u003c/em\\u003e, 112324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112324\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eAzhani Abd Manaf, Latip, A., Ismail, N. H., Norisma, W., Nor, \\u0026amp; Iffah, W. (2025). \\u003cem\\u003eChallenges in Adapting Vernacular Architecture to The Contemporary: A Systematic Literature Review\\u003c/em\\u003e. \\u003cem\\u003e3\\u003c/em\\u003e(1), 17\\u0026ndash;29. https://doi.org/10.37934/sijdbes.3.1.1729\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eBaker, N., \\u0026amp; Steemers, K. (2003). \\u003cem\\u003eEnergy and Environment in Architecture\\u003c/em\\u003e. Taylor \\u0026amp; Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203223017\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eBiro, A. (2023, July 11). \\u003cem\\u003eWhat is Climate Responsive Architecture?\\u003c/em\\u003e Gb\\u0026amp;D Magazine. https://gbdmagazine.com/climate-responsive-architecture/\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eChikkaveerappa, S., Rashmit, S., \\u0026amp; Sequeira, J. (2024). Employing Vernacular Urbanism and Traditional Practices in Enhancing Contemporary Cities: Insights from India. \\u003cem\\u003eInternational Society for the Study of Vernacular Settlements\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e11\\u003c/em\\u003e(9), 12\\u0026ndash;34. https://doi.org/10.61275/isvsej-2024-11-09-02\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eevanka. (2023, March 19). \\u003cem\\u003eHaveli Design\\u003c/em\\u003e. Pinterest. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/desi-pakistani-home-with-south-asian-aesthetic--844493672468040/\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eFiroozi, A. A., Firoozi, A. A., Oyejobi, D. O., Avudaiappan, S., \\u0026amp; Flores, E. S. (2024). Emerging Trends in Sustainable Building Materials: Technological Innovations, Enhanced Performance, and Future Directions. \\u003cem\\u003eResults in Engineering\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e24\\u003c/em\\u003e(24), 103521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103521\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eLazarus Adua, Asamoah, A., Barrows, J., Brookstein, P., Chen, B., Coleman, D. R., Denzer, A., Desjarlais, A. O., Falconer, W., Fernandes, L., Fisler, D., Foley, C., Gaillard, C., Gladen, A., Guzowski, M., Hill, T., Hun, D., Kishore, R., Klingenberg, K., \\u0026amp; Kosny, J. (2024). Ambient energy for buildings: Beyond energy efficiency. \\u003cem\\u003eSolar Compass\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e11\\u003c/em\\u003e, 100076\\u0026ndash;100076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solcom.2024.100076\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eMahdiyeh Tabatabaei. (2024). Analysis of Traditional Iranian Vernacular Architecture in Response to Sunlight: An Approach to Sustainable Development. \\u003cem\\u003eAnalysis of Traditional Iranian Vernacular Architecture in Response to Sunlight: An Approach to Sustainable Development\\u003c/em\\u003e, 259\\u0026ndash;276. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-1116-4_14\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eNguyen, A. T., Truong, N. S. H., Rockwood, D., \\u0026amp; Tran Le, A. D. (2019). Studies on sustainable features of vernacular architecture in different regions across the world: A comprehensive synthesis and evaluation. \\u003cem\\u003eFrontiers of Architectural Research\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e8\\u003c/em\\u003e(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.006\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003ePrimarc Studio Architects. (2023, February 21). \\u003cem\\u003eThe Significance and Benefits of Courtyards in Pakistan | Primarc Studio\\u003c/em\\u003e. Primarc Studio - Architecture and Interior Design Firm; Primarc Studio. https://primarcstudio.com/blog/the-significance-and-benefits-of-courtyards-in-pakistan/\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eRuşen Erg\\u0026uuml;n, \\u0026amp; Ayhan Bekleyen. (2024). An Architectural Taxonomic Proposal for Passive Design Strategies Used in Traditional Architecture of Areas With Hot and Dry Climates. \\u003cem\\u003eJournal of Engineering Research\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003eNo\\u003c/em\\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jer.2024.05.019\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSanagust\\u0026iacute;n-Fons, V., Stavrou, P., Jos\\u0026eacute; Antonio Mose\\u0026ntilde;e-Fierro, Sierra, F. E., Guido Castrolla, Rocha, C., \\u0026amp; Nogueras, E. B. (2025). Cultural Heritage Architecture and Climate Adaptation: A Socio-Environmental Analysis of Sustainable Building Techniques. \\u003cem\\u003eLand\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e14\\u003c/em\\u003e(5), 1022\\u0026ndash;1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14051022\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eSherwani, R., Aslam, S., \\u0026amp; Waheed, Dr. A. (2024). Traditional Courtyard Planning for Sustainable Architecture Solutions. \\u003cem\\u003eAnnals of Human and Social Sciences\\u003c/em\\u003e, \\u003cem\\u003e5\\u003c/em\\u003e(I). https://doi.org/10.35484/ahss.2024(5-i)54\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eShiva Manshour, \\u0026amp; Lehmann, S. (2025, July 12). \\u003cem\\u003eA Systematic Review of Passive Cooling Strategies Integrating Traditional Wisdom and Modern Innovations for Sustainable Development in Arid Urban Environments\\u003c/em\\u003e. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2507.09365\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003cli\\u003eTabadkani, A., Aghasizadeh, S., Banihashemi, S., \\u0026amp; Hajirasouli, A. (2022). Courtyard design impact on indoor thermal comfort and utility costs for residential households: Comparative analysis and deep-learning predictive model. \\u003cem\\u003eFrontiers of Architectural Research\\u003c/em\\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2022.02.006\\u003c/li\\u003e\\n\\u003c/ol\\u003e\"}],\"fulltextSource\":\"\",\"fullText\":\"\",\"funders\":[],\"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow\":false,\"hasManuscriptDocX\":true,\"hasOptedInToPreprint\":true,\"hasPassedJournalQc\":\"\",\"hasAnyPriority\":false,\"hideJournal\":false,\"highlight\":\"\",\"institution\":\"\",\"isAcceptedByJournal\":true,\"isAuthorSuppliedPdf\":false,\"isDeskRejected\":\"\",\"isHiddenFromSearch\":false,\"isInQc\":false,\"isInWorkflow\":false,\"isPdf\":false,\"isPdfUpToDate\":true,\"isWithdrawnOrRetracted\":false,\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"discover-cities\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Discover Cities](https://www.springer.com/journal/44327)\",\"snPcode\":\"44327\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44327/3\",\"title\":\"Discover Cities\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Discover Series\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true},\"keywords\":\"Climate responsive design, Urban sustainability, Vernacular architecture, courtyard houses, Passive cooling, Pakistan\",\"lastPublishedDoi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7867131/v1\",\"lastPublishedDoiUrl\":\"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7867131/v1\",\"license\":{\"name\":\"CC BY 4.0\",\"url\":\"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"},\"manuscriptAbstract\":\"\\u003cp\\u003eRapid urbanization and climate change have dramatically increased energy consumption in South Asian residential buildings. Traditional courtyard houses, once common in the region, provided passive cooling solutions that have largely been abandoned in favor of maximizing built up floor area. This mixed methods study examines the thermal performance and social acceptability of courtyard integration in 5 Marla (\\u0026asymp;\\u0026thinsp;125 m\\u0026sup2;) urban houses in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Building performance simulations compare a conventional house with a courtyard integrated design featuring mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry. Survey results demonstrate that compact courtyards integrated with vernacular materials offer significant potential for enhancing natural cooling, which in turn reduces the need for mechanical energy consumption. This reduction in energy use contributes significantly to urban sustainability by lowering carbon emissions and improving environmental quality in space-constrained environments. The findings highlight the importance of climate-responsive design rooted in local traditions as a pathway for sustainable urban development.\\u003c/p\\u003e\",\"manuscriptTitle\":\"Climate Responsive Courtyard Design for Urban Sustainability in Five Marla Houses in Rawalpindi Pakistan\",\"msid\":\"\",\"msnumber\":\"\",\"nonDraftVersions\":[{\"code\":1,\"date\":\"2025-12-03 22:04:05\",\"doi\":\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7867131/v1\",\"editorialEvents\":[{\"type\":\"communityComments\",\"content\":0},{\"type\":\"decision\",\"content\":\"Revision requested\",\"date\":\"2025-12-24T07:02:47+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-12-23T17:26:44+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"79963401096456264401695397127576137137\",\"date\":\"2025-12-21T07:44:03+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-12-20T12:17:13+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"96873755624332308273000436965927897032\",\"date\":\"2025-12-18T07:41:57+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"160434901998766685937246485688165795440\",\"date\":\"2025-12-18T06:48:10+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"289379451883680753857600545688376645429\",\"date\":\"2025-12-16T19:29:16+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvitedReview\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-12-12T18:17:34+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewerAgreed\",\"content\":\"62603663773558977477806701378036574618\",\"date\":\"2025-12-02T08:14:41+00:00\",\"index\":\"hide\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"reviewersInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-12-02T06:03:55+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorInvited\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-11-11T12:26:20+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"editorAssigned\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-11-04T14:29:27+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"checksComplete\",\"content\":\"\",\"date\":\"2025-11-03T10:00:42+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"submitted\",\"content\":\"Discover Cities\",\"date\":\"2025-11-03T09:57:18+00:00\",\"index\":\"\",\"fulltext\":\"\"}],\"status\":\"published\",\"journal\":{\"display\":true,\"email\":\"info@researchsquare.com\",\"identity\":\"discover-cities\",\"isNatureJournal\":false,\"hasQc\":true,\"allowDirectSubmit\":false,\"externalIdentity\":\"\",\"sideBox\":\"Learn more about [Discover Cities](https://www.springer.com/journal/44327)\",\"snPcode\":\"44327\",\"submissionUrl\":\"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44327/3\",\"title\":\"Discover Cities\",\"twitterHandle\":\"\",\"acdcEnabled\":true,\"dfaEnabled\":true,\"editorialSystem\":\"stoa\",\"reportingPortfolio\":\"Discover Series\",\"inReviewEnabled\":true,\"inReviewRevisionsEnabled\":true}}],\"origin\":\"\",\"ownerIdentity\":\"4a965259-aef5-4590-bc34-679268090adf\",\"owner\":[],\"postedDate\":\"December 3rd, 2025\",\"published\":true,\"recentEditorialEvents\":[],\"rejectedJournal\":[],\"revision\":\"\",\"amendment\":\"\",\"status\":\"under-review\",\"subjectAreas\":[],\"tags\":[],\"updatedAt\":\"2026-03-16T11:10:39+00:00\",\"versionOfRecord\":[],\"versionCreatedAt\":\"2025-12-03 22:04:05\",\"video\":\"\",\"vorDoi\":\"\",\"vorDoiUrl\":\"\",\"workflowStages\":[]},\"version\":\"v1\",\"identity\":\"rs-7867131\",\"journalConfig\":\"researchsquare\"},\"__N_SSP\":true},\"page\":\"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]\",\"query\":{\"redirect\":\"/article/rs-7867131\",\"identity\":\"rs-7867131\",\"version\":[\"v1\"]},\"buildId\":\"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7\",\"isFallback\":false,\"isExperimentalCompile\":false,\"dynamicIds\":[84888],\"gssp\":true,\"scriptLoader\":[]}","source_license":"CC-BY-4.0","license_restricted":false}